Religion and Environment In Environmental Ethics

Environmental Ethics

1. Religion and Environment

2. Starting Accurately Religion has long been, and remains, a powerful influence on how people think about nature and the environment. All of the great world religions include teachings that speak to ecological concerns. In this chapter we’ll examine some important religious perspectives on the environment. Let’s begin with Christianity and then turn to consider some non-Western and Native American views.

3.   Christianity and the Environment

4.   Christianity and the Environment Has Christianity generally been an eco-friendly religion? Not according to distinguished medieval historian Lynn White (1907-1987). In 1967, White published a short article titled “The Historical Roots of Our Ecologic Crisis” that set off a firestorm of controversy. In that essay White argued that Christianity is largely to blame for the world’s environmental problems because it teaches a view of humanity’s place in nature that encourages environmental domination and destruction.

5.   Christianity and the Environment White draws attention to passages in Genesis, the first book of the Bible, that seem to teach strongly human-centered views of nature. There, humans are said to have been uniquely created in the “image” and “likeness” (Genesis 1:26) of God, making them superior to all other forms of life on Earth.

6.   Christianity and the Environment In the first Chapter of Genesis, God commands the earliest humans, Adam and Eve, to be “fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have dominion over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the air and over every living thing that moves upon the earth” (Genesis 1:28). Later, after the great flood, God repeats his commandment to be fruitful and multiply to Noah and his sons, adding: “The fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every bird of the air, upon everything that creeps on the ground and all the fish of the sea; into your hand they are delivered” (Genesis 9:1-2).

7.   Christianity and the Environment According to White, for many centuries such passages were widely interpreted by Christian thinkers to teach that everything in nature was created solely for human benefit, making Christianity “the most anthropocentric religion the world has seen.”

8.   Christianity and the Environment Following the Scientific Revolution, White claimed, humans used their new scientific and technological know-how to cut down forests, pollute rivers and the air, poison the land, and drive many animals to extinction. The only solution to the environmental crisis, he argued, lies in rejecting the biblical conquer-and-subdue mindset.

9.   Christianity and the Environment Ultimately, he said, we must “find a new religion, or rethink our old one”. As a church-going Christian himself, White strongly preferred the second option, and proposed Saint Francis of Assisi (1181/1182-1226) as the patron saint of ecology. Francis preached to birds and sang hymns to “Brother Sun,” “Sister Mother Earth,” “Brother Wind,” and “Sister Water.” According to White, Francis embraced an unorthodox “pan psychic” view of nature, seeing all things as alive and deserving of respect.

10.   Christianity and the Environment While such an animistic view may seen more pagan than Christian, White agreed with Saint Francis’s fundamental insight that we must “rethink and re-feel our nature and destiny, because no long-term solution to the ecological crisis is possible as long as people continue to embrace “orthodox Christian arrogance toward nature.”

11.   Christianity and the Environment White’s provocative article set off a heated debate, with both defenders and critics jumping into the fray. Many critics complained that White overstated the role of religion in causing environmental problems. It was pointed out, for example, that many non-Christian cultures, such as China, India, and Japan, also have rather poor environmental records, and that Greek and Roman thought also significantly contributed to Western anthropocentric attitudes.

12.   Christianity and the Environment Another common complaint was that White offered a selective and one-sided reading of the Bible. Many Christian critics agreed that White overlooked passages in scripture that indicated that humans should be good “stewards” of nature, rather than conquerors and destroyers. Let take a closer look at this important notion of environmental stewardship.

13.   Environmental Stewardship

14. Environmental Stewardship “Steward” is an Old English word, meaning, most commonly, “one who manages the affairs of an estate on behalf of an employer.” As applied to the environment, a steward would thus be someone who is appointed to manage and care for the earth and its creatures on behalf of its rightful owner, God.

15. A good steward, on this view, would be a kind of faithful trustee, someone who cares for, preserves, and perhaps improves the earth and its ecosystems in a way that God would approve. According to many critics of White, when the Bible speaks of “dominion” it means faithful stewardship, not dominion or conquest. How convincing is this claim?

16. The Bible teaches that God created the world and is its true owner and ruler. At the same time, God has in some sense entrusted the earth to humans, given us “dominion” over it. But this dominion is far from absolute; God remains the ultimate ruler of his creation, and he imposes many limits on what humans can rightfully do to nature.

17. For example, Adam and Eve were commanded to “till” and “keep” the Garden of Eden and were originally permitted to eat only plants. God also commands the Jews to observe various dietary restrictions, to have “regard” for the life of animals, not muzzle an ox when it is treading out the grain, to let fields lie fallow every seventh year so that the poor and wild animals may eat, and not to cut down food-bearing trees when besieging towns.

18. Moreover, as the handiwork of God, nature praises and glorifies its Creator, manifests his wisdom and power, and is regarded by God as being “very good”. It would seem to follow from such passages that any wanton destruction of nature or waste of natural resources is contrary to divine will, and that we should be instead conscientious stewards of the natural gifts and resources that God has entrusted to our care.

19. Over the past few decades, stewardship has become the reigning paradigm in Judeo-Christian thought. But there are difficulties with the notion of stewardship that should not be ignored.

20. For starters, of course, the whole idea of stewardship presupposes a set of religious beliefs (e.g., that God exist, that he “owns” the created universe, that he has given humans “dominion” over the earth, and that we can at least roughly know how he wants us to exercise that dominion) that many people would reject. Pointing to its religious underpinnings, the late Harvard scientist and agnostic Stephen Jay Gould (1941-2002) rejected the whole concept of environmental stewardship. He writes:

21. Such views, however well intentioned, are rooted in the old sin of pride and exaggerated self-importance. We are among millions of species, stewards of nothing. By what argument could we, arising just a geological microsecond ago, become responsible for the affairs of a world 4.5 billion years ago, teeming with life that has been evolving and diversifying for at least three-quarters of that immense span? Nature does not exist for us, had no idea we were coming, and doesn’t give a damn about us.

22. Moreover, as Gould suggests, most conceptions of stewardship have an anthropocentric bent that many environmentalists believe to be harmful and unwarranted. As we saw, the Bible seems to imply that God has commanded humans to “fill the earth and subdue it” (Genesis 1:28) because they alone were created in the image and likeness of God and thus are superior to all other earthly life-forms. Many environmentalists today believe that such views are arrogant and self-serving.

23. Many critics would also question whether humans possess the wisdom and ability to be effective stewards of nature. Natural processes are often incredibly complex, and history has repeatedly shown that when humans try to “manage” nature we frequently end up doing more harm than good. Given the dismal human track record on the environment, one can question whether an all-rise and providential God would have placed nature under our dubious care.

24. Finally, the idea of stewardship is quite vague and open-ended. A good steward would be one who manages the earth and its natural resources in a way that God would approve. But how can we know what environmental actions God favors? How does God feel about nuclear power, or fracking, or reducing world population, or damming scenic rivers, or genetically modified foods, or trapping wild animals, or driving gas-guzzling pickup trucks, or zoos, or restoring wolves to the Great Plains, or building oil pipelines in the Arctic?

25. Asking what God think about such issues is largely a matter of guesswork. As a result, any detailed model of environmental stewardship would inevitably be controversial and rest on highly debatable theological premises.

26. Non-Western and Native American Attitudes toward Nature

27. Non-Western and Native American Attitudes toward Nature As we’ve seen, Christianity has a quite checkered record on the environment. How do other religious traditions stack up? Let’s briefly examine three Eastern religions or spiritual traditions – Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism – as well as traditional Native American thought.

28. Buddhism The world’s fourth largest religion, Buddhism originated in India sometime around the fifth century BCE and later spread to China, Japan, Thailand, and much of Asia. Believing that life is full of suffering and unsatisfied desire, Buddhists seek to achieve inner peace, enlightenment, freedom from suffering, and liberation from cycle of death and rebirth (samsara) by means of meditation and disciplined control of one’s desires. Buddhists reject strongly human-centered views of the environment.

29. Buddhism The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama (c.490-c.410 BCE), forbade his fellow monks from practicing agriculture or travelling during the rainy season because they might step on worms, insects, and other forms of life. The first of Buddha’s Five Precepts is to refrain from harming sentient life. Many Buddhists believe that all sentient things have a “Buddha-nature” that entitles them to compassion and respect.

30. Buddhism Buddhists believe that loving-kindness should be extended not only to our fellow humans but to all suffering creatures. Speaking to his disciples, Buddha said, “As a mother, even at the risk of her own life, protects her son, her only son, so let him cultivate love without measure to all beings. Let him cultivate toward the whole world – above, below, around – a heart of love unstinted, unmixed with the sense of differing or opposing interest. Many Buddhists are vegetarians, in large part because of their belief in human and animal reincarnation.

31. Taoism Lao Tzu reportedly wrote a short book, the Tao Te Ching (“The Book of the Way and its Power,” now often spelled Daodejing ), which is the fundamental text of the Taoist tradition. The central concept in Taoism is that the Tao, which means “Way” or “Path”. The Taos is simultaneously the Way of Ultimate Reality, of Nature, and the way humans should live their lives. Though the Tao cannot be grasped through words or rational thought, it can be sensed through intuition in moments of quietude and tranquility.

32. Taoism That is why Taoists have always valued peaceful forest and scenic areas of unspoiled nature. They view nature as harmony of opposing forces (hot and cold, light and dark, etc.) and seek to live simple, contented lives in tune with nature. Believing that a “good traveler leaves no track or trace,” they seek to “embrace simplicity, reduce selfishness, [and] have few desires.”

33. Taoism To symbolize their commitment to harmony with nature, Taoists usually build their temples nestled against hills, or shaded by leafy trees, so that they blend into their natural surroundings. The central Taoist idea of wu-wei (literally “non-doing”) emphasizes the value of “letting things happen naturally” and without meddlesome interference, and idea that resonates with much modern environmental thought.

34. Hinduism Like Buddhism, Hinduism is an ancient religion that originated in India. Though there are many schools of thought in Hinduism, most believe in certain core doctrines. One is the ultimate Oneness of reality. For Hindus, there is no sharp separation between God and nature, or between humans and non-human animals, because all things are ultimately aspects or manifestations of one Supreme Reality. Such a view readily lends itself to attitudes of respect or reverence for nature.

35. Hinduism Like Buddhists, Hindus also believe in reincarnation. Certain animals, such as cows, are sacred to Hindus because they believe that various Hindu deities were once incarnated in those animal forms. Hindus also believe that human beings are sometimes reborn as animals. This is one reason many Hindus are vegetarians and practice ahimsa (nonviolence and avoidance of injury).

36. Hinduism Traditionally, many Hindus have practiced a form of tree worship. Believing that trees are conscious and symbolize various aspects of God, they recognize religious duties to plant, protect, and reverence trees and other plants.

37. Hinduism Finally, many sacred Hindu text condemn materialism and greed, and affirm the values of moderation, nonattachment, and self-control. This is reflected in the Hindu doctrine of the Four Stages of Life, where the final stage is that of a forest-dweller (sannyasi) . In this period, elderly men and women retire from the world of work and family and live simple, austere lives of renunciation, meditation, and purification.

38. Traditional Native American Religion Native American attitudes toward nature are varied and diverse, but as environmental philosopher J. Baird Callicott notes, there are some widely shared themes. These include belief in: a Great Spirit gives life, the Father and creator of all living and nonliving things, often identified with the Sky, an Earth Mother, who together with the Great Spirit gives life and connectedness to all earth-dwelling beings; pan-psychism, the idea that all things -even material objects like stones or mountains – are alive and endowed with qualities of personhood; holy places – sacred locales of great spiritual potency; the importance of belonging to, conserving and caring for the land and natural resources; the impossibility of “owning” the land in proprietary European sense; and the universal kinship of all earthly creatures, who are all equally children of the Great Spirit and endowed with a spark of his divinity.

39. Traditional Native American Religion Environmentalist Karen Warren reports a conversation she had with a Sioux elder that nicely illustrates the Native American attitude toward non-human creatures. One day the elder sent his seven-year-old son to a reservation to live with his grandparents so that he could learn traditional Indian ways.

40. Traditional Native American Religion Look into your brother’s eyes and feel his pain. Then, take your knife and cut the four-legged under his chin, here, on the neck, so that he dies quickly. And as you do, ask your brother, the four-legged, for forgiveness for what you do. Offer also a prayer of thanks to your four-legged kin for offering his body to you just now, when you need food to eat and clothing to wear. And promise the four-legged that you will put yourself back into the earth when you die, to become nourishment for the earth, and for the sister flowers, and for the brother deer.

41. Traditional Native American Religion Recent studies have shown that Native Americans were not always as earth friendly as has sometimes been assumed. When European settlers first reached North America, they encountered a landscape that was already extensively altered by human activity. Native peoples frequently used controlled (and not so controlled) burns to facilitate hunting and growing crops. Their use of fire and hunting techniques, like driving herds of buffalo off cliffs, often resulted in wasteful mass kills.

42. Traditional Native American Religion George Catlin, who admired Native Americans and lived with them for many years, wrote of the “improvident character” of the Sioux Indians, who in one afternoon slaughtered 1,400 buffalo simply for their tongues, leaving the carcasses to rot or be devoured by wolves. Still, there is no question that Native Americans generally had—and have—great respect for nature.