Research design

Research design is the researcher’s over all plan for answering the research question or testing the research hypotheses.

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Research Design
By
Mr. Ravi Rai Dangi
Assistant Professor
Fellowship in Neonatal Nursing
MSc. Child Health Nursing

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Definition
The research design is the master plan specifying the
methods and procedures for collection and analyzing
the needed information in a research study.
Research design is the researcher’s over all plan for
answering the research question or testing the
research hypotheses.

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Elements
The approach
Quantitative
Qualitative
Population, sample and technique
Time , place and source of data collection
Tools and method of data collection

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Factors affecting the research design
Natureoftheresearchproblemlikeexperimentalor
nonexperimental
Purposeofthestudy
Researcher’sknowledgeandexperience
Researchethicsandprinciples
Participantsorsamples
Resources
Time
Userofstudyfindings

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Quantitative Research Design
Experimental
design
True
experimental
Quasi
experimental
Pre
experimental

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Experimental research design
Experimentalismostscientificallysophisticated
researchmethod.
Itisdefinedas‘observationundercontrolled
conditions’.
Experimentalresearchdesignareconcernedwith
examinationoftheeffectofindependentvariableon
thedependentvariable,wheretheindependent
variableismanipulatedthroughtreatmentor
intervention(s),&theeffectofthoseinterventionsis
observedonthedependentvariable.

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True Experimental Design
Threeessentialcharacteristics
Manipulation–referstoconsciouscontrolof
independentvariablebyresearcherthrough
intervention.
Control-referstouseofcontrolgroupandcontrolling
theextraneousvariablesonthedependentvariables.
Randomization–referstoeachandeverysample
haveequalchancetoselectedforthestudy.

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Types Of True ExperimentalResearch Design
1.Post test only control design
Random
Assignment
Experiment
al group
Control
group
Treatment Post test
Post test

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Types Of True ExperimentalResearch Design
1.Pre test -Post test only design
Random
Assignment
Exper
group
Control
group
Treatment Post test
Post test
Pretest
Pretest

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1.Solomon four group design
Exper
Group 1
Control
group 1
Treatment Post test
Post test
Pretest
Pretest
Exper
group 2
Control
group 2
Treatment Post test
Post test
Random
Assignment

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Randomized Block Design
When there are large number of experimental
comparison groups, the randomized block design is
used to bring homogeneity among selected different
groups.

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Randomized Block Design
Type of
antihyperten
sive drugs
BLOCKS
Patient with
primary
hypertension
(I)
Diabetic
patient with
hypertension
(II)
Renal patient
with
hypertension
(III)
A A, I A,II A,III
B B,I B,II B,III
C C,I C,II C,III

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Crossover design
Groups Protocols of mouth care
Group Ist ChlorhexidineSaline
Group IInd Saline Chlorhexidine
Inthisdesignthesubjectsareexposedtomorethan
onetreatment,wheresubjectarerandomly
assignedtodifferentordersoftreatment.Itisalso
knownasrepeatmeasuredesign.

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Advantage of true experimental design
Power full design
Relationship can be established in more statistical way
Greater degree of purity due to control
Purely manipulated by researcher
These research are performed in laboratory so
researcher can work with more concentrated way and
carefully.

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Dis-Advantage of true experimental design
Most of the studies can’t be replicated on humans due
to ethical considerations.
Need a valid and good instrument for measurement.
These studies needs laboratory because in
environment the extraneous variables can affect the
study.
Sample size issue when it is related to human beings.

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Quasi experimental design
Itinvolvesthemanipulationofindependentvariable
toobservetheeffectondependentvariable;butit
lacksatleastoneofthetwocharacteroftrue
experimentaldesign:randomizationorcontrolgroup.
Twotypes
Nonrandomizedcontrolgroup
Timeseriesdesign

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1.Non Randomized Control Group
Random
Assignment
Exper
group
Control
group
Treatment Post test
Post test
Pretest
Pretest

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1.Time Series Design Group
Exper
group
Treatment o1 o2 o3 o1 o2 o3

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Advantage of quasi experimental design
Most feasible method due to availability of small
sample size, randomization and availability of control
group is not possible always.
It allows researcher to evaluate the impact of
extraneous variables in natural settings.

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Dis-advantage of quasi experimental design
No control over the extraneous environment.
The absence of control group makes the result weaker.


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Pre experimental design
Thisresearchdesignisveryweakresearchdesign
becauseresearcherhaveverywealcontrolonit.
Twotypes
Oneshotcasedesign
Onegrouppretestpostdesign

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1.One shot case design
Exper
group
Treatment Post test

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2. One group pre test post test case design
Exper
group
Treatment Post test Pretest

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Non-experimental research design
•Non experimental research design is one of the broad
categories of research designs, in which the researcher
observes the phenomena as they occur naturally, & no
external variables are introduced. It is a research design
in which variables are not deliberately manipulated,
nor is the setting controlled.
•Researcher collect the data without making changes or
inducing the treatments. Collected data will be
analyzed and result may lead to the formation of
hypothesis that can be tested experimentally.

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DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Thepurposeofdescriptivestudiesistoobserve,
describe,&documentaspectsofasituationasit
naturallyoccurs,&sometimestoserveasastarting
pointforhypothesisgenerationortheory
development.

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MAIN FEATURES…
•Descriptivedesignsareusedtoobserve,document,&
describeaphenomenonoccurringinitsnatural
settingwithoutanymanipulationorcontrol.
•Thedescriptivestudiesaredesignedtogainmore
informationaboutcharacteristicswithinaparticular
fieldintherealworld.
•Descriptivestudiesprovideanimpressionofa
situationasitoccursinnaturalsettings.Descriptive
studiesdonotinvolvethemanipulationofvariables,
&variablesarestudiesastheyexistintherealworld.

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•Descriptivedesignmaybeusedtodeveloptheories,
identifyproblemswithcurrentpractices,justify
currentpractices,makejudgments,ordetermine
otherpracticesinsimilarsituations.
•Indescriptivestudies,biasispreventedthrough
operationaldefinitionsofvariables,largesamplesize,
randomsamplingtechniques,valid&reliableresearch
tools,&formaldatacollectionmethods.
•Descriptivedesignsincludeidentificationof
phenomenonofinterest,identifyingthevariables
withinthephenomenon,developingoperational
definitionsofthevariables,&describingthevariables.

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TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
Univariantdescriptive design
Exploratory design
Comparative design

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Univariantdescriptive design
Univariantdescriptivedesignsareundertakentodescribe
thefrequencyofoccurrenceofaphenomenon.This
designdoesnotnecessarilyfocusonthestudyofsingle
variable;theremaybeoneormorevariablesinvolvedin
thestudy.Forexample,aresearcherisinterestedin
assessingtheexperiencesofpatientssufferingfrom
rheumatoidarthritis.
Inthisstudy,theresearchermaydescribethfrequencyo
differentsymptomsexperiencedbythepatients&the
typeoftreatmenttheyreceivedduringthecourseof
disease,etc.Therearemultiplevariablesinthisresearch
study.

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Exploratory design
Exploratorydesignisusedtoidentify,explore,describe
theexistingphenomenon&itsrelatefactors.
Inotherwords,itisnotonlyasimpledescriptiononthe
frequencyofoccurrenceofaphenomenon,butitsin-
depthexploration&astudyofitsrelatedfactorsto
improvefurtherunderstandingaboutaless-understood
phenomenon.
Forexample,anexploratorystudytoassessthe
multifactorialdimensionsoffalls&homesafety
measuresforelderlypeoplelivinginselected
communitiesinthecityMehsana.

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Comparative design
Comparativedesigninvolvescomparing&contrastingtwo
ormoresamplesofstudysubjectsononeormorevariables,
oftenatasinglepointoftime.
Thisdesignisusedtocomparetwodistinctgroupsonthe
basisofselectedattributedsuchasknowledgelevel,
perceptions,&attitudes;physicalorpsychological
symptoms;&soon.
Forexample,‘Acomparativestudyonhealthproblems
amongrural&urbanolderpeopleindistrictMehsana,
Gujarat.

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CORRELATIONALRESEARCHDESIGN
This is a non experimental design, where researcher
examines the relationship between two or more variables
in a natural setting without manipulation or Control.
In other words, it is a research design where researchers
study the relationship of two or more variables without
any intervention.
For example, this design was used for ‘A correlational
study on the effect of smoking on lung cancer among
people in Mehsana.

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MAIN FEATURES…
Incorrelationalstudies,theresearchersexamine
thestrengthofrelationshipsbetweenvariablesby
determininghowchangeinonevariableis
correlatedwithchangeintheothervariable.
Generally,correlationalstudieshaveindependent
&dependentvariables,buttheeffectof
independentvariableisobservedondependant
variablewithoutmanipulatingtheindependent
variable.

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Inepidemiologicallanguagethesestudiesare
knownascause&effectstudy,wherecause&effect
relationshipisinvestigateinnaturalsettings
withoutimposingexperimentalinterventions.
Thiscause&effectrelationshipcanbeinvestigated
eitherinforwardmanner,i.e.fromcausetoeffect
(prospective)orbackwardmanner,i.e.effectto
cause(retrospective).

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TYPES OF CORRELATIONAL
Prospective research design
Retrospective research design

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Prospective research design
A design in which the researcher relates the present to
the future is a prospective research design .
Prospective studies start with a presumed cause & then
go to presumed effects. In this research design ,
researcher observe phenomenon from cause to effect.
Prospective designs are often longitudinal, but may also
be cross sectional.

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forexample,aresearcherconducting‘aprospective
correlationalstudyoneffectofmaternalinfection
duringpregnancyonfetaldevelopment&pregnancy
outcome.’
Inthisstudy,theresearcherstartsbycollectingdata
frompregnantwomenregardinganyhistoryof
infectionamongwomenduringtheircurrent
pregnancies,nextobservesfetaldevelopment&
pregnancyoutcome,&finallyanalysestherelationship
ofmaternalinfectionduringpregnancy&fetal
development&pregnancyoutcome.

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Retrospective research design
A design in which the researcher studies the current
phenomenon by seeking information from past is a
retrospective research design.
In this the researcher links the present phenomenon
with the past events.
In other words, the researcher has a backward
approach to study a phenomenon, where he or she
moves from effect to identify the cause.

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Forexample,thisdesignwasusedin‘aretrospective
correlationalstudyonsubstanceabuse-relatedhigh-
riskfactorsamongtraumaticheadinjurypatients
admittedinneurosurgeryICUofGeetanjaliMedical
College&Hospital,Udaipur’.
Inthisstudy,theresearcherfirstapproachedhead
injurypatients,&thentriedtoidentifythenumberof
headinjuriesthatoccurredundertheinfluenceof
substanceabuse.

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DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Developmentalresearchdesignexaminesthe
phenomenonwithreferencetotime.
Developmentalresearchdesignsaregenerallyusedas
adjunctresearchdesignswithotherresearchdesigns
suchascross-sectional-descriptive,longitudinal
correlationalresearchdesigns.

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TYPES OF DEVELOPMENTAL
Cross-sectional design
Longitudinal design

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Cross-sectional design
Cross-sectionalresearchdesignisoneinwhich
researchercollectsdataatparticularpointoftime(one
periodofdatacollection).Thesestudiesareeasier&
moreconvenienttocarryout.
Forexample,aresearcherisinterestedinassessingthe
awarenessonswinefluamongpeopleofanarea.
Heretheresearcherinteractsonlyoncetocollect
awareness-relateddatafromrespondents.

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Longitudinal design
Longitudinalresearchdesignisusedtocollectdataover
anextendedtimeperiod(long-timestudy).Itsvalueisin
itsabilitytodemonstratechangeoveraperiodoftime.
Forexample,aresearcherininterestedintheperception
ofnursingstudentstowardsnursingprofessionfromthe
beginningofnursingprogrammetoitsend.
Inthisexample,itisappropriatetousethelongitudinal
researchdesigntostudythisphenomenon.

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EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN
Epidemiologyisthestudytoinvestigatethe
distribution&causesofthediseasesinpopulation.
Therefore,epidemiologicalstudiesaregenerally
conductedtoinvestigatecausesofdifferentdiseasesin
eitherprospectiveapproaches(causestoeffect)or
retrospectivedesigns.
Prospectivestudiesareknownascohortstudies&
retrospectivestudiesarecalledcase-controlstudies.

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Cohortstudies:
Inthisdesign,alongitudinalapproachisusedto
investigatetheoccurrenceofadiseaseinexisting
presumedcauses.
Forexample,aresearcherlongitudinallyobservesthe
smokersfordevelopmentoflungcancer.
Case-controlstudies:
Inthisdesign,causesofadiseaseareinvestigatedafter
theoccurrenceofadisease.
Forexample,aresearcherinvestigatesthehistoryof
smokinginpatientsdiagnosedwithlungcancer.

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SURVEY RESEARCH DESIGN
Surveydesignisusedtocollectinformationfrom
differentsubjectswithinagivenpopulationhavingsame
characteristicsofinterest.
Ifsurveyisconductedonasampleofpopulation,itis
calledSAMPLESURVEY,andiftheentirepopulationis
involved,itiscalledaPOPULATIONSURVEY(census).
Asurveyhelpstocollectwiderangeofdatafromagiven
population–eg.,attitude,opinion,perception,
behaviour,awareness,practice,etc.

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FEATURES
Surveyresearchisaprocessofgatheringcurrent
requireddatafromthesubjectssothatnew
informationcanbeobtained.
Thesurveyresearchenablestheinvestigatorstoeasily
collectcurrentinformationaboutwhateverthe
investigatorisinterestedinobtaining.
Inasurveyresearch,informationiscollectedfroma
mixofsubjectswhorepresentthetotalpopulationin
thecharacteristicsbeingstudied.

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Surveyresearchisamodeofenquirythatreliesheavily
uponthevalidityofverbalreports.Surveycanbe
descriptive,exploratory,comparativeorcorrelationalin
nature.
Surveydatacanbecollectedinanumberofways.The
mostcommonmethodisquestioning.Theinformation
isobtaineddirectlyfromtherespondentsbyself-
reportingquestionnaires.
Sometimesface-to-faceinterviewmethodmaybeused.
Acarefullydevelopedquestionnaireorinterview
scheduleisessentialfordatacollection.Howeverthe
instrumentsusedshouldbereliableandvalid.

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Types of survey
Descriptive survey.
Exploratory survey.
Correlational survey.
Comparative survey.

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DESCRIPTIVESURVEY
Descriptivestudyisundertakentodescribe
thefrequencyofoccurrenceofaphenomenonrather
thantostudytherelationships
EXPLORATORY SURVEY
Surveysaphenomenonanditsrelatedfactors
aboutwhichmuchinformationisnotknown.

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CORRELATIONAL SURVEY
Studiestherelationshipbetweentwoormore
variablesinanaturalsettingwithoutmanipulation
orcontrol.
COMPARITIVESURVEY
Comparativesurveyaimsatcomparingand
contrastingtheexistenceofacertainphenomenon
intwoormoregroups.

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ADVANTAGE OF NONEXPERIMENTAL
Nonexperimentalresearchdesignstendtobeclosest
toreal-lifesituation.
Nonexperimentalresearchdesignsaremostsuitable
forthenursingresearchstudies.
Numeroushumancharacteristicsareinherentlynot
subjecttoexperimentalmanipulation(e.g.blood
type,personality,healthbeliefs,medicaldiagnosis,
etc.)
Therearemanyvariablethatcouldtechnicallybe
manipulated,butmanipulatedisforbiddenonethical
grounds.

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DISADVANTAGES OF NONEXPERIMENTAL
Themajordisadvantageofnonexperimentalresearches
isthattheresultsobtained&therelationshipbetween
thedependent&independentvariablecanneverbe
absolutelyclear&error-free.
Nonexperimentalstudiesareconductedforcomparative
purposesusingnonrandomselectedgroups,whichmay
notbehomogeneous&tendtobedissimilarindifferent
traitsorcharacteristics,whichmayaffectthe
authenticity&generalizabilityofthestudyresults.

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Qualitative research design
Aqualitativeresearchdesignisconcernedwith
establishinganswerstothewhysandhowofthe
phenomenoninquestion.
Itisoftensaidthatqualitativeresearchisanyresearch
thatdoesnotincludenumbers.Thisisnotagood
definitionasitistheapproachtothedatagathering
thatisdifferentinthetwostylesofresearchrather
thantheoutputs.

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Qualitativeresearchaimstoexplore,discover,
understandordescribephenomenathathavealready
beenidentifiedbutarenotwellunderstood.

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Characteristic
Usewordsratherthannumberstodescribefindings
Assumeadynamicreality
Emphasizeseeingtheworldfromtheperspectiveof
theparticipants
Goalisunderstandingratherthanprediction
Emphasizethesubjectivedimensionsofhuman
experiences
Holistic
Associatedwiththeinterpretiveapproachwhichis
discoveryoriented,explanatory,descriptive,and
inductiveinnature

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TYPESOFQUALITATIVERESEARCHDESIGN
Ethnography
Phenomenology
Grounded theory
Historical research

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Ethnography
Meaning:ethnography(Greekethnos=folk/people)is
aqualitativeresearchmethodoftenusedinthesocial
sciences,particularlyinanthropologyandin
sociology.
Datacollectionisoftendonethroughparticipant
observation,interviews,questionsetc.•Ethnography
aimstodescribethenatureofthosewhostudied
throughwriting.

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Ethnography focuses on the culture of group of people.
It is often employed for gathering empirical data on
human societies/cultures.
Example
An ethnographic study on socio cultural belief of the
people about antenatal, natal and post natal care of
women in selected area of Rajasthan.

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Advantages:
Ethnographyimmersestheprojectteamin
participants’livesandenablesarelationshipto
developwithresearchparticipantsovertheperiodof
study
Ethnographyprovidesarichsourceofvisualdataand
helpstorevealunarticulatedneeds
Ethnographycapturesbehaviorinthedifferent
contextsofeverydaylife
Ethnographyplacesahumanfaceondatathrough
real-lifestoriesthatteamscanrelatetoandremember

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Ethnographyprovidesunderstandingbehind‘statistics’
Ethnographyallowsemotionalbehaviortobecaptured;
Bycarryingoutresearchintheeverydaylife
environmentsofparticipantsithelpstoidentify
discrepanciesbetweenwhatpeoplesaytheydoandwhat
theyactuallydo.
Disadvantages
Investigatecomplexissue
Avoiceforunderstanding
Expansiveanddifficult
Ethics

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Phenomenology
Phenomenologyis20thcenturyphilosophicalmovement
dedicatedtodescribingthestructureofexperienceasthey
presentthemselvestoconsciousness,withoutresourcesto
theory,deduction,orassumptionsfromotherdiscipline
suchasthenaturalsciences.
Describesthemeaningofthelivedexperienceabouta
conceptoraphenomenonforseveralindividuals.

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Seeks to achieve a deep understanding of the
phenomenon by rigorous, systematic examination of
it.
Its purpose is to describe the essences of lived
experiences
Example
A phenomenological study on live experience of tsunami
victims in selected areas of Tamilnadu.

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Advantages
In-depthunderstandingofindividualphenomena.
In-depthunderstandingofindividualphenomena.
Reachdata
Uniqueperspective
Disadvantages
Thesubjectivityofthedataleadstodifficultiesin
establishingreliabilityandvalidityofapproachesand
information.
Itisdifficulttodetectortopreventresearcherinduced
bias.
Non-numericaldata
notproducegeneralizabledataduetoverysmallsample

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Grounded theory
Groundedtheoryisaninductivetechniquedevelopedfor
health–relatedtopicsbyGlaserandStrauss(1967)
Itemergedfromthedisciplineofsociology.
Thetermgroundedmeansthatthetheorydeveloped
fromtheresearchis“grounded”orhasitsrootsinthe
datafromwhichitwasderived.
Thistypeofresearchhasbecomeanimportantresearch
methodforthestudyofmedicaltheoriesofphenomena
relevanttohealthcarestaff.itisanapproachtosocial
processandsocialstructures.

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Aspergroundedtheory,themainfocusison
developingsocialexperiences,thesocialand
psychologicalstagesandphasesthatcharacterizethe
particulareventorepisode.
Example
Astudyontheresponseandadaptionprocessofthe
patientsdiagnosedwithcancerinselectedhospitalof
Gwalior.

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Advantages
The researcher should not predetermine a prior about what he
or she will find, and what and how social phenomena should
be viewed. Therefore, the value of Grounded Theory is that it
avoids making assumptions and instead adopts a more neutral
view of human action in a social context.
"Grounded theory provides a methodology to develop an
understanding of social phenomena that is not pre-formed or
pre-theoretically developed with existing theories and
paradigms."
Disadvantages
Grounded theory fails to recognize the embeddedness of the
researcher and thus obscures the researcher's considerable
agency in data construction and interpretation.

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Historical Research
Historicalresearchisthesystemiccollectionand
objectiveevaluationofdatarelatedtopastoccurrencein
ordertotesthypothesisconcerningcauses,effects,or
trendsoftheseseventsthathelptoexplainpresent
eventsandanticipatefutureevents.(Gay1996)
Thisincludehighercritismandtextualcriticism

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Though items may very depending on the subject matter
and researcher the following concepts are usually part of
most formal historical research: -
Identification of origin date
Evidence of location
Recognition of authorship
Analysis of data
identification of integrity
attribution of credibility

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Example
A historical study on development of nursing in India.
A historical study on inception and development of
optometry researches in India.