Research Design and Sampling

Notes prepared to teach research methodology for post graduate students of social work in India

1. Research Design Babu.MT [email protected]

2. Research is considered as the systematic effort made to explore new areas of knowledge It requires a planning. Testing of validity and reliability are the major emphasis in research hence a systematic plan is very essential in research. Research designing is considered as the beginning phase of research

3. Research involves two major stages one is the stage of planning and other is the stage of execution. In the first stage researchers construct a design and in the second they collect data and analyses the data.

4. Meaning Design means drawing an outline, planning or arranging details. It is process of making decisions before the situations arises in which the decisions have to be carried out. It is the planning of strategy to conduct the research

5. Design explains how the researcher intends to conduct the study. Especially it discuss about what is to be observed, how is to be observed, how to record the observation, analyze, interpret and generalize. So we can say it as the detailed plan about the goals of the research and its achievement.

6. Definitions William zikmund (1988) defined research as “ master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and analyzing the needed information” Martin(1974) Research design is the specification of the problem, conceptual definitions, derivation of hypothesis to test and defining of population to be studied.Ackoff Russell said “planning various phases and procedures relating to the formulation of research efforts”

7. There are many forms of design. Some focuses on the process of data collection only( Dickmen 1995) while others extend their boundaries to cover data analysis ( Ragin 1994)

8. Steps in Research Design

9. Types of research design The type of methodology adopted by any research depends upon the central research objective and questions (Crabtree & Miller, 1999; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). A large number of research methodologies have been identified, Galliers (1991) for example listing fourteen, while Alavi and Carlson (1992), reported in Pervan (1994), use a hierarchical taxonomy with three levels and eighteen categories.

10. Taxonomy Scientific/Positivist Laboratory Experiments Field Experiments Surveys Case Studies Theorem Proof Forecasting Simulation Interpretivist /Anti-positivist Subjective/Argumentative Reviews Action Research Case Studies Descriptive/ Interpretive Futures Research Role /Game Playing

11. Purposes of Research design The purpose of the design depends up on the nature and purposes of the study. the type of population, reseracher experience, ideological background of the researcher . etc.

12. It provides a Blue print While conducting a research researcher faces many problems, what sample size, what type of data collection method want to follow, are some of challenges in front of the reseracher. It such contexts the research design act as blue print to visualize the study. It limits boundaries of research activities A systematic procedure will be developed in research design, it give clear idea about the hypothesis, data size , data collections etc. It enables investigation to anticipate potential problem ( …………. Continues……

13. ……….continuation… Through the literature review in research most of the problem will be faced by the researcher in analyzing the data and the nature of data will be cleared so it avoid certain kind of errors in research. Offers a guide that directs the research action and help to rationalize the use of time and resources and to reduce costs. Helps to introduce a systematic approach to the research operation Entails openness and accountability Makes replication easier and more effective Enables accurate estimation of the whole research activity

14. Types of Design

15. The type of methodology adopted by any research depends upon the central research objective and questions (Crabtree & Miller, 1999; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). A large number of research methodologies have been identified, Galliers (1991) for example listing fourteen, while Alavi and Carlson (1992), reported in Pervan (1994), use a hierarchical taxonomy with three levels and eighteen categories.

16. Qualitative research Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct and methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or a human problem.

17. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting. To understand the processes or the how and why of a given phenomenon qualitative research provides the necessary in-depth analysis. In qualitative research the qualitative data is collected by the researcher and analyzed using one of the qualitative data analysis methods. Qualitative data are in depth descriptions of circumstances, people, interactions, observed behaviors, events, attitudes, thoughts and beliefs and direct quotes from people who have experienced or are experiencing the phenomenon

18. Fixed qualitative Design It employs relatively a structured approach, resembling the quantitative model. This model is employed when reseracher has a clear idea about the nature of the research topic and is interested in the way which people respond to it.

19. Flexible qualitative Design It is the more common method in qualitative research design. It contains six major steps. It is constructed before the research commence. It presented in a general and non-specific manner allowing interpretation, leaving space for further discussion Allows freedom of unlimited movement data collection and data analysis. It is not based on objectivity.

20. Quantitative Research This research employs quantitative and statistical analysis. It is based methodological principles of positivism and adheres to the standard of strict sampling and research design. A well defined structure will be followed in quantitative research. In this design the research will be progressed based on the sequence of structured steps.

21. Descriptive Research The research efforts developed to describes the social situations, social events , social systems , structure of the society are based on descriptive research design Descriptive studies, as name suggests, describe as accurately as possible the characteristics of a group of people or a community.

22. A researcher who is interested in studying people of a community, their age and sex composition, caste wise distribution, affiliation to religion, level of education, occupational status, designs his study as descriptive study. Researcher may formulate a descriptive design of study to know the proportion of people in a particular population who favors' dowry or who feels that child labour should be banned.

23. Still others may be concerned with specific prediction. For example, what percentage of population would enter voter’s list in the next census operations? What will be the size of the handicapped population who will need financial assistance in the next five-year plan? And so on.

24. Here the reseracher observes, studies and describe what he/she found. Eg. Drug abuse among college students, increasing political participation of Women, Census studies. Generally in descriptive research the data are collected in a single situation pertaining to single time period. This is called single subject or single cell design. (Diagrams)

25. Exploratory research Exploratory or causal research is mainly concerned with causes or ‘why’ factor about certain phenomena. In this type of research the researcher studies a subject which is not familiar to the area of knowledge.ie. Either no information or little information is available

26. In this research the researcher is unfamiliar with the group and the subject which he /she is going to study. Exploratory studies are suitable in studying certain phenomena like deficiency in educational system, corruption among political elite, harassment by police, rural poverty etc the hypothesis in an exploratory studies is related with expressing relationship between two or more variables. How A affects B that will be the content of hypothesis.

27. Experimental research In the study the researcher studies the effect through comparison with experiment and without experiment It is design in which some of the variables being studied are manipulated

28. In these studies the reseraher seek to control conditions in order to observe the person or subjects and to reach in conclusions Here control means holding one factor constant while others are free to vary in the experiment. One variable independent is manipulated and its affect upon another variable (dependant) is measured.

29. . In this design the study contains two groups one is controlled group (not exposed to experiment) and other is experimental group (undergone through experiment).

30. Example Eg: Teacher lecture on strike and students attitudinal changes G1 –not exposed to the session G2- exposed to the session

31. Terms used in experimental design Experimental treatment, Test units, extraneous variable, randomization of sample, repeated measures, demand characteristics.

32. . True Experiments 2. Pre-Experiments 3. Quasi-Experiments

33. True-Experimental Research Designs Pre-Test – Post test- Control Group Design. (a) Randomised Two-Group Design E R Y 1 X Y 2 C R Y’ 1 Non-X Y’ 2 (b) Randomized and Matched Two-Group Design E R+M Y 1 X Y 2 C R+M Y’1 Non-X Y’ 2

34. Pre-Experimental Research Designs (1) One-Shot Case Study E X Y 1 CBI PS CBI – Cognitive Behavioural Intervention PS – Parenting Skills

35. Pre-Experimental Research Designs (2) One-Group Pretest-Posttest E Y 1 X Y 2 EM INC EM EM Employees Morale INC Incentives (3) Static-Group Comparison E X Y 1 INC EM C Non-INC Y’ 1 EM

36. Quasi-Experimental Research Designs Pre-test Post-test Non-equivalent Control Group Design E Y 1 X Y 2 PS CBI PS C Y’ 1 Non-X Y’ 2 PS PS Time-Series Designs E Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 X Y5 Y6 Y6 Y7 Y8 PS PS PS PS CBI PS PS PS PS PS CBI – Cognitive Behavioural Intervention PS – Parenting Skills

37. Evaluation research A common research usually conducted by sociologist, economist, government officials, social workers with a purpose to assess the existing policies, programmes , and evaluate the utilization of funds etc. main intention of this type of study is

38. To discover gap in services To investigate the alternative to meet the unmet needs To predict the success of the planned programme Analyze the cost effectiveness

39. Types Feasibility studies need analysis studies, process analysis, impact analysis & cost analysis.

40. Action research The origins of action research, and the ways in which action research is both perceived and conducted today, are open to dispute, yet it "has been a distinctive form of inquiry since the 1940s" ( Elden and Chisholm, 1993) The term 'action research' is popularly attributed to Kurt Lewin (1946),

41. Elden and Chisholm (1993) go on to note that action research is change oriented, seeking to introduce changes with positive social values, the key focus of the practice being on a problem and its solution Palmer and Jacobson (1971) see action research as a means of using research to promote social action. Further to these descriptions, Rapoport (1970) identifies action research as a form of inquiry that seeks to address both the practical problems of people and the goals of social science within a "mutually acceptable ethical framework" ( Susman , 1985).

42. Action research can be described as a family of research methodologies which pursue action (or change) and research (or understanding) at the same time. Here in this method the procedures and steps are same like any other research process but the role of respondent and the manner in which the data are to be collected is different

43. the action in the action research is situational( solving the issue in a given situation ) collaborative (efforts of researcher and practitioners)participatory(researcher role is crucial) and self evaluative ( constant evaluation )

44. Is educative Deals with individuals as members of social groups Is problem-focused, context-specific and future-orientated Involves a change intervention Involves a cyclic process in which research, action and evaluation are interlinked Aims at improvement and involvement Eg: Marad case

45. SAMPLING

46. Sample A sample is a portion drawn from a larger population .it will be representative of the population only if it has same basic characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. In sampling in research our concern o is not about types of units (person) to be observed. But with how many units of what description and by what methods should be chosen.(Straits 1999)

47. Manheim(1977) “ a sample is a part of the population which is studied in order to make inferences about the whole population. sampling is a process of systematically selecting cases for inclusion in a research project

48. Sampling The common question asked in any research is always about the data collection and related procedures. Especially while conducting a survey in research to collect the data whether they want to collect data from the entire population? Or from a representative portion? , are common questions. Sampling is power technique applied with wide application in social science research.

49. Population refers “all those people with the characteristics which the reseracher wants to study within the context of a particular problem” it could be all students in a college, patients in a hospital, prisoners in prison, employees in a state, o particular group of people from a state and so on

50. Propose of Sampling Studying a large population demands more resources and its mobilization. Time, scattered population, wide geographical area are often make sample as necessary in research.( Sarantakos 1998) Samples is suitable in scattered population , It offers high degree of accuracy because it deals with a small number of people. Time saving Sampling is economical

51. Principles of sampling ( Sarntakos 1998) Sample units must be chosen in a systematic and objective manner Sample units must be clearly defined and easily identifiable Sample units must be independent of each other. Same units of sample should be used throughout the study In the selection process of sample, errors, bias should be avoided and a sound criterion should be followed.

52. Advantages Reduce the number of larger population It saves time and money It saves destruction of units It increases accuracy of data It achieves greater response rate It is easy to supervise

53. Key Terms

54. Universe or population The sum total of all units / cases that conform to some designated set of specification is called the universe or population. Sample –it is aportion of the total population formula ____n______ 1+ n(e)2 Here n= total number,e = 0.59(confidence level)  

55. Sampling element.- each entity from the population about which a information is collected is called sample element Sampling Unit this is either a single member (element) or collection of members (elements) subject to data analysis in the sample.

56. Sampling frame It is the complete list of all units from which the sample is drawn. Electoral roll, the list of patients in a hospital, students in college etc. if we want to study 2200 women in a village out of the age group 18-50 year is 970. These 18-50 yrs would be the sampling frame.

57. Target population-it is one to which the reseracher would like to generalize his results. In the above mentioned example of awareness rights of women in the rural area the target population is 970.