Research methodology

The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions. The methodology may include publication Research, interviews, surveys and other research techniques, and could include both present and historical information.

1. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY PRESENTED BY: SID G

2. Many authors use these terms interchangeably, but there is a correct way of using them. As students of “Research Methods”, we must know the difference. What is it? Textbooks treat this differently but research “methods” usually refers to specific activities designed to generate data (e.g. questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, observation) and research “methodology” is more about your attitude to and your understanding of research and the strategy you choose to answer research questions Research methods versus research methodology

3. “Any creative systematic activity undertaken in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this knowledge to devise new applications” “research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question” DEFINITIONS:

4. MEANING: The process used to collect information and data for the purpose of making business decisions. The methodology may include publication Research, interviews, surveys and other research techniques, and could include both present and historical information.

5. Research Methodology refers to A systematic study Defining a problem Formulating a Hypothesis Collecting and Analyzing data Deductions and Conclusions

6. Objectives of Research – To gain familiarity or achieve a new insight towards a certain topic. To verify and test important facts To analyze an event, process or phenomenon To identify the cause and effect relationship To find solutions to scientific, non-scientific and social problems To determine the frequency at which something occurs

7. What makes people do research? Desire to get a research degree Desire to solve unsolved and challenging problems Desire to get intellectual joy of doing creative work Desire to be of service to the society Desire for innovation and recognition

8. Characteristics of Research A systematic approach is followed in research. Rules and procedures are an integral part of research that set the objective of a research process. Researchers need to practice ethics and code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time, actual observations in the natural settings. There is an in-depth analysis of all the data collected from research so that there are no anomalies associated with it.

9. CONDT…. Research creates a path for generating new questions. More research opportunity can be generated from existing research. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference. Accuracy is one of the important character of research, the information that is obtained while conducting the research should be accurate and true to its nature. For example, research conducted in a controlled environment like a laboratory. Here accuracy is measured of instruments used, calibrations, and the final result of the experiment.

10. IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

11. IMPORTANT FOR: GOVERNMENT BUSINESS STUDENT EDUCATION HUMAN MEDICAL and HEALTH CARE SOCIETY

12. The research is important for the STUDENTS 1. Enhances the knowledge: When you do research on any topic, you get to know detailed information about that topic. The more the knowledge of the topic, the more successful is the research. So, in order to get good output, the student needs to do maximum research. 2. Clarifies confusion: The research helps in clarifying the complicated facts and figures. If the student has any doubt on the subject, the student must research and study on it in detail so as to remove all sorts of confusion and get the proper understanding of the content.

13. 3. To have a proper understanding of the subject: To understand the subject, one needs to go in depth of the lines. The scanning of the content will never do any good for the students. In order to learn the subject and to know the unknown facts, research, detail study and full analysis are the must. 4. To learn about the methods and issues: Proper reading, the finding is the only way by which you can learn about the methods and the current issues. Not just the current issues, rather the previous past issues can also be learned in detail through the research. The research includes various methods by which it can be done. 5. Understand the published work: Research is done through the work already published. The experts and the researchers had already done some of the research and the students are asked to go through that published material to know the idea and the vision of those researchers. 6. Learn to create a balance between the collaborative and individual work: When the students do research, they get to learn how to create a balance between the collaborative and the individual work. Individual work in which the student has to do, while the collaborative work means that work which has already been done by the previous researchers. So, in this manner, the students get to know which points are to be taken into the consideration and which points are to be ignored.

14. 7. To know the interest: The students also get to know their area of interest. Sometimes, the students aspire to become researchers only in their near future which is quite helpful. So, through this, we come to know that the research not only helps with the accomplishment of the work, but also helps in knowing what needs to be done in their future. 8. To know how the original study originated: Research is done to know the concept from the scratch. Like, if you wish to know from where has the concept originated, then this could be done only through the research work. It can also be defined as an investigation because the student eventually ends up with expanded research. 9. Understanding the rationale: By engaging in the process of research, the students understand the concept in an easier manner as the rationale of the topic is known in a better manner. So, above are the reasons by which we come to know the benefits of the research for the students.

15. SIGNIFICANCE Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization. The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in solving operational problems. Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system. For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.  The cost of needs has to be equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each of these alternatives.

16. CONTD… SIGNIFICANCE…. Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly facilitates the decisions of the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes for dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly or indirectly to economic conditions. Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking business decisions. Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient manner.

17. Standards for assessing the quality of research Pose a significant, important question that can be investigated empirically and that contributes to the knowledge base A well‐defined research topic and a clear hypothesis Test questions that are linked to relevant theory Apply methods that best address the research questions of interest Base research on clear chains of inferential reasoning supported and justified by a complete coverage of the relevant literature Provide the necessary information to reproduce or replicate the study Ensure the study design, methods, and procedures are sufficiently transparent and ensure an independent, balanced, and objective approach to the research Provide sufficient description of the sample, the intervention, and any comparison groups Use appropriate and reliable conceptualization and measurement of variables Evaluate alternative explanations for any findings

18. CONTD…. QUALITY OF GOOD RESEARCH High quality data fit for their intended use and reliable, valid, relevant, and accurate Findings of the study written in a way which brings clarity to important issues Tables and graphics which are clear, accurate and understandable with appropriate labeling of data values, cut points and thresholds Include both statistical significance results and effect sizes when possible The conclusions and recommendations both logical and consistent with the findings. Assess the possible impact of systematic bias Submit research to a peer-review process Adhere to quality standards for reporting (i.e., clear, cogent, complete) Is respectful to people with other perspectives. Provides adequate references. Attempts to honestly present all perspectives.

19. TYPES OF RESEARCH

20. TYPES OF RESEARCH BASIC Vs APPLIED FIXED Vs FLEXIBLE QUANTITATIVE Vs QUALITATITVE EXPERIMENTAL Vs NON EXPERIMENTAL EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE HISTORICAL EXPOST FACTO CORRELATION RESEARCH EVALUATION RESEARCH ACTION RESEARCH DIAGNOSTIC AND PROGNOSTIC RESEARCH

21. BASIC Vs APPLIED RESEARCH BASIS FOR COMPARISON BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH Meaning Basic Research refers to the study that is aimed at expanding the existing base of scientific knowledge. Applied Research is the research that is designed to solve specific practical problems or answer certain questions. Nature Theoretical Practical Utility Universal Limited Concerned with Developing scientific knowledge and predictions Development of technology and technique Goal To add some knowledge to the existing one. To find out solution for the problem at hand.

22. FIXED Vs FLEXIBLE In fixed designs, the design of the study is fixed before the main stage of data collection takes place. Fixed designs are normally theory driven; otherwise it is impossible to know in advance which variables need to be controlled and measured. Often, these variables are measured quantitatively . Flexible designs allow for more freedom during the data collection process. One reason for using a flexible research design can be that the variable of interest is not quantitatively measurable, such as culture .

23. QUANTITATIVE Vs QUALITATITVE BASIS FOR COMPARISON QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH Meaning Qualitative research is a method of inquiry that develops understanding on human and social sciences, to find the way people think and feel. Quantitative research is a research method that is used to generate numerical data and hard facts, by employing statistical, logical and mathematical technique. Nature Holistic Particularistic Approach Subjective Objective Research type Exploratory Conclusive Reasoning Inductive Deductive Sampling Purposive Random Data Verbal Measurable

24. CONTD…QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented Hypothesis Generated Tested Elements of analysis Words, pictures and objects Numerical data Objective To explore and discover ideas used in the ongoing processes. To examine cause and effect relationship between variables. Methods Non-structured techniques like In-depth interviews, group discussions etc. Structured techniques such as surveys, questionnaires and observations. Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

25. EXPERIMENTAL Vs NON EXPERIMENTAL EXPERIMENTAL Studies the cause and effect between I ndependent variables and Dependent variables Manipulates independent variables Random Experiments invested cause and effect between variables.  You can find extraneous variables and confounding variables in this research NON-EXPERIMENTAL There is no manipulation of independent variable and the group assignments aren't random. Because there is no manipulation of the Independent variable it is hard to cause and effect . Example from text book-gender would not cause difference in performance levels, but two genders might differ in performance levels

26. NON EXPERIMENTAL:

27. HISTORICAL Historical research involves studying, understanding and interpreting past events.  The purpose of historical research is to reach insights or conclusions about past persons or occurrences.   Historical research entails more than simply compiling and presenting factual information; it also requires interpretation of the information.  Typically, histories focuses on particular individuals, social issues and links between the old and the new.  Some historical research is aimed at reinterpreting prior historical works by revising existing understandings and replacing them with new one.

28. DESCRIPTIVE Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon that is being studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are: Quantitative research:  Descriptive research is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is an popular market research tool that allows to collect and describe the nature of the demographic segment. Uncontrolled variables:  In descriptive research, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher. Cross-sectional studies:  Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied. Basis for further research:  The data collected and analyzed from descriptive research can then be further researched using different research techniques. The data also can help point towards the types of research methods are to be used for the subsequent research  

29. EXPLORATORY Exploratory research, as the name implies, intends merely to explore the research questions and does not intend to offer final and conclusive solutions to existing problems. This type of research is usually conducted to study a problem that has not been clearly defined yet Conducted in order to determine the nature of the problem, exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better understanding of the problem. When conducting exploratory research, the researcher ought to be willing to change his/her direction as a result of revelation of new data and new insights

30. CAUSAL RESEARCH Causal research, also known as explanatory research is conducted in order to identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can be conducted in order to assess impacts of specific changes on existing norms, various processes etc.

31. EXPOST FACTO The ex-post facto research is a kind of research in which the researcher predicts the possible causes behind an effect that has already occurred. For example, if a child is delinquent (that is, one who indulges in criminal activities), then in order to find the basic reason behind such delinquency, the researcher would try to find out the various events that have occurred and the many possibilities that could have contributed to the concerned delinquent behavior. The expected possibilities may be lack of discipline at school/ family history/ peer effect/ neighborhood or socialization

32. CORRELATION RESEARCH Correlation research is a type of non-experimental research in which the researcher measures two variables and assesses the statistical relationship (i.e., the correlation) between them with little or no effort to control extraneous variables.

33. EVALUATION RESEARCH Evaluation is a set of research methods and associated methodologies with a distinctive purpose. They provide a means to judge actions and activities in terms of values, criteria and standards. At the same time evaluation is also a practice that seeks to enhance effectiveness in the public sphere and policy making. In order to improve as well as judge, there is a need to explain what happens and would have to be done differently for different outcomes to be achieved.

34. ACTION RESEARCH Action research  is either research initiated to solve an immediate problem or a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by individuals working with others in teams or as part of a "community of practice" to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.

35. REASEARCH Vs SCIENTIFIC METHOD Research  is what is being done.  Scientific method  is the (general) guide to how the research should be done

36. CHARACTERSTICS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD 1.  Scientific research is public . Advances in science require freely available informa­tion. Researchers  cannot plead private knowledge, methods, or data in arguing for the accuracy of their findings; scientific research infor­mation must be freely communicated from one researcher to another. Researchers therefore must take great care in their published reports to include in­formation on sampling methods, measure­ments, and data-gathering procedures. This process of replication allows for correction and verification of previous research findings. 2.  Science is objective . Science tries to rule out eccentricities (weirdness) of judgment by researchers. When a study is conducted, explicit rules and procedures are developed and the researcher is bound to follow them. Objectivity also requires that scientific research deal with facts rather than interpretations of facts.

37. 3.  Science is empirical . Researchers are con­cerned with a world that is knowable and po­tentially measurable.  4.Science is systematic and cumulative . No single research study stands alone, nor does it rise or fall by itself. A  smart research­ers always use previous studies as building blocks for their own work. One of the first steps in conducting research is to review the available scientific literature on the topic so that the current study will draw on the heri­tage of past research. 5.  Science is predictive . Science is con­cerned with relating the present to the fu­ture. In fact, scientists strive to develop theories because, among other reasons, they are useful in predicting behavior.

38. RESEARCH PROCESS

39. ANALYZE DATA AND DRAW CONCLUSION PREPARE REPORT RESEARCH PROCESS

40. DEFINE THE PROBLEM A research problem is a definite or clear expression [statement] about an area of concern, a condition to be improved upon, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in scholarly literature, in theory, or within existing practice that points to a need for meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. A research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad proposition, or present a value question. – Alan Byrman

41. Steps To Formulate Your Research Problem: SPECIFY THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 2. REVIEW THE ENVIRONMENT OR CONTEXT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 3. EXPLORE THE NATURE OF THE PROBLEM 4. DEFINE THE VARIABLE RELATIONSHIPS 5. THE CONSEQUENCES OF ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION

42. Example: Health Centre Case Study A health centre receives complaints from users regarding the quality of the services. A discrepancy exists between the numbers of complaints currently being received in comparison to the previous year. The number of complaints is now reaching a volume that is unacceptable. How frequently does the problem occur? Verbal and written complaints are being received on a daily basis. When does it generally occur? It appears to have started following a reduction in staffing levels. Where does it generally occur? The location is not relevant to this situation Who is most affected? Obviously the users are, but so are the staff as they are becoming quite agitated by the complaints and the workload they are experiencing.

43. The problem can therefore be summarized as: Patient dissatisfaction, affecting both patients and staff, which appears to have started following a reduction in staff

44. Subsequent stages of the hierarchy take the marketer and his or her research collaborator through various brainstorming and exploratory research exercises to define the following: Management question : the management dilemma restated in question format. Research question(s) :the hypothesis that best states the objective of the research; the question(s) that focuses the researcher’s attention. Investigative questions :questions the researcher must answer to satisfactorily answer the research question; what the marketer feels he or she needs to know to arrive at a conclusion about the management dilemma. Management questions : the questions asked of the participants or the observations that must be recorded. The definition of the management question sets the research task.

45. RESEARCH PROPOSAL

46. DEFINITION The goal of a research proposal is to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting the research are governed by standards within the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, so guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and/or benefits derived from the study's completion.

47. Purpose of a Research Proposal Research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. The purpose of a proposal is to sell your idea to the funding agency. This means that the investigator must convince the funding agency that: The problem is significant and worthy of study The technical approach is novel and likely to yield results The investigator and his/her research team is/are the right group of individuals to carry out and accomplish the work described in the research proposal.

48. ELEMENTS Background of the study Statement of the problem Objectives of the study Significance of the study Limitation of the study Definition of terms Methodology

49. Beginning the Proposal Process As with writing a regular academic paper, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. Proposals vary between ten and twenty-five pages in length. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal. A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions: What do I want to study? Why is the topic important? How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class? What problems will it help solve? How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic? What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available? In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like--"Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

50. Introduction What is the central research problem? What is the topic of study related to that problem? What methods should be used to analyze the research problem? Why is this important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

51. Background and Significance This section can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. This is where you explain the context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important.

52. Literature Review The "five C’s" of writing a literature review: Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem. Compare  the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem? Contrast  the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate? Critique  the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.]. Connect  the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

53. Research Design and Methods This section  must  be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that it is worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study. Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

54. Preliminary Suppositions and Implications The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policymaking. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.

55. QUESTIONS: What might the results mean in regards to the theoretical framework that underpins the study? What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study? What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace? Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention? How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems? Will the results influence policy decisions? In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued? What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research? How will the results of the study be implemented, and what innovations will come about?

56. Conclusion The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study . This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge. Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of: Why the study should be done, The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer, The decision to why the research design and methods used where chosen over other options, The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem, and A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

57. Citations As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used in composing your proposal. In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred. References --  lists only the literature that you actually used or cited in your proposal. Bibliography --  lists everything you used or cited in your proposal, with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem. In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to make sure the project will complement and not duplicate the efforts of other researchers. Start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [i.e., education=APA; history=Chicago, etc] or that is preferred by your professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research proposal.

58. Evaluating Research Proposals Evaluation involves assessing the soundness and merit of the research plan. The evaluators look for evidence of clarity and quality of thought – which reflects on the likely quality of the research to be conducted. Planning the research and writing the proposal is often the most difficult part of the research process.

59. Typical Criteria for Evaluation Is the investigator interested in the problem? Is there a genuine lack of knowledge related to the problem? Is the research needed by other people? Are the objectives: appropriate to the problem? Attainable? Observable or measureable? Sufficiently specific? 59

60. Typical Criteria for Evaluation …cont. Does the investigator have sufficient resources? Does the proposal recognize appropriate constraints? Is the research likely to be productive? Is the expected value of the research greater than its cost? Are results likely to be widely applicable? 60