Research Methods 2023 Notes Undergradute pptx (3).pptx

research method in science education

1. ESC 399: RESEARCH METHODS IN SCIENCE EDUCATION KOFI ACHEAW OWUSU (PhD)

2. OBJECTIVES explain the meaning and purpose of research in science education. identify the types of research in science education. enumerate steps in carrying out science education research. formulate research problem, research questions and hypothesis. review related literature for their research . identify the appropriate research methodology for their research. analyze data using the appropriate statistical tool.

3. Code of conduct Treat each other with respect You should be punctual at all sessions and conduct yourself at same in a professional manner. You must also switch your phone to silent mode. DO NOT MOCK OTHER STUDENTS’ RESPONSE TO QUESTIONS. See course outline for other classroom rules

4. WAYS OF KNOWING

5. FIVE WAYS OF KNOWING

6. WHAT IS THE MEANING OF RESEARCH

7. WHAT THEN IS EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH? Educational research is a systematic process of collecting information or data on matters concerning education in order to confirm, improve, modify or predict a particular learning environment. AREAS OF RESEARCH IN EDUCATION TEACHING SCHOOL MANAGEMENT DISCIPLINE SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT ATTITUDE PERFORMANCE SELF ESTEEM EFFECTIVENESS OF ICT IN TEACHING/LEARNING

8. IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH Tool for advancing knowledge in education. Enable us to improve the teaching and learning process. Solve educational problems and resolve conflicts. Choose better techniques that could be used to improve teaching and learning. Solve societal problems prevalent in schools. Predict future trends in the various aspects of education such as teaching, learning etc.

9. CHARACTERISTICS OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH It must be based on empirical evidence that can later be proved to be right or wrong. It must involve the gathering of data from either primary or secondary sources. It demands objectivity, precision and accuracy. It must be directed towards providing solutions to particular problem of interest. It employs the use of appropriate analytical procedures to analyze the collected data.

10. Types of educational research Generally, educational research can be classified either by PURPOSE or METHODS . PURPOSE BASIC RESEARCH Concerned with clarifying underlying processes, with the hypothesis usually expressed as a theory. APPLIED RESEARCH Is interested in examining the effectiveness of particular educational practices.

11. METHOD

12. Research Paradigm Educational research is typically classified into two broad categories: quantitative and qualitative. Each approach has its own methodology and terminology. Quantitative research uses objective measurement to gather numeric data that are used to answer questions or test predetermined hypotheses. Qualitative research, in contrast, focuses on understanding social phenomena from the perspective of the human participants in natural settings. It does not generally begin with formal hypotheses, but it may result in hypotheses as the study unfolds.

13. Assignment 1 Identify five differences between quantitative and qualitative research

14. Variables A variable is a construct or a characteristic that can take on different values or scores in which the researcher is interested . Eg : height, sex, age, religious affiliation, achievement etc. Variables can be classified in several ways. Variables can be categorical or continuous. They can be independent or dependent .

15. Types of variables Categorical variable : Variable that can vary only according to a set of finite values or can be put into mutually exclusive groups. Eg : Sex, marital status, religious affiliation, hall of residence. Continuous variable : Variable that has an infinite number of values within a range. Eg : Height, weight, achievement scores.

16. Independent variable: It is the variable that the researcher chooses to study in order to assess its possible effect(s) on one or more other variables ( Fraenkel & Wallen , 2009). Dependent variable: It is the outcome variable, that which is caused, in total or in part, by the input, antecedent variable. It is the effect, consequence of, or response to, an independent variable (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007). Independent variable(s) (Presumed or possible cause) Affect(s) Dependent variable(s) (presumed results)

17. Flow chart to identify variables

18. Scales of measurement There are four scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio. Nominal scale: Nominal measurement involves placing objects or individuals into mutually exclusive categories. Numbers are arbitrarily assigned to the categories for identification purposes only. The numbers do not indicate any value or amount; thus, one category does not represent “more or less” of a characteristic. Eg: Gender: Male – 1, Female-2

19. Ordinal scale: Ranks objects or individuals according to how much of an attribute they possess. The numbers in an ordinal scale indicate only the order of the categories. The essential requirement for measurement at this level is that the relationship must be such that if object X is greater than object Y and object Y is greater than object Z, then object X is greater than object Z. The relationship can be expressed as: If (X > Y) and (Y > Z), then (X > Z). The intervals between the ranks are not equal. Eg : ranking of students as 1 st , 2 nd , etc in competition.

20. Interval scale: Places objects or events in order and also marked by equal intervals. Equal differences between the units of measurement represent equal differences in the attribute being measured. However, in interval data, there is no true zero. Thus, zero score does not mean an absence of the trait being measured. Numbers on an interval scale may be manipulated by addition and subtraction, but because the zero is arbitrary, multiplication and division of the numbers are not appropriate. Eg : temperature, achievement.

21. Ratio scale: It has a true zero point as well as equal intervals. Ratios can be reported between any two given values on the scale. Eg : weight, length, time etc.

22. You are buying a used car. You consider (a) its make (Ford, Toyota, etc.), (b) the miles on the odometer, (c) the year it was made, and (d) its rating in Consumer Reports . 1. Which of the above is nominal data? 2. Which of the above is ordinal data? 3. Which of the above is interval data? 4. Which of the above is ratio data?

23. Research format in COES

24. 1. Identify the scale of measurement in the following variables: Laptop brand Weight Hair colour 2. Indicate whether the following are categorical or continuous variable Brand of toothpaste GPA Hall of residence

25. 3. Identify the dependent and independent variables in the following research problems: Influence of self-esteem on students’ performance in Mathematics. Students’ parental background as a predictor of their classroom activeness.

26. What research can be used to answer the following questions? Do children who eat breakfast get better grades in school? How many children in school report that they do not have breakfast at home? Does the institution of a free breakfast program at school make a difference in the achievement of students?

27. The Introduction Chapter There cannot be research without a research problem or topic. Systematic research begins with a research problem. What is a research problem? a problem that someone would like to research. A problem can be anything that a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling, a difficulty of some sort, a state of affairs that needs to be changed, anything that is not working as well as it might. Problems involve areas of concern to researchers, conditions they want to improve, difficulties they want to eliminate, questions for which they seek answers.

28. Sources of problem Experience You can question the effectiveness of certain classroom practices that have become routine. You may have a question about strategies to improve the achievement of students. Research can provide the answers to such questions.

29. Theory Theories are a good source of problems for research. A theory may be defined as a set of interrelated statements, principles, and propositions that specify the relationships among variables. The application of the general principles embodied in a theory to specific educational problems is only hypothetical until research empirically confirms them.

30. The existence of an unanswered problem. There could be a problem that has existed for a long time and this can be a source of research problem. An imbalance in the system. When there is an undue emphasis on one area, a person can decide to investigate into such phenomenon. Dissatisfaction with a particular situation. If one is not satisfied with a particular situation, research can be conducted into it to find out how it can be improved, etc. Existence of missing link. When there is a missing link that has continuously affected students performance, then research can be conducted into it.

31. Reviews of Research Reviews of research that integrate and summarize studies on specific topics can be very useful for identifying a research problem. RELATED LITERATURE Another valuable source of problems is the published literature in your area of interest. In published research, you will find examples of research problems and the methods used to solve them.

32. NONEDUCATION SOURCES You can adapt theories or procedures you encounter in other fields to apply to education. Often, movements that originate outside a profession lead people to new paths of research.

33. Characteristics of good research problem 1. The problem is significant . It will contribute to the body of knowledge in education. 2. The problem is one that will lead to further research. 3. The problem is researchable. It can be investigated through the collection of data. 4. The problem is suitable. It is interesting and suits the researcher’s skills, time, and available resources. 5. The problem is ethical. It will not cause harm to subjects.

34. Background to the study The researcher must give a general description of the area of study. The researcher should draw the link between what is to be studied and the larger area of concern. The background exposes the reader to the problem in general terms.

35. Statement of the problem The research states the research problem in clear, specific form. This section explains why the problem should be investigated. Your readers should be convinced that the problem is worth investigating after reading this section. Some refer to this as ‘justification of the study’.

36. ASSIGNMENT 2 Identify a research problem(topic). Write the background to the study for the problem identified. Write the statement of the problem for the topic. NB: Not more than 4 pages

37. Purpose of the study It is a description of what the researcher intends to do. In this section, the problem is broken down to its components parts. You must state only purposes you intend to study.

38. Research Questions/Hypotheses They guide the researcher to find answers to the problem being studied. Sometimes the statements of your purpose may be converted into research questions. Research questions also guide the development of research instruments. Analysis are conducted based on the research questions /hypotheses.

39. Assessing technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) of New Zealand high school science teachers Research Questions What are New Zealand science teachers’ perceptions of their understanding of the constructs of the TPACK framework? How do the constructs on the TPACK framework correlate with each other? How do teachers’ adapt the use of technology in their classrooms?

40. Impact of technology on science education

41. Create one research question for the topic below Impact of technology on science education. What are the roles of technology in science education? How does technology play a role in science education? What role does technology play in science education? Does technology play any role in science education? What are the perception of students in the use of technology in teaching?

42. Hypotheses A hypothesis is a prediction of the possible outcomes of a study. The hypothesis presents the researcher’s expectations about the relationship between variables within the question. Hypothesis is a suggested answer to the question, with the understanding that the ensuing investigation may lead to either support for the hypothesis or lack of support for it.

43. Research may find support for a hypothesis, but it does not prove a hypothesis. For example: Question: Will students who are taught history by a teacher of the same gender like the subject more than students taught by a teacher of a different gender? Hypothesis: Students taught history by a teacher of the same gender will like the subject more than those taught by a teacher of different gender.

44. Question: What is the effect of preschool training on the first-grade achievement of culturally disadvantaged children? Hypothesis: Culturally disadvantaged children who have had preschool training achieve at a higher level in first grade than culturally disadvantaged children who have not had preschool training. Most culturally disadvantaged children have difficulties in their first grade achievement after preschool training

45. ADVANTAGES OF STATING HYPOTHESES IN ADDITION TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS A hypothesis forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the possible outcomes of a study. It enables one to make specific predictions based on prior evidence or theoretical argument.

46. DISADVANTAGES OF STATING HYPOTHESES Stating a hypothesis may lead to a bias , either conscious or unconscious, on the part of the researcher. Stating hypotheses at the outset may sometimes be unnecessary, or even inappropriate, in research projects of certain types, such as descriptive surveys and ethnographic studies. Focusing attention on a hypothesis may prevent researchers from noticing other phenomena that might be important to study.

47. Types of hypotheses THE NULL HYPOTHESIS (statistical hypothesis) It states that there is no relationship or difference between the variables in the population. A null hypothesis lets researchers assess whether apparent relationships are genuine or are likely to be a function of chance alone. symbolized H o Statistical tests are used to determine the probability that the null hypothesis is true. Eg : there is no difference between the performance of boys and girls in Maths.

48. THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS (declarative or alternate) A research hypothesis states the relationship one expects to find as a result of the research. It may be a statement about the expected relationship or the expected difference between the variables in the study. Research hypotheses may be stated in a directional or non-directional form. A directional hypothesis states the direction of the predicted relationship or difference between the variables. Eg : “There is a positive relationship between IQ and anxiety in elementary schoolchildren”

49. Performance between boys and girls in science Null: There is no difference in performance between boys and girls in science. Non directional : There is a difference in performance between boys and girls in science Directional : Girls perform better than boys in science

50. A non-directional hypothesis states that a relationship or difference exists but without specifying the direction or nature of the expected finding. Eg : “There is a relationship between IQ and anxiety in children.”

51. A researcher has a theory about children’s ordinal position in the family and their academic achievement. Write a research hypothesis and a hypothesis in the null form for this theory.

52. Hypothesis testing Two important values are critical in hypothesis testing. P value and significance level. P value is defined as the probability under the assumption of no effect or no difference (null hypothesis), of obtaining a result equal to or more extreme than what was actually observed. The P stands for probability and measures how likely it is that any observed difference between groups is due to chance.

53. Being a probability, P can take any value between 0 and  1. Values close to 0 indicate that the observed difference is unlikely to be due to chance, whereas a P value close to 1 suggests no difference between the groups other than due to chance.  

54. Significance level:  In a hypothesis test, the significance level, alpha, is the probability of making the wrong decision when the null hypothesis is true. Confidence level:  The probability that if a poll/test/survey were repeated over and over again, the results obtained would be the same. A confidence level =  1 – alpha. Significance level in educational research is mostly set at 0.05.

55. I f the p-value is greater than the significance level, fail to reject(accept) the null hypothesis . If the p-value is less than or equal to the level of significance, then you can reject the null hypothesis.

56.   Group N Mean T Df P Post-test REACT 27 16.48 5.647 55 .001*   Conventional 30 11.50         Group N Mean T Df P Pre-test REACT 27 18.15 0.66 55 .947   Conventional 30 18.07      

57. Hypothesis Testing

58. A researcher wanted to test the hypothesis that there is no significant difference between the performance of girls and boys in Maths . After his analysis, he had a p-value of .02. How should he interpret the results if his significant level was 0.05?

59. ASSIGNMENT

60. Significance of the study The possible contributions of the research is made known at this section. How will this contribute to the body of knowledge? How will it affect the area of the study?

61. Delimitations of the study This section deals with scope of the research. Aspects of the problem that the research is going to focus on should be mentioned. Limitations of the study Hindrances to the study should be noted. Anything that can affect the outcome of the study should be noted at this section. Definition of terms Organization of the rest of the study

62. Literature review It is a systematic search, analysis and critique of relevant information on the research problem under investigation. Purposes of literature review Prevent unnecessary duplication. Assist to choose appropriate research methods and instruments. Helps researchers to limit their research question and to clarify and define the concepts of the study. The study of related literature places researchers in a better position to interpret the significance of their own results. Helps to compare and contrast different sources and the opinions of experts on the issue at stake.

63. Sources of literature Books Journals and periodicals Theses and conference papers Newspapers Television/radio Official documents Research reports The internet.

64. Organizing the literature review The introduction briefly describes the nature of the research problem and states the research question. The body of the review briefly reports what others have found or thought about the research problem. Related studies are usually discussed together, grouped under subheads. The summary of the review ties together the main threads revealed in the literature reviewed and presents a composite picture of what is known or thought to date.

65. ASSIGNMENT State two research questions/hypotheses for the topic identified. REVIEW A FIVE PAGE LITERATURE ON THE PROBLEM IDENTIFIED

66. Methodology Chapter Research Design Population Sample and Sampling Instruments Data collection Data Analysis

67. Research Design The design is the researcher’s plan for the study. The design helps to identify which instrument to use, what data will be gathered, where, how, and from whom. The research design indicates the kind of research you are undertaking. The following are the designs we will look at: Surveys Experimental Designs

68. Survey Design Many educational research methods are descriptive. They set out to describe and to interpret what exists. Survey is a research in which information is collected from a group of people in order to describe some aspects or of the population of which that group is a part. Surveys gather data with the intention of describing the nature of existing conditions, or identifying standards against which existing conditions can be compared. They also help in determining the relationships that exist between specific events.

69. Strengths Survey gathers data on a one-shot basis and hence is economical and efficient. It mostly generates numerical data. It provides descriptive, inferential and explanatory information. gathers standardized information (i.e. using the same instruments and questions for all participants). It can be used to ascertain correlations (e.g. to find out if there is any relationship between gender and scores).

70. It makes generalizations about, and observes patterns of response in, the targets of focus. It gathers data which can be processed statistically. It usually relies on large-scale data gathering from a wide population to enable generalizations to be made about given factors or variables.

71. Types of surveys Surveys are classified based on: focus and scope (census and sample surveys) time frame for data collection (longitudinal and cross-sectional surveys). Census A survey that covers the entire population of interest. Sample survey A survey that studies only a portion of the population. The smaller portion selected from the population for study is called sample.

72. Longitudinal survey: It gathers information at different points in time in order to study the changes over extended periods of time. Three different types of longitudinal survey: panel studies, trend studies, and cohort research. Panel Studies : In a panel study, the same subjects are surveyed several times over an extended period of time. Because the same subjects are studied over time, researchers can see the changes in the individuals’ behaviour and investigate the reasons for the changes.

73. Cohort Studies: In a cohort study, a specific population is followed over a length of time with different random samples studied at various points. Trend studies: In a trend study, different samples from a population whose members may change are surveyed at different points in time.

74. Cross-Sectional Surveys Cross-sectional surveys study a cross section (sample) of a population at a single point in time. the time it takes to collect all of the data may take anywhere from a day to a few weeks or more. it produces a ‘snapshot’ of a population at a particular point in time.

75. On the basis of the time of data collection, classify each of the following surveys A study of adults who were bullied in childhood A comparison of biology performance in senior high schools in Ghana in 2000, 2005, and 2010 A survey of chemistry achievement at different grade levels in senior high schools in 2012.

76. Experimental designs An experiment is a scientific investigation in which the researcher manipulates one or more independent variables, controls any other relevant variables, and observes the effect of the manipulations on the dependent variable(s). The goal of experimental research is to determine whether a causal relationship exists between two or more variables.

77. Two variables are of interest in experiment : the independent variable and the dependent variable. The independent variable is manipulated (introduced, changed) by the experimenter. The variable on which the effects of the changes are observed is called the dependent variable , which is observed but not manipulated by the experimenter.

78. Experimental designs can roughly be grouped into two categories: True experiments: In these kind of experiments, subjects are randomly assigned to groups. RANDOMIZATION An important aspect of many experiments is the random assignment of subjects to groups. Random assignment of subjects: means that every individual who is participating in the experiment has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups. Random selection of groups: randomly select which group will be experimental or control group. Randomization is not possible for all experiments Quasi experiments: subjects are not randomly assigned to treatment groups. In a typical school situation, schedules cannot be disrupted nor classes reorganized to accommodate a research study. In such a case, one uses groups already organized into classes or other preexisting intact groups.

79. placebo

80. Selected types of experimental designs The One-Shot Case Study. In the one-shot case study design , a single group is exposed to a treatment or event and a dependent variable is subsequently observed (measured) in order to assess the effect of the treatment. A diagram of this design is as follows:

81. The most obvious weakness of this design is its absence of any control. The researcher has no way of knowing if the results obtained at O (as measured by the attitude scale) are due to treatment X (the textbook).

82. On the basis of the time of data collection, classify each of the following surveys: A study of adults who were bullied in childhood Panel study 2. A comparison of biology performance in senior high schools in Ghana in 2000, 2005, and 2010. Trend 3. A survey of chemistry achievement at different grade levels in senior high schools in 2012. Cross sectional survey

83. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design. In the one-group pretest-posttest design , a single group is measured or observed not only after being exposed to a treatment of some sort, but also before. administering a pretest measuring the dependent variable; applying the experimental treatment X to the subjects; and administering a posttest .

84. Pretest -post-test non-equivalent group design This uses two or more preexisting or intact (static) groups. This design is also called static group. One group (experimental) is exposed to the experimental treatment. The other group does not receive the experimental treatment. This group is called control group

85. The Randomized Posttest -Only Control Group Design. The randomized posttest -only control group design involves two groups, both of which are formed by random assignment. One group receives the experimental treatment and the other does not. Both groups are posttested on the dependent variable.

86. Exercise A researcher wants to test the effectiveness of two different computer-based instructional methods on teaching a unit on weather in JHS science. The researcher finds a teacher who will permit three of his classes to participate: Two classes use the computer-based instruction, and the third receives conventional classroom instruction. The researcher administers a pretest to all students, each class has a different method of instruction, and then a posttest is administered. a. Specify the design of this study. b.Use notation/diagram to represent this design.

87. Population and sample The term population is used to refer to the entire group of individuals to whom the findings of a study apply. TARGET VERSUS ACCESSIBLE POPULATIONS Unfortunately, the actual population (called the target population) to which a researcher would really like to generalize is rarely available. The population to which a researcher is able to generalize, therefore, is the accessible population. The former is the researcher’s ideal choice; the latter, his or her realistic choice. The researcher defines the specific population of interest.

88. Sampling techniques It is often difficult or even impossible for researchers to study very large populations. Hence they select a smaller portion of the population for study and this is called sample . Sampling is the process of selecting the appropriate sample from a population for a study. Two major types of sampling procedures are available to researchers: probability and nonprobability sampling

89. Probability sampling Probability sampling is defined as the kind of sampling in which every element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. Probability sampling facilitates the use of inferential statistics. The four types of probability sampling most frequently used in educational research are simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.

90. Simple Random Sampling The best known of the probability sampling procedures is simple random sampling . The basic characteristic of simple random sampling is that all members of the population have an equal and independent chance of being included in the random sample.

91. Table of Random Numbers Suitable for selecting large sample size. It is found in statistical books and computer programmes for use. The procedure is as follows: Define the population. Determine the sample size List and label all members of the population. Enter the table at random and selecting a case. After selecting a case, you can go any direction in the table but it must be systematic either horizontal or vertical or diagonal. Cases selected become the sample for the study.

92. Computer Generated Random Numbers The procedure is just like the table of random numbers. However, it is the computer that generates the numbers using Microsoft Excel.

93. Stratified Sampling When the population consists of a number of subgroups, or strata, that may differ in the characteristics being studied, it is often desirable to use a form of probability sampling called stratified sampling.

94. In stratified sampling, you first identify the strata of interest and then randomly draw a specified number of subjects from each stratum. The basis for stratification may be geographic or may involve characteristics of the population such as income, occupation, gender, age, year in college, or teaching level. In this kind of sampling, you may either take equal numbers from each stratum or select in proportion to the size of the stratum in the population. When proportions are used, it is proportional stratified sampling.

95. Proportional stratified sampling is applied when the characteristics of the entire population are the main concern in the study. Systematic Sampling This procedure involves drawing a sample by taking every K th case from a list of the population. First, you decide how many subjects you want in the sample ( n ). Know the total number of members in the population ( N ), Simply divide N by n and determine the sampling interval ( K ) to apply to the list. Select the first member randomly from the first K members of the list. Select every K th member of the population for the sample.

96. You are working on an “attitude of students towards science” research in a school with a population of 100. Although the school is mixed, you realized that the female population is 25. Describe how you will select a sample size of 40 such that females will be duly represented as they are in the population?

97. For example, let us assume a total population of 500 subjects and a desired sample size of 50: K = N/n = 500/50 = 10. Start near the top of the list so that the first case can be randomly selected from the first 10 cases, and then select every tenth case there after every 10th person is included in the sample. Or you can select randomly from the population and that becomes the starting point from wher How different is systematic sampling from simple random sampling?

98. You are interested in conducting a survey on university students with a population of 2000 level 200 students. How would you proceed to draw a random sample of 500 students for your survey using the systematic sampling technique?

99. Cluster Sampling In this a unit chosen is not an individual but, rather, a group of individuals who are naturally together. These individuals constitute a cluster insofar as they are alike with respect to characteristics relevant to the variables of the study. It is essential that the clusters actually included in your study be chosen at random from a population of clusters. Another procedural requirement is that once a cluster is selected, all the members of the cluster must be included in the sample.

100. Non probability sampling This involves nonrandom procedures for selecting the members of the sample. In nonprobability sampling, there is no assurance that every element in the population has a chance of being included. Its main advantages are convenience and economy. The major forms of nonprobability sampling are convenience sampling, purposive sampling, and quota sampling.

101. Convenience Sampling It involves using available cases for a study. It is regarded as the weakest of all sampling procedures. If you do use convenience sampling, be extremely cautious in interpreting the findings and know that you cannot generalize the findings.

102. Purposive Sampling In purposive sampling ( judgment sampling) sample elements judged to be typical, or representative, are chosen from the population. The assumption is that errors of judgment in the selection will counterbalance one another. The critical question in purposive sampling is the extent to which judgment can be relied on to arrive at a typical sample.

103. Quota Sampling Quota sampling involves selecting typical cases from diverse strata of a population. The quotas are based on known characteristics of the population to which you wish to generalize. Elements are drawn so that the resulting sample is aminiature approximation of the population with respect to the selected characteristics.

104. Instruments Every research aims at collecting data to make an informed decision. The tools used to collect the necessary data are called research instruments. There are a lot of research instruments but we will consider questionnaires, interviews, observation and tests. Selecting appropriate and useful instruments is critical to the success of any research study.

105. Questionnaires Questionnaires are research tools through which people are asked to respond to the same set of questions in a predetermined order. Why use questionnaire? They are low cost in terms of time and money. In contrast to interviews, questionnaires can be sent to hundreds or even thousands of respondents at relatively little cost. The inflow of data is quick and from many people. Respondents can complete the questionnaire at a time and place that suits them. Data analysis of closed questions is relatively simple, and questions can be coded quickly. Respondents’ anonymity can be assured.

106. Types of items (questions) on the questionnaire Open questions Open questions have no definitive response. Hence, the questionnaire must be designed in such a way that respondents are able to provide such a response without the restriction of lack of space. The advantage of open questions is the potential for richness of responses, some of which may not have been anticipated by the researchers. It is however difficult to analyse.

107. Closed questions A closed question is one to which the respondent is offered a set of pre-designed replies. Eg : ‘Yes/No’, ‘True or False’, multiple-choice responses, or is given the opportunity to choose from a selection of numbers representing strength of feeling or attitude. Closed questions may restrict the richness of alternative responses. They are easy to analyze .

108. Likert Scale A Likert scale (a summated rating scale ) assesses attitudes toward a topic by presenting a set of statements about the topic and asking respondents to indicate for each whether they strongly agree, agree, are undecided, disagree, or strongly disagree. The various agree– disagree responses are assigned a numeric value, and the total scale score is found by summing the numeric responses given to each item. This total score assesses the individual’s attitude toward the topic.

109. A Likert scale is constructed by assembling a large number of statements about an object, approximately half of which express a clearly favorable attitude and half of which are clearly unfavorable. Neutral items are not used in a Likert scale. It is important that these statements constitute a representative sample of all the possible opinions or attitudes about the object.

110. Guidelines for good questionnaire Avoid vague phrases. Avoid leading questions. Eg : Why do you think the organization has been successful in the past three years’? Avoid double questions. Try to avoid language that is prejudicial or containssexist, or racist stereotyping. Try to avoid hypothetical questions such as: ‘Suppose you were asked to …’ Avoid questions that use negatives and double negatives. Eg:Do you feel that without a parent/teacher association teachers are unable to express their views to parents clearly?

111. Semantic differential Consists of two opposing adjectives. Respondents choose where they lean towards.

112. To me, electronic mail is 1 Important               Unimportant 2 Boring               Interesting 3 Relevant               Irrelevant 4 Exciting               Unexciting 5 Means Nothing               Means A Lot 6 Appealing               Unappealing 7 Fascinating               Mundane 8 Worthless               Valuable 9 Involving               Uninvolving 10 Not Needed               Needed

113. Choosing a statistical test There are very many statistical tests available to the researcher. The test one uses depends on a lot of factors such as : the purpose of the analysis (e.g. to describe or explore data, to test a hypothesis, to seek correlations, to identify the effects of one or more independent variables on a dependent variable, etc ) the kinds of data with which one is working. the scales of data being used the number of groups in the sample the assumptions in the tests whether the samples are independent of each other or related to each other.

114. Frequency Percentage Mean

115. Chi-square for independence Example of research question: What is the relationship between gender and dropout rates from therapy? What you need: one categorical independent variable (e.g. sex: males/ females); and one categorical dependent variable (e.g. dropout: Yes/No). You are interested in the number of people in each category (not scores on a scale).

116. Correlation Example of research question: Is there a relationship between age and optimism scores? Does optimism increase with age? What you need: two continuous variables (e.g., age, optimism scores)

117. Independent-samples t-test Example of research question: Are males more optimistic than females? What you need: • one categorical independent variable with only two groups (e.g. sex: males/females); one continuous dependent variable (e.g. optimism score).

118. Type of test to use

119. REFERENCING

120. Siegel, J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

121. Printed book by one author with edition In reference list Siegel, J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton. In-text citation Siegel (2007) first claimed that ___ or The idea was first suggested in 1993 (Siegel, 2007, p. 10).

122. Siegel, J. (2007). The mindful brain: Reflection and attunement in the cultivation of well-being. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: W. W. Norton.

123. Rules and guidelines In reference list Surname(s), initial(s) of first names of author(s) of book. Year of publication. Title of book – italicised (edition - not necessary for first edition). City and state, or city & country of publication : Name of Publisher. In-text citation Author surname(s) (year of publication, page number[s]

124. Printed book by two authors In reference list Chenoweth, L., & McAulitte , D. (2005). The road to social work & human service practice: An introductory text. Southbank, Victoria, Australia: Thomson. In-text citation Chenoweth and McAulitte (2005) stated that “___ to achieve consistency” (p. 20). or “___to achieve consistency” (Chenoweth & McAulitte , 2005, p. 20).

125. Write the authors’ names in the order they are written on the book’s title page. When a work has two authors, cite both names every time the reference occurs in text. When you are using the authors’ names in brackets, use an ampersand (&) instead of “and”.

126. Printed book by three to five authors In reference list Alred , G. J., Brusaw , C. T., & Oliu , W. E. (2009). The business writer’s handbook. New York, NY: St Martin’s Press. In-text citation First citation: ___ ( Alred , Brusaw , & Oliu , 2009, p. 66). All subsequent citations: ___ (Alred et al., 2009, p. 78).

127. Write out all the authors’ names the first time you cite the reference. In any further references, write only the first author’s name, followed by et al. (et al. means ‘and others’).

128. Six or seven authors In reference list Gazda , G. M., Balzer , F. J., Childers, W. C., Nealy , A. U., Phelps, R. E., & Walters, R. P. (2005). Human relations development: A manual for educators (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Educational. Owusu, K. A. (2022a). In-text citation Gazda et al., 2005, p. 87).

129. In-text citation: Write only the first author’s name, followed by et al. Reference list: List all the authors’ names, using ‘&’ before the last name.

130. Eight or more authors In reference list Watson, S., Gunasekara , G., Gedye , M., van Roy, Y., Ross, M., Longdin , L., . . . Brown, L. (2003). Law of business organisations (4th ed.). Auckland, New Zealand: Palatine Press. In-text citation (Watson et al., 2003, p. 210).

131. In-text citation: Write only the first author’s name, followed by et al. Reference list: When there are eight or more authors, include the first six authors’ names, then insert three spaced ellipsis points (. . .), and add the last author’s name.

132. Chapter or article in a multi-author book (each chapter written by different authors) In reference list Wicks, A. (1996). Facilitating reflective learning. In N. Zepke , D. Nugent, & C. Roberts (Eds.), The new self-help book for teachers (2nd ed., pp. 187-203). Wellington, New Zealand: W P Press. In-text citation (Wicks, 1996, p. 190).

133. Guidelines for referencing edited book Surname(s) of author(s) of chapter, initial(s). Year of publication. Title of chapter. In Editor(s) of book (Eds.), Title of book italicised (Edition [if not 1st ed.], page range of chapter). Place of publication of book: Publisher of book.

134. Journal article In reference list Warren, K. (2002). Preparing the next generation: Social justice in outdoor leadership education and training. Journal of Experiential Education, 25 (1), 231-238. In-text citation Warren (2002) believes that “fairness is the most important value in outdoor leadership” (p. 232). or “___ outdoor leadership” (Warren, 2002, p. 232).

135. Guidelines for referencing a journal article Surname(s), initial(s) of author(s) of article. (Year of journal). Title of article: Subtitle of article if there is one. Title of Journal in italics - with a capital letter for all key words of the journal title, volume number in italics (issue number – not in italics, and in round brackets, no space before opening bracket ), page range of article.

136. Some common mistakes to be avoided in Research Collecting data without a well defined plan or proposal. Selecting too broad a topic. Taking an already existing data that fits in ones study. Undertaking a research without literature review on the topic. Putting off or selecting a topic until the last moment or minute. Stating an untestable hypothesis.

137. Proposal format Full Chapter 1 and Chapter 3 Synopsis of Chapter 2 It should be in the future tense sense you have not yet conducted the research. Not more than 15 pages. Submit on the day of exams. Do it in groups but present it individually. Your registration number and name and the name of the other members of your group should be indicated.