Why social theory matters for social work 3
include: the spread of neo-liberal economic ideology and policy; increasing bureaucratization
and managerialism; advancing governmentality and surveillance; and the intensifi cation and
acceleration of globalization. Understanding exactly how these developments have impacted
on social work forms the subject matter of this book.
The social and cultural context in which the relationship between social work and social
theory is positioned has changed radically. As both cause and effect of these changes, the rise
and rise of individualism is particularly signifi cant in accounting for the negative light in
which social theory has come to be cast. The advanced capitalist societies of modern Western
Europe and beyond are characterised by very high levels of individualism (Durkheim, 1964
[1893]; Elias, 2001 [1981]; Beck and Beck-Gernsheim, 2002). Individualism refers to a cultural
condition that emphasises the moral sanctity and autonomy of the individual. In a culture of
individualism, our individuality, uniqueness and autonomy strike as a social fact – as something
natural, self-evident and, therefore, for the most part, beyond question. As counter-intuitive as
it may seem, however, there is nothing natural or necessary when we conceive of ourselves and
others in this way – as individuals. Our individuality is sociological not ontological. Prior to
modernity, and in more collectively based cultures still today, the self-conception and identity
of individuals was, and continues to be, rooted in wider social collectives such as the family
unit and community.
Far from being an inevitable aspect of what it means to be human, individualism is a direct
consequence of changes to the organisation and structure of modern society. The classical
social theorist Emile Durkheim ( Chapter 2 ) regarded the rising individuality characteristic of
modern society as a fundamentally positive development. At the same time he was wary of it
too. A situation in which members of society are insuffi ciently integrated with one another
can become pathological (Durkheim, 1964 [1893]). In a culture of pathological individualism,
the ways and extent to which social factors shape individual behaviour are (mis)understood
and (mis)represented in ways that fail to grasp the signifi cance of the former for explaining the
latter. Instead, social factors appear of secondary importance for understanding how individuals
think, act and interact. As we shall explore in greater depth, many of the issues and problems
faced by social workers and service-users can be seen as having their roots in the excessive, if
not already pathological, levels of individualism characteristic of modern society.
In a culture of pathological individualism notions of the social and society are understood
in increasingly narrow and constricted terms. The fact that as human beings we are biologically
‘individuated’ – quite literally, that each of us has our own mind and body – leads us to think
that society is something outside of us, something aside from and external to the individual we
imagine ourselves to be. In contrast to this view, a far more instructive way of understanding
the relationship between the social and the individual involves reimagining society as compris-
ing two forms: on the one hand, organisations, institutions and material artefacts such as books,
technology, consumer goods and so on; and on the other, the culturally learned and socially
patterned dispositions all human agents come to embody through socialization. In short, the
socialized body, what we refer to as the individual, ‘is not opposed to society: it is one of its
forms of existence’ (Bourdieu, 1993: 15).
Since the mid to late 1980s, social work theory, policy and practice have increasingly been
(re)organised around the individual at the expense of the social. Individual social workers
draw increasingly on individual-centred concepts and theories to assist individual service-users.
The ‘rising’ individualism within social work has not gone unnoticed. Social work academics,