software testing equivalence class Module 4 Session 1,2,3 (1).pptx

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1. DR.Rashmi H R Dept of Civil Engineering Module 4 Session 1

2. Contents Dr.VIJAYASARATHY 2 Biodiversity: Introduction, Flora and Fauna, Importance of biodiversity, Economic values-medicinal plants, drugs, fisheries biogeochemical cycling. Threat to biodiversity, natural & anthropogenic disturbance, habitat loss. Conservation of biodiversity, National parks, wild life sanctuaries, zoological gardens, gene banks, pollen culture, ecological restoration, social forestry. Ecosystem: Definition, Types: forest, grass land, marine, desert, wetlands, estuarine, lotic , lentic . Abiotic & biotic components of eco system.

3. A plateful of same dish? Smaller quantity of variety of food? Dr.VIJAYASARATHY 3 What do you like the most?

4. BIODIVERSITY BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY or BIODIVERSITY is part of nature which include the differences in genes among the individual of a species ; The variety & richness of all the plant & animal species at different scales in space –locally ,in a region ,in country & the world & the types of ecosystem, both terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area. In short, BIODIVERSITY deals with the degree of nature’s variety in the biosphere. 4 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

5. LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY 1. Genetic diversity: It is a level of biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. 2. Species diversity: It refers to the variety of species within a region. Species diversity is an index that incorporates the number of species in an area and also their relative abundance. 3. Ecosystem diversity: It refers to the diversity of a place at the level of ecosystems. 5 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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13. Consumptive use : Direct utilisation of timber, food, fuel-wood and fodder by local communities. Drugs: Many plants are used in primary health care. 70% of modern medicines are derived from plant and plant extracts. Penicillin – fungus is the source – Antibiotic Quinine – Chincona bark - Malaria treatment Morphine – Poppy bark – Analgesic Fuels: Fire woods are directly consumed by villagers. Food: A large number of wild plants and wild animals are consumed by human beings as food 13 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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15. 2.Productive use: Biodiversity products have commercial value. These products are marketed and sold. These are derived from animals and plants. Animal products: Silk from silk worm, Wool from sheep, Musk from musk deer, Leather from animals Plant Products: Wood for paper and Plywood, Cotton for textile industry, Pearl for pearl industry 15 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

16. 3.Social value : It refers to the manner in which the bio-resources are used in the society. These are associated with the social life, religion and spiritual aspects of the people. e.g., Holy plants : Tulsi , Lotus, Neem trees Holy animals : Cow, sheep, bull, peacock 16 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

17. 4.Ethical value: It means that a species may or may not be used but its existence in nature gives us pleasure. e.g., Holy river : River Ganga Holy tree : Tulsi It is based on importance of protecting all forms of life. Most religious and secular breeds believe that all forms of life have the right to exist on earth. Basic philosophy, “Live and let others Live”. 17 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

18. 5. Aesthetic value: Aesthetic = Appearance It involves appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its inherent value and beauty, as well as for the contribution it makes to our knowledge, aesthetics, imagination and creativity. The beautiful nature of plants and animals insists us to protect the biodiversity. Ex) eco-tourism, colour of butterfly, flowers etc. 18 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

19. 6.Optional value: The optional value of biodiversity suggests that any species may be prov ed to be a valuable species after someday . Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called the Option Value. Predicting which present spices of crops and domestic animals will be of greatest use is possible . 19 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

20. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY HABITAT LOSS DUE TO NATURAL CALAMITIES & HUMANS THE OVER POPULATION ENVI POLLUTION EXOTIC SPECIES OVERUSE OF VEGETATIONS 20 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

21. HABITAT LOSS Habitat loss can be described when an animal loses their home. Every animal in the animal world has a niche, their animal community and without their habitat they no longer have a niche. THERE ARE NATURAL SOURCES TOO... Habitat destruction through natural processes such as volcanism, fire and climate change is also a major cause. REASONS OF HABITAT LOSS BY HUMANS • Agriculture, farming • Harvesting natural resources for personal use • For industrial and urbanization development 21 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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23. SOLUTION FOR THIS… • Protecting remaining intact section of natural habitat. • Reduce human population and expansion of urbanization and industries . • Educating the public about the importance of natural habitat and biodiversity . • Planting trees and home gardens . 23 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

24. 2. THE POPULATION CONNECTION Past losses of biodiversity can be attributed to the expansion of the human population over the globe. Continuing human population growth will be further alter natural ecosystems, resulting in the inevitable loss of more wild species and additional declines in populations . One key to holding down the loss in biodiversity lies in bringing human population growth down . If the human population increases to 10 billion , as some demographers believe that it will, the consequences for the natural world will be frightening . 24 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

25. 3. POLLUTION Another major factor that decreases biodiversity is pollution, which can directly kill many kinds of animals and plants , seriously reducing their population. 4. CLIMATE CHANGE • Pollution destroys or alters habitats, which consequences just as severe as those caused by deliberate conversions. • Most of the global pollution problems can be traced to the industrialized world . 25 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

26. 5. EXOTIC SPECIES (migrants) An exotic species is a species introduced into an area from somewhere else, often a different continent . Exotic species threaten biodiversity by spreading diseases, acting as predator or parasite , competing or hybridizing with native species and altering habitat . The transportation of species by human has occurred throughout history, 26 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

27. 6. OVERUSE Overuse is another major assault against wild species responsible for recent extinction . Overuse is driven by combination of greed, ignorance and desperation. Another form of overuse is the human usage in wildlife and in products derived from wild species . 27 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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29. CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation methods can help protect and restore ecosystems . It is of utmost importance for us to develop quick and effective ways to protect species from extinction. If we fail to conserve the species facing extinction now , we are paving the way for easier and faster depletions in the future . We will live in a domesticated world lacking wild biodiversity WWF & WCU organisation are active for conservation of biodiversity at world level . The most major threats to biodiversity: Human Disregard and Carelessness Population Growth: Estimates forecast a 7% increase in number of threatened species by 2020, and a 14% increase by 2050. We must abate growth to conserve biodiversity on a global scale. We must consider very carefully any species we eliminate or insert into an ecosystem. 29 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

30. In general biodiversity is generally disturbed by human activities . To solve the problems , it is essential to protect our bio diversity by two ways. 1. In-situ or on-site conversion 2. Ex-situ conservation 30 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

31. In-situ conservation: Conservation of species in its natural habitat , in place where the species normally occurs The strategy involves establishing small or large protected areas , called protected areas Today in world, there are 9800 protected areas and 1500 national parks Methods: Nature or biosphere reserves ( Eg ) Nilgiri Bio reserve National parks and sanctuaries ( Eg ) Mudumalai , vedanthangal On farm and home garden conservation for plants, vegetables and fruits to maintain traditional crop varieties. 31 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

32. Ex- situ conservation : - It involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and animal species under partially or wholly controlled conditions in zoos, gardens and laboratories The crucial issue for conservation is to identify those species which are more at risk of extinction . Methods : - Long term captive breeding Shortage term propagation and release Animal translocation and re-introductions Seed bank Reproductive technology - Embryo transfer technology, Cloning 32 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

33. Assignment Dr.VIJAYASARATHY 33 Discuss on the following topics National parks, Wild life sanctuaries Zoological gardens Gene banks Pollen culture Ecological restoration Social forestry.

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36. FOREST ECOSYSTEM Introduction :- A forest is an area with a high density of trees . World’s total land area is 13,076 million hectares - (Source: FAO; 1989) of which total forests account for about 31% of the world’s land area. In India , the forest cover is roughly 19% of the total land area . The forest ecosystems are of great concern from the environmental point of view. 36 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

37. IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEM It provides numerous environmental services like; Nutrient cycling Maintaining biodiversity Providing wildlife habitat Affecting rainfall patterns Regulating stream flow Storing water Reducing flooding Preventing soil erosion Reclaiming degraded land & many more…. 37 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

38. Apart from environmental values, forest ecosystems have some traditional values as well. Examples are : - Fire Wood & Timber Fruits Gums Herbs & drugs 38 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

39. Structure and Function of Forest Ecosystem I. Biotic components The various biotic components, representatives from the three functional groups, of a forest ecosystem are , PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS & DECOMPOSERS . Producer Organisms In a forest, the producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different kinds depending upon the type of forest developed in that climate. Apart from trees, climbers, epiphytes, shrubs and ground vegetation. Dominant species of trees in major types of forest ecosystems are: Tectona grandis , Acer, Betula , Picea , Pine, Cedrus . 39 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

40. 2) Consumers In a forest consumers are of three main types:- Primary Consumers: These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers. Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree leaves. Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc. grazing on shoots and/or fruits of trees. b) Secondary Consumers These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers. Eg : Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes. c) Tertiary Consumer These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary consumers. These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger 40 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

41. 3) Decomposers :- These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like Bacteria (Bacillus Sp., Clostridium sp., pseudomonas. Fungi ( Aspergillus sp., Ganoderma sp., Fusarium . Actinomycetes ( Streptomyces ). They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes place. Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse. II. Abiotic components These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & atmosphere. In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests. 41 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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43. DESERT ECOSYSTEM Introduction A desert is a landscape or region that receives almost no precipitation.  Deserts are defined as areas with an average annual precipitation of less than 250 millimeters per year.  It occupies about 17% of the earth’s surface.  Deserts are characterized by hot days & cold nights.  The deserts of the world are mainly located in the South- western United States, Mexico, North America, Asia ( Thar , Gobi, Tibet) & west Asia.  Deserts are characterized by scanty flora & fauna.  Soils of deserts often have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter. 43 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

44. Sturucture and Functions of Desert Ecosystms I. Biotic components Producer Organisms In a desert, producers are mainly shrubs/bushes; some grasses & a few trees. Dominant plant species include: Succulents (water - retaining plants adapted to arid climate or soil conditions) & hardy grasses. Besides some lower plants such as lichens & xerophytic mosses are also present. Consumer Organisms These include animals such as insects, reptiles which are capable of living in xeric conditions Besides some nocturnal rodents, birds & some mammalians like camel etc are also found. 44 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

45. 3) Decomposers Due to poor vegetation with very low amount of dead organic matter, decomposers are poor in desert ecosystem. The common decomposers are some bacteria & fungi, most of which are thermophillic . II. Abiotic components Due to high temperature & very low rainfall, the organic substances are poorly present in the soil. 45 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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47. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM Introduction Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants. Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface. Grasslands occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for deserts The annual rainfall ranges between 25- 75 cm, Usually seasonal The principal grasslands include: Prairies (Canada, USA),Pampas (South America),Steppes (Europe & Asia), Veldts (Africa) The highest abundance & greatest diversity of large mammals are found in these ecosystems. The dominant animal species include Wild horses, asses & antelope of Eurasia, Herds of Bison of America; and The antelope & other large herbivores of Africa. 47 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

48. Structure and functions of Grassland Ecosystems Biotic components Producer Organisms In grassland, producers are mainly grasses; though, a few herbs & shrubs also contribute to primary production of biomass. Some of the most common species of grasses are: Brachiaria sp., Cynodon sp., Desmodium sp., Digitaria sp. 2) Consumers In a grassland, consumers are of three main types; Primary Consumers The primary consumers are herbivores feeding directly on grasses. These are grazing animals such as Cows, Buffaloes, Sheep, Goats, Deer, Rabbits etc. Besides them, numerous species of insects, termites, etc are also present. 48 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

49. b) Secondary Consumers These are carnivores that feed on primary consumers (Herbivores) These include;-Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, Birds, Foxes, Jackals etc. c) Tertiary Consumers These include hawks etc. which feed on secondary consumers. 3) Decomposers These include wide variety of saprotrophic micro- organism like: Bacteria; Fungi; Actinomycetes They attract the dead or decayed bodies of organisms & thus decomposition takes place. Therefore, nutrients are released for reuse by producers. 49 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

50. II. Abiotic components These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the soil & aerial environment. The essential elements like C, H, N, O, P, S etc. are supplied by water, nitrogen, nitrates, sulphates , phosphates present in soil & atmosphere. 50 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

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52. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS Introduction Aquatic ecosystems deal with biotic community present in water bodies. In terrestrial ecosystem, carbon dioxide & oxygen are present in gaseous form whereas in aquatic ecosystem, these are available in dissolved state. Depending upon the quality and nature of water, the aquatic ecosystem are categorized into: o Freshwater Ecosystem and o Marine Ecosystem. Freshwater Ecosystem Freshwater ecosystems cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total water. Freshwater ecosystems contain 41% of the world's known fish species. Aquatic ecosystems perform many important environmental functions. For example: 52 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

53. They recycle nutrients, purify water, attenuate floods, recharge ground water and provide habitats for wildlife. Aquatic ecosystems are also used for human recreation, and are very important to the tourism industry, especially in coastal region. There are three basic types of freshwater ecosystems: Lentic : slow-moving water, including Pools, Ponds, and Lakes. Lotic : rapidly-moving water, for example Streams and Rivers. Wetlands: areas where the soil is saturated with water or inundated for at least part of the time 53 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

54. LAKES & POND ECOSYSTEM A pond is a place where living organisms not only live but interact with biotic & abiotic components. Ponds are often exposed to tremendous anthropogenic pressure which significantly affects the system. Lakes are usually big standing freshwater bodies. They have a shallow water zone called Littoral zone; an open water zone where effective penetration of solar light takes place, called limnetic zone and a deep water zone where light penetration is negligible, called Profoundal zone. 54 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

55. Biotic components Producer Organisms It includes submerged, free floating and amphibious macrophytes (like; Hydrilla , Utricularia , Wolfia , Azolla , Typha etc.) and minute floating and suspended lower phytoplanktons (like; Ulothrix , Spirogyra, Oedogonium etc.) 2) Consumer Organisms a) Primary consumers:These are zooplanktons (ciliates, flagellates, other protozoan, small crustaceans) and benthos. b) Secondary consumers: These are carnivores like insects and fishes feeding on herbivores c) Tertiary consumers: These are the large fishes feeding on small fishes. 3) Decomposers Micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi and actinomyctes . II. Abiotic component These are the inorganic as well as organic substances present in the bottom soil or dissolved in water. In addition, to the minerals, some dead organic matter is also present. 55 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

56. MARINE OR OCEAN ECOSYSTEM Marine ecosystems are among the Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include: Oceans, Estuaries and Lagoons, Mangroves and Coral reefs, the Deep sea and the Sea floor. These are the gigantic reservoirs of water covering approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (an area of some 361 million square kilometers). These ecosystems are different from freshwater ecosystem mainly because of its salty water. The salt concentration in an open sea is usually 3.5% (35 parts per thousand ( ppt )). Dominant ions are sodium & chloride. Average temperature of Marine ecosystem is 2-3 degree centigrade, devoid of light. 56 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

57. Biotic components Producers It includes phytoplanktons (diatoms, dinoflagillates ), large seaweeds (mainly algae like chlorophyceae , phaeophyceae & rhodophyceae ; angiosperms like Ruppia , Zostera , posidonia ), and mangrove vegetation (like Rhizophora , Carapa etc.) 2) Consumers Primary consumers: These are herbivores and feed directly on producers (Crustaceans, Mollusks, fish etc.) Secondary consumers: These are carnivorous fishes (Herring, Sahd and Mackerel) Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivorous fishes (Cod, Haddock, etc.) 3) Decomposers These are micro – organisms like bacteria, fungi. 57 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

58. II. Abiotic components High Na, Ca, Mg and K salt concentration, variable dissolved oxygen content, light & temperature make a unique physiochemical conditions in marine water. 58 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY

59. SIGNIFICANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS The food relationship among the different organisms in an ecosystem The food chains are the living components of the biosphere These are the vehicles of transfer of energy from one level to another Through the food chains, transfer of materials and nutrients also takes place The movement of some toxic substances (like DDT) in the ecosystem, sprayed to kill the pests and insects, through the various trophic levels, their accumulation at the highest trophic level, etc. can be studied. 59 Dr.VIJAYASARATHY