Sports-Psychology-Module-2. includes preparing a Fitness/ Training Plan

Sport psychology topics for whole quarter

1. Sports and Exercise
Psychology –
Module 2
DR. MARY LYNN E. VERANO
Subject Professor
1

2. GROUP DYNAMICS OF
PERFORMANCE
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Groups and teams –their impact upon performance
and the pursuit of balanced active and healthy
lifestyles
Leadership and the role of a leader in physical
activities
Social facilitation and inhibition –the effects of an
audience and other participants on performance
and lifestyle behaviors.
2

3. GROUP DYNAMICS
The process of individuals
working within a group and
the relationships that may
exist between several groups
3

4. The ways in which group cohesion can be
developed
The influence group dynamics can have on
an individual’s attitude and motivation when
relating to the pursuit of a balanced, healthy
and active lifestyle.
McGrath (1984), interaction within the group is
the defining factor. In order for interaction to
take place, mutual awareness must exist
between group members.
4

5. Properties
of groups
Collective
identify
Group
unity
Shared
purpose
A
common
goal
Structured
patterns of
communica
tion
-McGrath
proposed that as
groups must be
small enough to
allow
interdependence.
-Carron and
Davies (1998) also
highlighted the
existence of
mutual
interdependence
as being central
to the makeup of
a group
5
Groups should
have:

6. Group Performance
STEINER’S MODEL
6

7. STEINER’S MODEL
Actual Productivity = Potential
Productivity –losses due to
Faulty Processes
( AP = PP –FP)
7

8. Actual productivity is the team
performance at a given time during a
game or event and refers to the
extent of successful interaction.
Potential productivity is the maximum
capability of the group when
cohesiveness appears at its strongest.
Faulty processes mean the factors
which can go wrong in team
performance.
8

9. Two faulty processes that bring
about losses in potential
productivity
1.Co-ordination losses
(the Ringlemann
effect)
2.Motivation losses
(Social loafing)
9

10. Co-ordination losses
(Ringlemanneffect)
Any breakdown in teamwork
These losses occur because the
operational effectiveness of the group
as a unit cannot be sustained for the
duration of a match.
Ringlemannstated that problems in
team co-ordination are more likely to
occur as the team numbers increase.
10

11. Motivation losses (social
loafing)
This relate to an individual who suffers
a decrease in motivation during
performance causing the player to
withdraw effort and ‘coast’ through a
period of play or even the whole
game.
Social loafing would prevent team co-
ordination and inhibit team cohesion.
11

12. Negative influences that can cause social
loafing and lead to DYSFUNCTIONAL behavior in
the context of group dynamics
The feeling that others in the team are not trying may
cause an individual to make less effort
‘Social loafing’ will arise if a player feels that their
performance is never watched or valued by the
coach.
A player with low self-confidence will develop a
strategy of social loafing to protect their self-esteem.
A player who has suffered a negative experience,
possibly in the form of failure, or has been the recipient
of negative attribution will tend to ‘loaf’.
A loss of motivation occurs if a task is perceived to be
too difficult. This links to ‘avoidance behavior’
12

13. Other factors that adversely affect
teamwork include the following:
Injury can disrupt team strategies and break down co-
ordination
A lack of incentive to produce team work will prevent
cohesion
Vague individual roles inhibit effective teamwork
Low sum of the players’ overall ability makes team
play difficult to achieve
Personality can influence team cohesion as people
with low trait confidence find it difficult to promote
group cohesion
Inadequate leadership inhibits teamwork.
13

14. Answer this!
Analyze a game situation (preferably played by
your school or university)
1. Then, identify (A) situation when group
cohesion facilitated good play; (B)
circumstances when team play broke down
due to the onset of faulty processes
2. Discuss how the coach could prevent the
ringlemanneffect (co-ordination losses) and
social loafing (motivation losses) from occurring.
14

15. Factors affecting the
formation and development
of a cohesive group or team
15

16. TWO TYPE OF COHESION
TASK COHESION
SOCIAL COHESION
16

17. TASK COHESION
Is most important in
interactive sports and
activities.
Relates to the way team
members work with each
other to complete a task
successfully.
17

18. SOCIAL COHESION
Is most important in co-active
sports or activities.
Involves the formation of
personal relationships within the
group that provide the
individual with support and
friendship.
18

19. Interactive sports and activities –
sports or activities such as basketball,
football and sepaktakrawin which
team members work together and rely
on each other.
Co-active sports or activities –sports
or activities such as athletics,
equestrian activities and aerobic
exercise classes in which individual
performance is required.
Sub-groups–small groups contained
within the whole group
19

20. FOUR FACTORS AFFECTING TEAM
COHESION (Carron, 1993)
1.Situational factors
2.Individual factors
3.Leadership factors
4.Team factors
20

21. Situational factors
Include elements of the
specific situation and
environment in which
the team will operate.
21

22. Individual factors
Refers to the characteristics
of the team members. The
motivation level and the
experience of the
individual members are
example of individual
factors.
22

23. Leadership factors
Involves the style of leadership
preferred by the group.
Leadership styles are determine
by the task, the position of the
leader and the relationship
between the leader and group
members.
23

24. Team factors
Include collective team
goals, good
communication and
record of shared
success.
24

25. FACTORS AFFECTING PARTICIPATION IN A
GROUP OR TEAM
Allocation of clear roles given to each player can help an
individual to feel valued.
Participation in team-building exercise is good both for task and
social cohesion
An evaluation of each member’s performance effectively reduces
social loafing
The punishment of non-team or non-cohesive players will highlight
the importance of group cohesion
The selection of team players rather than players who are
interested only in their own performance promotes cohesion
Development of team goals helps to clarify ho who team
standards encourage effectiveness
Rehearsal of set plays during practice facilitates group co-
ordination
The reinforcement of team success effectively gives team
efficiency as the reason
Strong leadership will actively encourage group cohesion
25

26. GROUP AND TEAM EFFECTS ON
BEHAVIOR
It has been found (spinkand corron, 1994) that
increase levels of group cohesion help an
individual to commit to and persist with exercise
program.
Group affinity, Tajfel(social identity theory, 1978)
proposed that thnorms and values of the group
are looked upon positively by an individual if they
are a member of the group.
‘groupthink’ proposed by Janis, (1982) stated that
by becoming overly strong, group cohesion can
stifle individually and participation
26

27. Leadership and the role of a
leader in physical activities
The importance of effective leadership
Leadershipmay be considered as a behavioral
process that influences individuals and groups
towards set goals.
Leaderhas the dual function of ensuring player
satisfaction while steering the individual or group to
success.
Multi-dimensional model(Chelladurai, 1978), a style
of leadership that satisfies the needs of individual
performers while achieving the group goal can be a
positive influence on lifestyle behavior.
27

28. THE QUALITIES OF A
LEADER
UNDERSTANDING OF THE NEEDS OF OTHERS
MOTIVATION
HIGHLY DEVELOPED PERCEPTUAL AND DECISION -
MAKING SKILLS
AMBITION
EMPATHY WITH TEAM MEMBERS
EXPERIENCE
VISION
GOOD COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CHARISMA
28

29. CHARACTERISTICS OF
LEADERS
1.Task-orientated or autocratic
leaders
2.Social or person-orientated
leaders, also referred to as
democratic leaders
3.Laissez-faire leaders
29

30. THE AUTOCRATIC LEADER
Tends to make all of the
decisions and is motivated to
complete the task as quickly
and effectively as possible
Will not delegate
responsibility and focuses on
group performance and
achieving goals.
30

31. THE DEMOCRATIC LEADER
Share the decisions with the
group and is often ready to
delegate responsibility.
Believes in consultation and is
interested in developing
meaningful interpersonal
relationships within the team.
31

32. Table 1 Favorableness of a
situation
A highlyfavorable situationA highly unfavorable situation
Leader’s position is strong Leader’s positionis weak
Task is simple with clear
structure
Task is complexwith vague
structure
Warm group and leader
relations
Hostile group and leader
relations
32

33. Table 2 a comparison of democratic
and autocratic leadership styles
Autocratic leadershipis preferable : Democraticleadership is preferable:
When groups are hostile and discipline is
needed
When groups are friendlyand
relationships are warm
If groups are large If groups are small
For team playerswho prefer an
instructional approach
In activities that require interpersonal
communication
In the earlyor cognitive stage of learningWhen the autonomousstage of learning
has been achieved and the performer is
expert
In dangerous situations In situationwhere there is no threat of
danger
When there aretime constraints When there are no constraintson time
If the leader’s personalityis inclined to be
authoritarian
If the leader’s personality is inclinedto be
democratic
When theleader is male; men prefer an
autocratic approach
Whenthe leader is female; women prefer
a democratic approach
33

34. LAISSEZ-FAIRE LEADERSHIP
STYLE
The leader will stand aside and allow the
group to make its own independent
decisions.
Lewin, (1985) found that when subjected to
this style of leadership, group member were
inclined to be aggressive toward each
other and gave up easily when mistakes
occurred.
34

35. EMERGENT AND
PRESCRIBED LEADERS
The term ‘emergent’ and ‘prescribed’ refer to
the background against which a leader is
chosen
An emergent leader already belongs to the
group. Selection to the position of authority
can be formal through voting or the role is
assumed and the leader is readily accepted
by the group
A prescribed leader is selected from outside
of the group and is an external appointment.
35

36. A critical evaluation of
leadership theories
TRAIT APPROACH
Trait theorists believe that leaders are born
with the capacity to take charge. Such traits
may include intelligence, assertiveness and
self-confidence.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Social Learning theorists propose that all
behavior is learned. Learning comes about
through contact with environmental forces.
36

37. INTERACTIONIST THEORY
Leadership skills emerge because of a
combination of inherited abilities and learned
skills. Leadership skills are likely to emerge and
be acquired when a situation triggers the
traits that are of importance to leadership.
MULTI-DIMENTIONAL MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
Chelladuri(1978) identified three influences
that interact to produce effective leadership:
1. The leader’s qualities
2. Situation characteristics
3. Member characteristics
37

38. Fig. Chelladurai: three aspects
of effective leadership
Effective
leadership
The leader’s
qualities
Situation
characteristics
Member
characteristics
38

39. Chelladuraiproposed that the
effectiveness of leadership could be
judged upon two outcomes:
1.The degree of success
accomplished during a task
2.The extent to which the group
experienced satisfaction
during the process of
achieving the goal.
39

40. 40
Situational
characteristics
Leader
characteristics
Member
characteristics
Required
behavior
Actual behavior
Preferred
behavior
Group
performance/
group
satisfaction
Fig. MULTI-DEMENSIONAL
MODEL OF SPORTS
LEADERSHIP

41. Situational characteristics are
environmental conditions
The type of activity in which the group
members are involved
The numbers involved in the team
The time constrains of the play or
overall match
Considerations about the strengths of
the opposition
41

42. Leader characteristics
The skill and experience of the
leader
The personality of the leader,
which may well be inclined
either towards a person-or a
task-orientated style.
42

43. Group member
characteristics.
The factors relating to members
could involve:
Age
Gender
Motivation
Competence
Experience
43

44. 44
REQUIRED BEHAVIOR
Involves what ought to be done by
the leader in certain situations. The
leader’s behavior may be dictated
by a playing strategy or organization
system
ACTUAL BEHAVIOR
What the leader chooses to do as
the best course or action in the
given situation. Greatly influenced
by the competence of the leader
PREFERRED BEHAVIOR
Concerns what the group of athletes
want the leader to do. The leadership
style preferred by the group is usually
determined by the members
characteristics.

45. Table. Explanation of Multi-dimensional
Leadership Model
Leader behavior Extentof group
performance and
satisfaction
Degree of
congruence
Actual leaderbehavior is the
required behavior to complete
the group task successfully and
is also the type of leadership
that is preferred by the group
Outcome It is predicted that inthese
circumstances the group will
perform effectively and the
satisfaction of the group members
will be high
Degreeof
congruence
Actualleader behavior is the
required behavior to complete
the group task successfully but is
not the type of leadership that is
preferred by the group
Outcome It is predictedthat in these
circumstances the group will
perform effectively but the
satisfaction of the group members
will be low
Degree of
congruence
Actualleaders behavior is not
the required behavior to
complete the group task
successfully but is the type of
leadership that is preferred by
the group
Outcome It is predicted that in these
circumstancesthe group will
perform ineffectively but the
satisfaction of the group members
will be high
45

46. Table . Five categories of leadership
(Chelladuraiand saleh, 1980)
Categoryof
leadership
Explanation
Training and
instruction
behavior
Improving the performance of athletes through hard
training strenuous conditioning. Instruction will be given on
tactics and techniques.
Democratic
behavior
The leader allows group members to become involved in
decision making with regard to strategies,practice
methods and group goals.
Autocratic
behavior
As seen previously, autocraticbehavior I task-centered
and the decisions are made by the leader without group
consultation.
Social support
behavior
Concernsis displayed by the leader for the welfare of
individual group members. This behavior is characterized
by warm relations with individual members.
Rewarding
behavior
Positivefeedback rewards good individual and group
performance. This behavior reinforces the value of
cohesion.
46

47. Social facilitation and
inhibition
The presence of other people influences the
performance of the individual.
When arousal, stimulated by the presence of
an audience, is positive and performance is
as a result enhanced, social facilitation is said
to have taken place. Conversely, social
inhibitionis the term given when audience-
induced arousal has a negative effect on
performance.
47

48. Current belief relating to audience effects
is based around two psychological
theories:
Drive theory of social facilitation
(Zajonc, 1965)
Evaluation apprehension theory
(Cottrell, 1968)
48

49. Drive theory of social
facilitation (Zajonc, 1965)
Proposed that the presence of others in
itself is arousing and the arousal
enhances the production of dominant
responses as opposed to subordinate
responses.
Actions that have been already learned
are termed ‘learned behavior’ and tend
to be our dominant responses.
49

50. 50
Mere presence
of others;
passive others
Co-actors,
non-
threatening
fellow
performers
Audience, a
passive,
possibly silent,
but interested
group
Co-active
competitors
Emotive
supporters
Interactive
others
Present others
Fig. Zojanc’smodel
of the drive theory
of social facilitation

51. Evaluation apprehension
theory (Cottrell, 1968)
‘mere presence’ of others was not
sufficiently arousing to produce the
social facilitation effect.
Only evident when the performer
perceived that the audience was
assessing or judging a performance.
Hence, termed ‘evaluation
apprehension’.
51

52. HOME ADVANTAGE
EFFECT
Large supportive home crowds
are believe to provide the home
team with an advantage.
Very powerful influence and it
appears to become stronger as
the size of the audience increase
(Nevilland Cann, 1998)
52

53. PROXIMITY EFFECT
Schwartz (1975) proposed that
location of the audience in relation to
performance was an important factor
in social facilitation.
Performers will experience the effect
more intensely if the audience is close.
May have either a facilitating or an
inhibitory influence.
53

54. DISTRACTION –CONFLICT
THEORY
Baron (1989) proposed that the limitations of
the performer’s attentionalcapacity can
explain the effect of an audience.
Baron proposed that spectators demand
the same amount of attention as would
data from the sports situation. This added
distraction is yet more competition for
attentionalspace.
54

55. STRATEGIES TO COMBAT THE EFFECTS OF
SOCIAL INHIBITION IN PRACTICAL
ACTIVITIES
Selective attention would narrow the focus of the
performer onto the relevant cues.
Mental rehearsal and imagery could enhance
concentration and help to block out the audience,
which can be source of inhibition
The athlete would be advised to engage in positive
self-talk to block out negative thoughts that may
have been induced by the presence of an
audience.
Practice could be undertaken in the presence of an
audience and this would help the athlete to become
accustomed to the effects spectators may have on
arousal levels.
55

56. The performer should ensure that skills are
over-learned and have become grooved
to become dominant behavior.
Confidence-building strategies should be
implemented as high self-efficacy will
reduce inhibition
Positive reinforcement and social support
from the coach and team mates will
reduce anxiety that may be experienced
when performing for an audience.
Confidence could also be increased by
appropriate use of attribution
The athlete should be made aware of how
concentration is maximized when the ideal
level of arousal is achieved.
56