technological developments in law enforcement

technology development in law enforcement

1. Topic 4: TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS & FUTURE TRENDS IN LAW ENFORCEMENT PREPARED BY: MUHAMMAD KHAIRI AIZUDDIN BIN HAMSAR BLS HONS, LL.B HONS MC/44963 - Micro Credential in Introduction to Law Enforcement

2. Learning Outcome Apply the emerging techonological developments to tackle issues and challenges in law enforcement (PLO2, C3)

3. Tools of the past

4. Historically police agents were armed only with a nightstick in the United States or a baton or truncheon in Europe. The adoption of firearms by police was once a contentious issue in terms of the power of the state to arm against its people, and first occurred in the United States, arguably as a result of the embedded nature of firearms in American culture (Johnson 1981). In England the firearm was adopted considerably later on, and the police there were not visibly armed until a shoot-out took place involving two anarchists in 1911 ( Manwaring -White 1983).

5. Fundamental Policing Technologies: Weapons and Communications In terms of technology, police agents were traditionally outfitted only with a truncheon or baton and a rattle for raising the alarm (Johnson 1981). These early police were largely on their own upon leaving the police station since the technologies of the time did not allow for communication between officers patrolling their beats and their command structure. Due to the lack of communication technology at the time, there was also little ability to coordinate officers on patrol or to keep account of the officers' actions while on the streets. 

6. Major advances in the history of policing and technology have taken place with respect to communications technology.  Police in the 1830s relied on the rattle, whistle, or loud shout in order to alert other officers in the area to come their assistance (Stewart 1994; Johnson 1981). As a result, the station could not coordinate nor direct its officers on the streets, the officers could not report on situations on the streets until they returned, nor ask for assistance. 

7. From the late 19 th  century onwards, important advances in communications technology began to be adopted by the police.  While today the police call box has been subsumed by the widespread use of the radio and telephone, and is perhaps more recognizable as the transportation of the time- traveling Doctor in the BBC series  Dr. Who , it was once a major advancement in police communication (Stewart 1994). Example : The first police telephones were installed in Albany, New York in 1877 and were used to connect the five districts with the mayor's office. Similarly, in the United Kingdom telephones were first used to connect police in 1880, and by 1886 the emergency phone system had connected all of the police and fire stations in Glasgow in the United Kingdom.

8. The developments in the history of police and technology have been largely influenced by the changing conditions that the new technologies created, as well as the bureaucratic drive of the police towards adopting standards of efficiency in policing. The advances in technology facilitated the development of the institutional autonomy of police institutions from politics, since the development of communications technology lead to greater reporting to headquarters and thereby created superior professional officers instead of politically loyal servants (Johnson 1981).

9. Contemporary tools in law enforcement

10. Advances in intelligence gathering intelligence-led policing is an approach to policing that turns away from the traditionally reactive style used in the past, to a proactive framework that focuses on employing analysis and criminal intelligence in order to reduce crime and to combat prolific recidivist offenders (Ratcliffe, 2009). intelligence can be used in crime prevention and investigations, can determine the extent of problems, and can guide decision makers to potential solutions to any problem area of law enforcement (Smith, 1997)

11. Strategic intelligence allows law enforcement agencies to prioritise resources and develop effective enforcement strategies, instead of purely reacting and managing crime as it happens. The intelligence-led model has been described as top-down perspective that emphasises the hierarchical nature of policing agencies.

12. Stages in intelligence cycle The first stage in the intelligence cycle is ‘Collection'. Information collection is the directed, focused gathering of information, through overt and covert means, through all possible sources, which can include information that is methodically sought out and collected; information that is collected as a result of a separate policing operation; and information that is volunteered to the law enforcement agencies.

13. Stage two is ‘Recording and Evaluation. Information that has been collected must be consistently recorded onto standardised computer systems so that the information can be efficiently retrieved and exchanged with internal and external partners. All the information is examined to evaluate the reliability of the source and the accuracy of the information. 

14. The third stage of the intelligence cycle is deemed to be the ‘heart' of the cycle. ‘Research, Development and Analysis' involves interpreting the information and converting it into usable intelligence through analysis by trained intelligence practitioners. This process goes ‘beyond the facts', with analysts developing theories, or hypotheses, and testing them with additional information 

15. the fourth stage of the intelligence cycle, ‘Production'.  These products can include Target Profiles, Problem Profiles and Tactical and Strategic Assessments. Intelligence is of no value if it does not result in intelligence products as these products are created to help the managerial decision making process and guide investigators to possible solutions to crime problems. 

16. Intelligence gathering approach Crimestoppers is an intelligence gathering approach often used in intelligence-led policing models that allows the community to feel involved in the policing of their neighbourhoods, whilst simultaneously acting as an intelligence gathering tool (National Policing Improvement Agency, 2007) Crimestoppers is a confidential means for the public to report crime, criminal behaviour and suspicious activities to the police. Law enforcement agencies can then record, research, develop and analyse information gathered to then identify trends, hotspots, crime groups, targets, fill intelligence gaps and contribute to further intelligence products (National Policing Improvement Agency, 2007,Chantler& Thorne, 2009)

17. Advances in investigation techniques Other technological advances facilitated criminal investigation, such as photography, anthropometry, and fingerprinting.  Two technologies developed around the late 19 th  century which would bring about drastic advances in the area of criminal identification. The first to be implemented was the Bertillonage, or anthropometry, system which categorized criminals by the measurements of their bodies (Cole 2001; Deflem 2002b; Johnson 1981).

18. Bertillon also developed a filing system which grouped criminals by eleven key measurements grouped into three general categories: body, head, and appendages (Johnson 1981). Bertillon's final advancement was the so-called ‘ portrait parlé’  or spoken portrait,   which reduced the criminal's description to a language which could be easily transmitted via telegraph or telephone (Cole 2001). As a result of the anthropometric system, a criminal's identity could be confirmed, regardless of the name they presented, by matching their bodily measurements with those on file. 

19. Fingerprint technologies were explicitly developed to develop a classification system useful for law enforcement. Similar to the  portrait parlé , fingerprints were described numerically on the basis of certain specified characteristics in order to facilitate their transmission via telegraph ( Deflem 2002b).

20. The anthropometric system developed by Bertillon remained dominant for several years, but eventually fingerprinting would gradually overtake this system as the primary means for identifying criminals. Fingerprinting had several advantages to the anthropometric system in that they were quicker and did not require skilled labor or specialized instruments (Cole 2001). Fingerprints were advantageous since they offered industrial-style speed, efficiency, productivity, and economy over the anthropometric system

21. Technologies of criminal identification initially developed as a means to identify recidivists. However, in the course of their development, one of the most well-known forms of forensic identification, fingerprinting, also came to be developed. These technologies had to be revised and expanded in view of the adaptive behavior of offenders. Attempting to avoid identification because of prior convictions, offenders would give false names to avoid the harsher penalties that were given to recidivists. This development in itself was a function of the increasing size and mobility of society, moving away from the small community wherein everyone was easily recognizable. This societal mobility, as well as the newly developed forms of criminal identification, were key elements to the growing internationalization of policing which developed to confront the growing class of criminals without borders.

22. Surveillance Technologies Represent the wide array of systems currently available to law enforcement, the military, and even private entities, to track the movements of individuals and/or provide capable guardianship to a specific location. Examples: CCTV GPS Biometrics APIS systems

23. Close-Circuit Television (CCTV) The use of CCTV has grown significantly in recent years as not only police departments, but also airport security and other public entities. CCTV is particularly popular after the events of September 11. CCTV used by law enforcement agencies as a means of trying to sort through the tremendous traffic at our borders, airports and dense city streets.

24. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) Have been used to enhance the tracking of offenders and officer deployments. GPS used satellite-based technologies for the purpose of tracking the movement of patrol cars or specially equipped stolen vehicles. GPS also enhance aerial photography of crime incident locations, allowing for greater visualization of the complete context of a situation.

25. Biometrics Involve the automatic, real time identification of individuals based on their physiology or behavior. Biometrics covers a diversity of technologies, including: voice/speech recognition, finger-print scanning, lip movement recognition, retinal scanning, facial recognition software, DNA profiling and thermal imagery.

26. Internal perspectives dictating change

27. Emerging developments What happen now? In 10 years, what happen? Introduction to Law Enforcement (LEA 123) 27

28. EMERGING DEVELOPMENTS “In the year 2525, if man is still alive, if woman can survive, they may find…” that policing has transformed far more in the fifteen years between 2010 and 2525 than in several preceding generations. The most significant trend will continue to be the application of technology to law enforcement, manifest in nearly every facet of policing. Technology will help solve crimes, prevent crimes, and facilitate crimes that haven’t yet been conceived. Evolving human factors will equally impact law enforcement as the nation’s population ages, immigration increases and minority group fertility rates skyrocket.

29. IMPACTS AFFECTING ORGANIZATIONAL CAPABILITIES Hi-tech Crime Fighting   The core of intelligence-led policing is identification of specific criminal activities or specific criminal populations and targeted enforcement against the highest-risk crimes or criminals to achieve overall reduction in the impact of crime in a community. It is essentially risk management applied to law enforcement. In one of the early works advocating intelligence-led policing, author Mark Riebling encouraged police officers to become more like spies. But just where does the intelligence come from?

30. The human element of intelligence-led policing involves the intelligence analyst. How many police departments even had an intelligence analyst a decade ago? Now even my own small agency of about 40 has a full-time intelligence analyst with a professional background as an attorney and trainer. As we move into the next decade, intelligence analysts will become more common at smaller- and mid-sized police agencies, and are already absolute requisites for effective larger agencies.

31. Not only does that mean that police administrators and command staff must develop new areas of familiarity and forge new networks, but it also implies that the increasingly professional intelligence analyst will continue to gain prominence in the police agency. As police agencies make basic changes in gathering, assessing, communicating and sharing information, the analyst will be at the center of systems development and management.

32. In the past few years, more state legislatures and state supreme courts have created statutes and evidentiary rules that either mandate or strongly encourage audio or video recording of interrogations. More than half the states now have some rule on this topic. In 2010, that number is expected to grow.

33. In FUTURE watch for: Expanded employment opportunities for police intelligence analysts, even in the face of a continuing recession and declining tax revenues  Further professional development for intelligence analysts and growth of existing intelligence analyst associations and new degree tracks in intelligence analysis  More public surveillance cameras and use of facial recognition software  Advances and simplification of DNA collection and more rapid testing methods  Court decisions that further guide eyewitness identification methods and a changes to evidentiary rules that create an incentive to record interrogations  Improved technology in wearable cameras and significantly greater use of wearable cameras

34. external perspectives dictating change

35. Changes to the criminal law regime Statutes or acts : Penal code Criminal procedure code Demand management : Forensic Crime scene investigation International law applied

36. RELATIONSHIPS WITH THE COMMUNITY Community policing relies on an intimate relationship between police and citizens. This is accomplished in a variety of ways: relatively long-term assignment of officers to beats, programs that emphasize familiarity between citizens and police. Further, the police are restructuring their relationship with neighborhood groups and institutions.

37. Relationship with domestic partner agencies Police officer relationship In curbing the crime by using any technology instruments. Example : biometric for fingerprints

38. Relationship with international partner agencies Relation with international agencies. Example : FBI, CIA, PBB In combating international crime Example : extradition, human crime

39. Access to international intelligence and technology Access by Police Department, Maritime Agency and others. Access to : crime scene Example : MH 370, MH 17

40. THANK YOU

41. End of slides References: Karen Matison Hess, Christine Hess Orthmann , Henry Lim Cho - Introduction to Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice, 11 th Edition. Cengage Learning. Introduction to Law Enforcement (LEA 123) 41