The Planting Design Handbook 3rd Edition Nick Robinson

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6. THE PLANTING DESIGN HANDBOOK
Ever since its �rst edition, I have regarded The Planting Design Handbook as the standard
work on the method and process of planting design. But it is far more than that and stands
as an excellent and clear introduction to the principles of spatial design in its own right.
As a long-standing text, the book stands outside of the vagaries of any prevailing fashion
or trend. While holding on to its key strengths, this latest edition has been thoroughly
overhauled and updated to include current ecological and environmental approaches to
designing with plants that pervade the whole book, and it is illustrated throughout with
classic and contemporary examples. This book is an essential requirement for practitioners
and students of landscape architecture and garden design: a highly intelligent, rigorous and
practical guide to the art, science and ethics of planting design.
Professor Nigel Dunnett, Department of Landscape,
University of Shef�eld, UK
It has always been dif�cult to �nd academic texts on planting which do more than explore
the horticultural qualities, or just identify the aesthetic qualities of plants; this book does that,
looking beyond the aesthetics of planting as a medium. The �rst two editions introduced the
now well-established section on Design Methodology, ensuring planting design is rightly
part of the wider spatial design process. With the addition of new sections on herbaceous,
wild�ower and naturalistic perennial planting, this third edition of Nick Robinson’s
The Planting Design Handbook is now the most comprehensive and engaging volume on
the use of planting as a design medium.
David Booth, Faculty Head of Quality and Standards,
University of Gloucestershire, UK

7. To my parents, Arthur and Margaret Robinson

9. The Planting Design Handbook
Third Edition
NICK ROBINSON
Landscape architect, lecturer and plantsman
Illustrations by JIA-HUA WU

10. First published 2004
Third edition published 2016
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2016 Nick Robinson
The right of Nick Robinson to be identi�ed as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identi�cation and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN: 9781472415493 (hbk)
ISBN: 9781315554648 (ebk)
Typeset in Palatino
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

11. Contents
List of Figures xiii
List of Plates xix
List of Tables xxxvii
Preface to the Third Edition xxxix
Introduction 1
PART I   PRINCIPLES 5
1 Why Design? 7
Planting Design – an Expression of Function 8
Planting Design as Intervention in Ecological Processes 10
Planting Design for Aesthetic Pleasure 14
So What is Successful Planting Design? 15
Habitat Loss and Climate Change 16
2 Plants as a Medium for Design 19
Plants as Living Materials 19
Environmental In�uences 20
Cycles of Plant Growth and Development 22
Creative Management 24
The Landscape Designer’s View of Plants 26
Plants as Spatial Elements 26
Plants as Ornament 35
Plant Selection 36
Functional and Aesthetic Considerations in Design 37
Naturalness and Arti�ciality in Design 39

12. The Planting Design Handbook vi
3 Spatial Characteristics of Plants 41
Spatial Functions of Plants in the Human Landscape 41
Ground-level Planting (Carpeting Plants) 42
Shrubs and Herbaceous Plants Below Knee Height (Low Planting) 44
Knee- to Eye-level Planting (Medium-height Planting) 44
Planting Above Eye Level (Tall Shrub Planting) 46
Tree Planting 51
4 Creating Spaces with Plants 57
The Experience of Space 57
The Use of Spaces 59
The Elements of Spatial Composition 59
Enclosure 60
Degree of Enclosure 60
Permeability and Transparency of Enclosure 63
Dynamics 66
Shape 66
Vertical Proportion 70
Slope 72
Focus 73
Symmetric Focus 73
Asymmetric Focus 75
Focus on the Boundary 75
External Focus 76
5 Composite Landscape 79
Spatial Organizations 81
Linear Organizations 81
Clustered Organizations 82
Contained Organizations 87
Hierarchy of Spaces 91
Hierarchy According to Function 91
Transitions 94
Transitions Between Abutting Spaces 96
Transitions Between Interlocking Spaces 98
Transitional Spaces 98
Entrance Zones 99

13. Contents vii
6 Visual Properties of Plants 101
Subjective and Objective Responses to Plants 101
Visual Characteristics 103
Form 103
Form and Habit 104
Prostrate, Mat and Carpeting Forms 105
Hummock, Mounded and Dome Forms 106
Arching Form 108
Tussock, Tufted or Caespitose Form 109
Erect or Upright Form and Veil Planting 110
Palm Form 111
Succulents and Sculptural Form 112
Oval Upright Form 113
Conical, Columnar and Fastigiate Forms 114
Tabulate and Level-spreading Form 115
Open Irregular Form 116
Trained Form 116
Line and Pattern 118
Ascending Line 119
Pendulous Line 119
Horizontal Line 121
Diagonal Line 121
Quality of Line 122
Texture 123
Fine Texture 123
Coarse Texture 125
Medium Texture 126
Colour 126
Hue 127
Value 127
Saturation 128
Colour Perception 128
Colour Effects 129
Seasonal Colour 130
Visual Energy 131
Combining Plants 132

14. The Planting Design Handbook viii
7 Visual Composition 133
Five Principles of Visual Composition 133
Harmony and Contrast, Diversity and Unity 134
Balance 137
Emphasis and Accent 137
Sequence and Rhythm 140
Scale and Complexity 141
The In�uence of Movement and Viewing Angles
on Composition   144
Unity and Diversity in Planting Design 146
Ideas and Themes 146
Inspiration 156
8 Plant Assemblages 159
Plant Communities 159
Forest Structures 159
Two Principles – Ground Cover and Diversity 163
Typical Canopy Structures as Models for Design 164
Deciduous Cool Temperate Communities (North-west Europe and
North America) 166
Three-layer Canopy Structures 166
Two-layer Canopy Structures 170
Single-layer Canopy Structures 172
Layers Within Layers 175
Layering of Herbaceous Plant Communities 176
Evergreen Temperate/Subtropical Communities (New Zealand) 177
Four-layer Canopy Structures 178
Three-layer Structures 178
Two-layer Structures 180
Design Interpretation of Natural Ecologies 181
Matrix Planting 185
9 Ecological and Horticultural Factors 187
Plant Materials and Design Process 187
Growth Requirements and Tolerances 190
Competition and Coexistence 191
Plant Strategies 193
Rejuvenation and Spread 195
Increase by Seed 195
Vegetative Increase 196

15. Contents ix
Growth Habit 197
Life Cycles and Succession 198
Plant Knowledge 199
PART II PROCESS 201
10 Design Methodology 203
Inception – Establishing the Design Brief and Working Relationships205
Initial Contact With the Client 205
Brief 205
Understanding – Gathering and Organizing Information 206
Survey 206
Assessment 210
Synthesis – Generating and Organizing Ideas 215
Planting Strategy 215
Design Concept 216
Schematic or Outline Planting Design 219
Masterplan 221
Sketch Planting Proposals 221
Detailed Planting Design 228
Habit and Life Form 228
Growing Conditions 229
Planting Functions, such as 229
Character and Aesthetic Qualities 229
Working Drawings 232
Speci�cations 243
Realization – Re�ning and Implementing the Proposals 244
Planting 244
Establishment and Editing 245
Management 245
Learning Through the Design Process 247
PART III PRACTICE 249
11 Large-scale Planting 251
Introduction 251
Large and Small-scale Planting 251
Forest and Woodland 252
Designing Forest and Woodland 255
What Functions will the Forest or Woodland Perform? 255
What Canopy Structure is Ultimately Required? 255
What are the Soil and Climatic Conditions? 255

16. The Planting Design Handbook x
What Forest Species Already Grow Successfully Nearby? 255
How will the Forest or Woodland be Perpetuated? 255
Planting Mixes 257
High Forest/High Canopy Woodland 257
Approaches 257
Layer Components 260
Nurse Crops 261
Developing a Planting Mix 263
Constituents of the Mix 264
Mix Proportions 267
Spacing and Setting Out 268
Subsidiary Mixes 274
Low Forest/Low Woodland 275
Shrub Thicket 279
Woodland Scrub 282
Tall Shrubland 282
Edges 283
Tall Edge 286
Low Edge 287
Outlying Groups 288
Clumps and Copses 289
Woodland and Forest Belts 289
Hedges and Hedgerows 291
Hedges 292
Hedgerows 295
Perimeter Hedging 297
Avenues 297
Avenue Species 298
Setting Out and Spacing 300
Wetland Planting 302
12 Small-scale Planting 303
Layout of Planting Areas 304
Diversity in Urban Planting 307
Canopy Layers in Small-scale Planting 307
Seasonal Layers 310
Composition and Scale 311
Accents 312
Accent Groups 313
Ecological Ornamental Planting 314
Woodland Gardens 315

17. Contents xi
Meadow Gardens 315
Scrubland Gardens 321
Colonization of Urban Plantings 322
Planting Patterns 322
Plant Spacing 324
Setting Out 328
Urban and Garden Hedges 329
Raised Planting and Container Planting 333
Trained Trees and Vines 334
Walls, Pergolas, Trellis and other Vine and Epiphyte Supports 337
Ornamental Planting in Specialized Habitats 340
Conclusion 343
References and Further Reading 345
Index 353
Plates

18. This page intentionally left blank

19. List of Figures
2.1 Mature tree form   22
2.2 Tree form development   23
2.3 Stages of development of tree, shrub and groundcover planting. At
planting: open ground dominates and the planting is vulnerable to
weed and water stress; 3–5 years: at the established stage, canopy
has closed and the assemblage is resistant to stress; 8–10 years:
at early maturity, height differentiation and canopy structure are
developing; 15–20 years: at maturity, vertical structure and internal
spaces are fully developed   24
2.4 Stages of development of woodland planting. Stages of development
of tree, shrub and groundcover planting. At planting: open ground
dominates and planting is vulnerable to weed and water stress.
3–5 years: at the early established stage, the canopy has closed
and the assemblage is resistant to stress. 8–12 years: at the late
establishment stage, height differentiation and canopy structure are
developing. 20–30 years: at maturity, vertical structure and internal
spaces and woodland character are fully developed   25
2.5 Trees and woodland: form and space   27
2.6A Large-scale structure planting of woodland and woodland belts
creates a framework for various land uses as well as a great diversity
of spatial character within its canopy   29
2.6B Small-scale structure planting of trees, shrubs and hedges creates
spaces for various people and uses in a residential environment   29
2.7 This axonometric illustrates how tree planting will form the green
spatial structure to a new community   30
2.8 Planting can create the �oor, walls and ceiling of intimate outdoor rooms  32
2.9 The function complex (after Papanek, 2005)   38
3.1 Ground-level planting (carpeting plants)   43
3.2 Planting below knee height (low planting)   45
3.3A Medium planting   47
3.3B Medium planting   48
3.4A Tall planting   49

20. The Planting Design Handbook xiv
3.4B Tall planting   50
3.5A Trees   53
3.5B Trees   54
3.5C Trees   55
4.1 Degrees of enclosure   63
4.2A, B, C, D Permeability of enclosure   64
4.3 Static spaces and motive spaces   67
4.4 Static and motive spaces may be combined   68
4.5 Linear motive spaces   69
4.6 Height to width ratio of static and linear spaces   71
4.7 Slope can create an inward or an outward orientation   73
4.8 A focus or landmark   74
4.9 A symmetric focus   75
4.10 An asymmetric focus   76
4.11 The focus may be located on the boundary or beyond the space.
An external focus can be used to emphasize the orientation that is
inherent in the shape, enclosure or slope of a space. An example
is the device of placing a monument beyond an avenue, where it
terminates a long, straight vista   77
4.12 The character of any space is a product of its enclosure, dynamics
and focus   78
5.1 Linear progression of spaces   82
5.2 Studley Royal, North Yorkshire. A linear progression of spaces
formed by tree avenues and woodland clearings along the valley
of the River Skell, culminating in the ruins of Fountains Abbey. The
experience of the interior and edges of the woodland are also part
of this composition, especially the way in which they contrast with the
glade-like spaces surfaced with grass and water   83
5.3 Clustered spaces related by proximity   85
5.4 Circulation in clustered spaces   85
5.5 Hidcote Manor gardens, Gloucestershire. A complex of garden spaces
clustered around the Theatre Lawn and organized about two major
axes at right angles. The woodland character varies from dense high
woodland in the north-west corner to open woodland and shrubland
in the south-east   86
5.6 Neath Hill, Milton Keynes. Residential, park and garden spaces
cluster around a central open space. The woodland belts both
separate neighbourhoods and provide linking corridors of woodland
for the movement of people and wildlife   87
5.7 Types of contained spatial organization   88
5.8 Dartington Hall, Devon. The Tiltyard is the focal space contained
within enveloping woodland   89
5.9 Contained spaces   90
5.10 Spatial hierarchy   92
5.11 Hierarchy of clustered spaces   92

21. List of Figures xv
5.12 Hierarchy in contained organizations   92
5.13 Transitions and entries   95
5.14 Entrances   97
7.1 Contrast and harmony   135
7.2 Symmetric and asymmetric balance   138
7.3 Emphasis can be given by prominent form, coarse texture or careful
grouping   139
7.4 Sequence. The planting builds �uently towards a point of emphasis  140
7.5 Perception of plant groupings depends on viewing distance   142
7.6 The scale of plant groupings should re�ect the speed of movement
of the observer   145
8.1 Three-layer canopy structures   168
8.2 Edge structures   169
8.3 Two-layer canopy structure   170
8.4 Single-layer canopy structures   174
8.5 New Zealand communities   179
8.6 Shrub thicket and herb�eld   181
10.1 A survey plan showing broad categories of existing vegetation and
habitats (Drawing: JW Ecological Ltd)   208
10.2 Part of a tree survey drawing showing bole diameter and canopy
spread in relation to existing buildings and structures. The numbers
refer to entries in the tree schedule that give full information about
each tree (Drawing: Nick Robinson)   209
10.3 A landform-vegetation survey illustrating landscape character types
(Drawing: Mansergh Graham Landscape Architects)   210
10.4 This landscape survey and appraisal includes views, landscape
character, land use, vegetation and topography (Drawing: DSA
Environment + Design)   211
10.5 This analysis plan summarizes and locates the main landscape issues
on a major industrial site (Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)  212
10.6 A drawing identifying landscape opportunities is effectively the
�rst time that ideas for development are formally presented to the
client. It is helpful to keep them simple and conceptual at this stage
(Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)   213
10.7 A planting strategy sheet illustrates the designer’s broad approach
to planting in different areas of the site. Each colour on the plan
represents a vegetation type and is illustrated in the photographs
above the plans and described in the text below (Design and
images: Aaron Yu, University of Shef�eld)   215
10.8 A planting mood board illustrates the idea behind a planting
proposal for woodland (Design and images: James Hole, University
of Shef�eld)   217
10.9 A concept drawing explaining the functioning of sustainable
drainage proposed for a new medical centre (Drawing: DSA
Environment + Design)   217

22. The Planting Design Handbook xvi
10.10 Key elements of the landscape design concept for a new settlement,
incorporated in a diagrammatic overlay on a preliminary plan of the
site. The drawing shows woodland structure, country park, nature
reserve and main open space structure (Drawing: LDA Design)   218
10.11 A dynamic, naturalistic aesthetic is effectively conveyed in this
drawing illustrating the planting concept for an urban public space
(Design and images: Libaan Warsame, University of Shef�eld)   219
10.12 A layout showing the locations of various planting types in a schematic,
rather than detailed, manner (Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)  220
10.13 Masterplan for a coastal recreational development. This illustrates
structural and functional roles of planting at the larger scale of
site development. It includes shelter and shade planting, screen
planting, dune habitat restoration and woodland regeneration. The
inset shows the distribution of vegetation communities (Design and
drawing: Ian Jakeway, Landscape Architect)   222
10.14 Masterplan for a large industrial site. The site is zoned as industrial
core, access and circulation, nature reserve, solar energy collection
and rural buffer (Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)   224
10.15 An aerial perspective view of the masterplan in the previous �gure. This
view gives a good impression of the scale of the proposals and the role
of tree planting and wetlands in integrating the development with the
surrounding landscape (Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)   224
10.16 Sketch design for a new woodland park on the land�ll site. It de�nes
areas of woodland, woodland edge communities, open woodland,
shrubland, meadow and formal avenues   225
10.17 Sketch design for a residential courtyard. Colour is used to indicate
arrangement of groundcover species   226
10.18 Simple sketch illustrations of planting proposals for a hotel
development explaining the structural role of planting   227
10.19 Sketch design for a private garden. Shadows are used to help
explain heights of planting and spatial form, which is well integrated,
with the layout of pool and paths (Landscape architects: Colvin &
Moggridge, drawn by Ian Jakeway)   227
10.20 An example of a planting composition study for an ornamental
grouping   231
10.21 Images for an urban public space giving an effective impression of
the character and scale of the planting (Design and images: Aaron
Yu, University of Shef�eld)   234
10.22 A hand-rendered image conveys the detailed character and richness
of the planting. At this scale many of the species are recognizable
(Drawing: DSA Environment + Design)   235
10.23 Part of detailed planting proposals for an industrial site illustrated in
cross-section shows the generic scale of the planting elements and
the build-up of layers in the vegetation (Drawing and design by Nick
Robinson)   235
10.24 Part of detailed planting proposals for perennial planting in a public
park. This is an example of the ‘naked drawing’ style in which only
the essential layout information is included (Drawing and design by
Nick Robinson)   236
10.25 Detailed planting proposals for part of a recreation complex. This
is a simple plan for client approval rather than implementation,
so quantities of plants have not yet been worked out. As well as

23. List of Figures xvii
detailing the planting, it illustrates plants and design character to the
client using photographs and semi-representative symbols (Drawing
and design: Nick Robinson)   237
10.26 Proposed plan for apartments comprising single-species drifts,
groundcover mixes and individually located accent herbaceous and
shrubs. Note how the scale becomes smaller close to the building
entrance at the top right of the plan (Drawing and design: Nick
Robinson)   238
10.27 Planting plan showing detailed proposals for a development of town
housing for planning approval. This plan used single-species drifts,
two- or three-species mixes and an overlay of individually located
specimens and clusters. Names and plant centres (c/s) are shown
and an accompanying schedule gives stock sizes and explains the
abbreviations used for trees (Drawing and design: Nick Robinson)  239
10.28 Construction drawing for coastal shrubland, cliff and beach habitat
planting in a New Zealand coastal reserve using �ve different mixes.
The table for each mix gives percentage, group size, spacing and
total for each species. Chapter 11, Large-scale Planting, explains
how mixes are designed for a particular site (Drawing and design:
Nick Robinson)   240
10.29 An example of a module for woodland planting. The setting-out
would be shown on a separate plan (Drawing and design: Ian White
Landscape Associates)   240
10.30 Part of a plan showing detailed planting proposals for a public
garden. Note how plant names and numbers are placed within the
planting drifts avoiding the need for a key or multiple call-out lines.
This makes the drawing very easy to read (Design and drawing:
James Hole, University of Shef�eld)   241
10.31 Planting plan showing detailed planting proposals for a public
garden and using the technique of groups and scatters of repeating
plants (shown by geometric symbols) superimposed on mix areas
A and B (Design and drawing: Libaan Warsame, University of
Shef�eld)   242
11.1 Part of a drawing showing woodland planting on a power station
reclamation site. Note the use of tables to show the plants in each
area in an economical way. The instruction requires the plants to be
set out in groups of 10 to 50 of the same species throughout each
plantation   269
11.2 Part of the original Warrington New Town planting plan showing
nature-like woodland and scrub planting in the Oakwood district.
Note the complex and fragmented edge to the planting areas and
the use of species overlaying the mix areas to create a concentration
of certain species in selected areas (Design and drawings: Rob
Tregay, Landscape Architect, Warrington and Runcorn Development
Corporation)   273
11.3 Part of a drawing showing structure planting. Core, woodland edge
and perimeter hedge mixes are all represented. The setting out of
each species in each plantation area, stock sizes, planting group
sizes, with a grand total for each of the mixes areas and plant
species for ordering purposes. Software is used to calculate the plant
quantities by multiplying plantation area, percentage cover (not
shown on the �nal table) and density for each species. Spacing is
shown in the cross-section in Figure 11.4   276

24. The Planting Design Handbook xviii
11.4 The use of cross-sections to show the relationship of different mixes
and plant spacings in woodland belts around a business park. The
section is drawn as the vegetation might appear approximately �ve
years after planting, by which stage an interlocking and closed canopy
is well developed. Natural and managed thinning will soon begin   277
11.5 Part of a detailed planting proposal for a country park. Various
woodland, edge and scrub mixes are proposed to suit environmental
conditions and achieve structural and habitat diversity   285
11.6 Part of a drawing showing a repeating unit for hedgerow planting on
a reclamation site. Note close spacing for quick establishment of a
stock-proof barrier and standard trees con�ned to one row for ease
of hedge maintenance   296

25. List of Plates
1, 2 and 3 Planting design makes an essential contribution to an environment
�t for living (housing court, Shef�eld, UK; Birchwood Boulevard
Technology Park, Warrington, UK; and city street, Singapore)   9
4 Planting plays a major role in integrating structures in the environment
by reducing their visual intrusiveness and repairing damage to
ecosystems (Daventry International Rail Freight Terminal)   9
5 Without planting, retaining structures of this scale would be
dominating and intrusive. The planting makes them an asset to the
local environment while emphasizing their sculptural form (Munchen
Gladbach, Germany)   9
6 Tree planting integrates and complements structures at the Paul
Piggot Memorial Corridor, Seattle, USA   10
7 Planting helps to create an environment suitable for children’s play
by providing a comfortable microclimate, the sense of special place,
and plenty of robust trees and shrubs for climbing, swinging and
imaginative play   11
8 A treetop walkway allows people to experience the forest in a different
way, highlighting qualities of the trees and the forest canopy not
commonly visible to people. This is design in planting as much as
design of planting   11
9 No planting or seeding is needed on this sandstone cliff face in
Yorkshire, UK. Natural colonization is appropriate   11
10 Spontaneous urban common vegetation on an old industrial site in
South Yorkshire, UK   11
11 The indigenous European dune species, marram grass (Ammophila
arenaria), is well adapted to this coastal �ll site, but planting is
necessary to speed up establishment (Cumbria, UK)   11
12 After 18 months, additional dune species have colonized and only a
few traces of the original intervention remain visible. The geotextile
netting was employed to reduce surface erosion (Cumbria, UK)   12
13 This embankment beside a busy road has developed into a species-
rich native meadow from a seeded mix that was probably a standard
amenity grass mix (UK)   12

26. The Planting Design Handbook xx
14 A roadside verge in rural Canterbury, New Zealand, hosts an
attractive naturalized �ora, including Echium and Achillea species.
These provide habitat for a range of pollinators and other
invertebrates   13
15 The spontaneous meadow that colonized this urban common
in Shef�eld, UK has been purposefully enhanced with colourful
species including Persicaria polymorpha, Achillea grandifolia, Inula
magni�ca and Lysimachia ciliata ‘Firecracker’ as part of a research
project by Marian Tylecote   13
16 A high degree of control over natural vegetation processes is
demonstrated in this highly manicured display of hybridized and
selected �owers at Gruga Park, Essen   13
17 This shelterbelt in north-west Scotland combines effective wind-speed
reduction, habitat diversi�cation and visual harmony with the local
landscape. It provides the microclimate needed for the cultivation of
an unusually wide range of plants in Inverewe Gardens, Scotland   16
18 The development of a simple tree and shrub planting association
over its �rst ten years: a view in the second season after planting
shows scattered tree and shrub stock not much larger than when
they left the nursery (car park building, Shef�eld, UK)   20
19 The same area (but viewed from another angle) three years after
planting shows a well-established thicket of shrubs and establishing
trees   20
20 After ten years the trees and larger shrubs have attained a woodland
structure with tree layer, shrub layer and ground layer clearly
distinguishable and have begun to have the impact for which they
were planted – the car park building is partly screened and enjoys a
woodland setting   20
21 The dramatic effects of low light can give remarkable qualities to
planting colour (Shef�eld Botanical Gardens, UK)   21
22 The juvenile form of Pseudopanax crassifolius forms tall spires
behind a transitional form of the same species with broader leaves
and a branching habit   23
23 The interlocking relationship of form and space within the canopy
of this pohutukawa tree in Albert Park, Auckland, New Zealand is
emphasized by the presence of the sculpture   28
24 The space beneath the canopy of this single beech (Fagus sylvatica)
is further delineated by a circular hedge and a change of ground
level (Hidcote Manor, Gloucestershire, UK)   31
25 Shrubs and occasional trees de�ne and partly shade the deck space
in this garden in Auckland, New Zealand   31
26 The natural growth of belts of trees and shrubs create informal walls
of vegetation enclosing the Moon Pond at Studley Royal, Yorkshire,
UK   31
27 Trained and clipped cypress (Cupressus sp.) form a wall with
windows giving views in and out of a small formal urban park in
Malaga, Spain   31
28 Strips of low groundcover plants form a patterned carpet to the
space in front of this recreation centre in Shef�eld, UK   31
29 A colourful carpet of �oral bedding is kept in precise geometric
patterns by the use of dwarf hedging (Rotorua, New Zealand)   31
30 Wisteria is trained over supports to form a delightful ceiling of
foliage and �ower above a patio in Majorca   32

27. List of Plates xxi
31 The naturally spreading canopies of silver maples (Acer
saccharinum) form a sheltering and screening ceiling above the
car park at Leeds University, UK   32
32 Grass is used with care to provide an accessible ground surface in
this public space in Birmingham, UK. The orientation of the slope
helps to focus attention towards the centre of the square   33
33 Natural gateways and windows are formed by gaps in otherwise
impenetrable vegetation (Buckinghamshire, UK)   33
34 Plants such as cypress (Cupressus sp.) can be trained to form green
gateways of inviting proportions (Generalife, Granada, Spain)   33
35 A single row of small trees forms a green colonnade in this
residential courtyard in Cologne, Germany   33
36 A carefully spaced and regularly pruned double row of limes (Tilia
sp.) gives overhead enclosure to form this arcade of trees in France  34
37 Regular street tree planting echoes the rhythms of adjacent
architecture (Milton Keynes, UK)   34
38 Analogies in both the structural and decorative aspects of trees and
built form are employed in the work of Antoni Gaudí in Parc Guel,
Barcelona   34
39 An overgrown beech hedge (Fagus sylvatica) creates a curtain of
stems at Formakin, Scotland   35
40 Sculptural organic form and �uid space are created by the nature-like
planting of clumps of willows (Salix) near the water’s edge in a Dutch
park   35
41 The rich planting in this courtyard plays a mainly ornamental role,
furnishing a space that has been de�ned by the structures of building
and hard landscape. The tree ferns (Dicksonia squarrosa), ti kouka
(Cordyline australis) and palms modulate the space and provide foci
(Auckland, New Zealand. Design and photograph: Isthmus Group)  36
42 Enclosing boundary tree planting creates a protected, warm,
sheltered and attractive space for informal games, walking,
sunbathing and other recreation in Golden Gate Park, San
Francisco, USA   62
43 Clipped beech hedging gives medium-height enclosure for this
circular lawn. Trees and buildings provide taller enclosure beyond
(University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand)   62
44 Shrub and tree planting provides enclosure behind and over the
seat giving shelter and shade, creating a delightful space while
emphasizing the outlook (Singapore Botanical Gardens)   62
45 Planting forms seating enclaves along the edge of a route in Robson
Square, Vancouver   62
46 Full visual and physical enclosure gives shelter and seclusion to a
public garden at Birchwood, Warrington, UK   65
47 Full visual and physical enclosure may be desirable around visually
intrusive land uses such as this car park at Broadwater Business Park,
Denham and will also provide shelter and a pleasant environment
for the people using it. The trees are London planes (Platanus x
hispanica), the tall shrubs bamboo (Arundinaria sp.) and the low shrub
edge is composed of Rubus tricolor   65
48 Partial visual and physical enclosure results when windows and
doorways remain in a wall of planting. Here the willows frame views
across Willen Lake, Milton Keynes, UK   65

28. The Planting Design Handbook xxii
49 This line of trees in paving makes all the difference to the
restaurant’s environment in this new public space in Bristol, UK. They
provide spatial de�nition, separating the dining area from the larger
expanse of the public thoroughfare while retaining easy access   65
50 A stopping and gathering place is most successful if its shape is of
largely similar horizontal proportions, such as found in a square or a
circle   68
51 A pond and clearing provides a natural stopping and gathering
place in the woodland at Risley Moss, Warrington, UK   68
52 The shape of linear spaces express the functions of communication
and movement – somewhat unforgivingly in this urban road. The
photograph shows footpaths and carriageway �rmly de�ned and
separated by trees and shrubs (Singapore)   68
53 If an avenue is long with no focus it can be daunting for the
traveller, especially if they are on foot. This avenue, however, does
make the ramp down to the underpass a more attractive and less
claustrophobic space than it would be without trees (Milton Keynes,
UK)   69
54 This mature avenue of plane trees (Platanus) leading to Castle
Arenberg, Belgium, is a grand and dynamic element of landscape
structure   69
55 Curving linear spaces create curiosity and anticipation by
concealment. The gentle curve and �ow of the landform are further
enticements (Ashridge, Hertfordshire, UK)   69
56 This hillside promenade is fully closed along one side but open to
views over the distant landscape along the other side. The waist-
high hedge screens foreground detail and the curving alignment
draws us on (Muncaster Castle, Cumbria)   70
57 The ratio of height to width of a linear space in�uences its dynamic
qualities. A ratio of approximately 1:1 gives a strong, purposeful
character (Generalife, Granada, Spain)   72
58 A linear space with a height to width ratio of greater than 1:1 can
create a sense of urgency and expectation. This transitional space
forms the approach to a temple garden, hiding both the outside
world and the temple precinct (Kyoto, Japan)   72
59 and 60 The focus of a space can be provided by a single specimen tree of
suf�cient stature. These urban spaces are in Brugge, Belgium, and Parc
de la Villette, Paris, and in both cases the trees also make an informal
gathering place   74
61 The gate at the end of this alley at Hidcote Manor gardens,
Gloucestershire, UK, provides a focus and also anticipates what
lies beyond it. Although known for its plant collection and themed
gardens, Hidcote is a masterpiece of formal spatial composition
and provides endless examples of spatial form   77
62 Focus beyond the boundaries of the space may be effective in both
characterizing the space itself and creating momentum (Hidcote
Manor gardens, Gloucestershire, UK)   77
63 The �uid, complex spaces of the traditional Japanese stroll garden
are renowned for the way the visitor becomes deeply involved in the
landscape (Kyoto, Japan)   80
64 This example of landscape design in a housing development at
Takanini, Auckland
shows the value of well-composed space that
articulates the gradient between the public and private realms
   80

29. List of Plates xxiii
65 Woodland glades separated by groves of birch (Betula pendula) in
a park form a linear progression of spaces linked by an internal
sinuous path (Bristol, UK)   84
66 Again a sinuous path leads through a gently modulated linear
sequence of spaces. This time it is formed by landform and
vegetation. The sensitive arrangement of the path, the small
scale of ground topography and the planting allow the larger
surrounding landscape to be included in the composition or
‘borrowed’ (Santa Barbara Botanical Gardens, California, USA)  84
67 A strongly articulated linear sequence forms a main axis at Hidcote
Manor gardens, Gloucestershire, UK. The transitions are de�ned by
clipped hedges and level changes   84
68 The impressive view from the lawn in front of the house at Stowe,
Buckinghamshire, UK, penetrates a series of three parkland
spaces enclosed by belts and clumps of trees and focuses on the
Corinthian arch on the horizon. The approach drive runs through
the plantations to the side of the main spaces and so gives parallel
circulation   84
69 The Tiltyard at Dartington, Devon, UK, is de�ned by ancient
landform reinforced by tree and hedge planting. It forms the main
gathering space around which a number of smaller garden spaces
cluster. All are set within surrounding woodland   90
70 This park, constructed over a car park, is part of the London Canary
Wharf development. It forms a protected green space within the
larger spaces formed by the massive buildings and surrounding
roads. The whole composition takes the form of a two-tiered
contained organization   90
71 Midland Park, Wellington, New Zealand is a small but busy
greenspace in the heart of the central business district (CBD). The
simple line of small trees that surrounds it on three sides is vital to
the composition. It provides just enough separation and de�nition
to create a space contained within the larger space enclosed by the
continuous wall of high-rise of�ces. This change in scale is vital to the
relaxation and recreational function of the park   90
72 Trees and shrubs form protected linear spaces for pedestrians and
cycles, which are contained within the overall architectural de�nition
of this Paris boulevard   91
73 Planting in tropical climates plays a major role in creating sheltered
and shaded places that are comfortable for people. This example in
Kuala Lumpur KLCC park demonstrates the variety of space possible
amongst enclosing herbaceous plants and shade trees, making
maximum use of changes in level   93
74 A gap in tall and medium shrub-planting creates an informal but
concise transition between intensively detailed building curtilage and
the more extensive parkland beyond (Hounslow Civic Centre and
park, London)   95
75 The planting comes so close in this concise transition in Huntington
Botanical Gardens, Los Angeles, that there is real tension created
between the two spaces   95
76 A simple narrow gap in an enclosing hedge overhung with the
branch of a nearby tree provides a concise transition. The point of
entry is precisely de�ned and a glimpse of what is within is revealed.
This public park was once the Bundesgartenschau at Mannheim,
Germany   96

30. The Planting Design Handbook xxiv
77 A gradual transition is made between two distinct spaces but dynamic
tension is created by the sinuous curve of the grass path, by the
gap which �rst narrows and then widens and by the locations of the
clumps of trees being offset either side of the opening (Askham Bryan
College, York, UK)   96
78 An overlapping entrance ensures complete surprise on entering the
space (Bodnant, North Wales)   96
79 This transition is made in stages. As the observer skirts the lake at
Stowe, Buckinghamshire, UK, new views are opened and the far
paddock is revealed in carefully controlled sequence. Finally the
focus of the space, the Palladian Bridge, will come into view   98
80 A larger transitional space, enclosed by beech (Fagus sylvatica)
hedges and pleached lime trees (Tilia), forms the entrance zone to a
public park in Oakwood, Warrington, UK   98
81 An entrance court or zone is crossed before entering this building’s
internal courtyard at Leuven, Belgium   99
82 New Zealand mat daisy (Raoulia) growing in typically inhospitable
and exposed stone�eld, Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand   105
83 The spreading form of this Juniper (Juniperus sp.) provides a base
to the white trunk of these birches (Betula sp.) at the University of
Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand   106
84 Prostrate dwarf shrubs such as this Cotoneaster adpressus hug
the ground and follow the shape of whatever they cover (Askham
Bryan College, York, UK)   106
85 The hummock and dome forms of herbaceous plants such as Liriope
muscari and shrubs such as Hebe rakaiensis and Viburnum davidii
anchor this gateway, re�ect the curve of its arch and contrast with its
rectilinear outline (Bodnant, North Wales)   106
86 Scattered domes of Hebe shrubs contrasting with tussock grasses in
the Fiordland mountains of New Zealand   107
87 Many trees ultimately develop a spreading dome-like form if
allowed to grow unhindered in an open location and free from
environmental stress. This photograph shows a specimen of Moreton
Bay �g (Ficus macrophylla) with a canopy spread of more than
40 metres. For scale, note the Norfolk Island pines (Araucaria
heterophylla) and the caravans to the right-hand side of the photo
(Northland, New Zealand)   107
88 A �ne specimen of Polygonatum (Solomon’s seal) shows its typical
arching stem habit   108
89 The tussock habit is beautifully demonstrated by this red tussock
grass (Chionochloa rubra)   109
90 The unusually narrow ascending form of horoeka or lancewood
(Pseudopanax crassifolius) allows it to be planted so close to this hotel
that it grows through the balcony rail (Christchurch, New Zealand)  110
91 The Australian perennial giant spear lily (Doryanthes palmeri) has
such large linear, ascending leaves that it visually dominates any plant
grouping   110
92 Molinia caerulea subsp. arundinacea demonstrates the veil habit in
this urban planting   111
93 Palm form is seen not only in members of the palm family, the
Arecaceae, but also in plants such as this toi or mountain cabbage
tree (Cordyline indivisa), seen here in its montane forest habitat on
the slopes of Ruapehu, New Zealand   112

31. List of Plates xxv
94 This unusually large Dracaena draco has a �ne sculptural form
(Auckland, New Zealand)   113
95 Some succulents display strongly sculptural form, such as these at
Huntingdon Botanic Gardens, California   113
96 Lophostemon confertus, the Brisbane box, is an example of a
tree with an oval upright form. Its restricted spread, as well as its
tolerance of poor soils, makes it convenient for planting next to
roads, especially those that carry high vehicles (Mayoral Drive,
Auckland, New Zealand)   113
97 The distinctive conic form of Norfolk Island pine (Araucaria
heterophylla) provides a strong contrast to the horizontal masses of
the building and the gentle sweep of the ground at Auckland airport,
New Zealand   114
98 Trees like Lombardy poplar have a narrowly fastigiate or columnar
form. They were used in the Paci�c Gateway Project in San Francisco
because this form can be accommodated in the narrow spaces
between freeway ramps   114
99 Tabulate form is seen in the spreading branches of trees such as
this young deodar (Cedrus deodara) and Japanese maple (Acer
palmatum) which give a serene quality to this composition in Shef�eld
Botanical Gardens, UK   115
100 Trained and clipped form can be treated as sculpture in the
landscape. The yew hedges (Taxus baccata) are clipped to form
green waves in this sunken ‘dry dock’ garden at Thames Barrier Park
in London   117
101 Traditional topiary at Levens Hall, Cumbria, UK, creates an intriguing
interplay of form and space   117
102 A fruiting pear trained over a metal archway at Chatsworth, UK   117
103 A pear trained as an espalier around the curved wall of the dovecote
(Rousham, UK)   118
104 This planting composition depends for much of its impact on the
contrasting form and line of the trees and shrubs. The tabulate
branches of Viburnum plicatum ‘Lanarth’ are emphasized by brilliant
white �ower heads and give a striking contrast to the dark fastigiate
yew (Taxus baccata ‘Fastigiata’) and the ascending branches of
Nothofagus dombeyi in the background. These strongly expressed
forms are set within a softly �owing mass of informal foliage that
saves the composition from stiffness (Bodnant, Wales)   119
105 Line can be a dominant element in planting composition, especially
when we can see the branch and stem outlines or the silhouettes
of plants. This avenue of plane trees near Napier, New Zealand,
demonstrates the impact of line and outline in composition. Note
that it is through line that we recognize perspective, and that this
perspective gives avenues their dramatic quality   119
106 The ascending outlines of these fastigiate junipers (Juniperus ‘Sky
Rocket’) punctuate and regulate the soft billowing masses of roses and
herbs below (The garden of old roses, Castle Howard, Yorkshire, UK)  120
107 Vertical line is also common in the ascending linear leaves of
monocotyledons such as Iris and rushes (Juncus), here contrasting
with the horizontal slab of the stone bridge at Wisley, Surrey, UK   120
108 Pendulous line is found in the hanging branches of weeping willow
(Salix ‘Chrysocoma’) over the River Avon, Christchurch, New Zealand 120

32. The Planting Design Handbook xxvi
109 The tabulate branching cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) produces a
strong horizontal component and re�ects the lines of the brickwork
pattern and building eaves (Reigate, Surrey, UK)   121
110 Line can be crucial to composition: the crossing of horizontal and
vertical is one of the most dominant features of this scene (Bodnant,
Wales)   121
111 Dynamic diagonals are strongly expressed in the linear leaves of
New Zealand �ax (Phormium tenax), seen here in its natural wetland
habitat on a South Island lake margin. It contrasts dramatically with
the pendulous line of the rimu foliage behind   122
112 Much line found in nature is lively and more or less irregular in
character. The stems and branches in this picture express both
inherent patterns of growth and the in�uence of an exposed
environment (coastal forest at Kohi Point, New Zealand). The simple
vertical line of the mamaku tree fern provides a contrast   122
113 The �ne, even texture of the Libertia peregrinans (mikoikoi) is notable
in this simple planting, and re�ects the �ne-textured surface �nish of
the concrete wall (University of Canterbury, New Zealand)   124
114 Grasses and ti kouka (cabbage tree) both have a �ne visual texture
that adds to the feeling of spaciousness in this New Zealand
courtyard (Design and image: Isthmus)   124
115 The bold foliage of Acanthus draws attention to the steps and
balustrade and harmonizes with the similar, coarse texture of the
stonework   124
116 The elegant sculptural form and bold texture of Agave attenuata
stand out in this planting of succulents. Also important are the
consistency of line and the accenting of the vertical �ower spikes of
aloe in the foreground (The Sunken Garden, Napier, New Zealand)  124
117 This plant grouping at Newby Hall, North Yorkshire, UK, combines
a wide range of textures and forms. Strong leaf form, dynamic line
and textural contrasts create an eye-catching effect   124
118 The red borders at Hidcote Manor gardens, Gloucestershire, UK,
show the powerful qualities of the colours red and orange. These
colours are unusual in cool temperate climates   127
119 Compare the effect of the cool blues and greens in this planting, also at
Hidcote Manor, with the hot colours of the red borders   127
120 A winter composition of winter colours and forms in the labyrinth
garden by Piet Oudolf at Trentham Gardens, UK   131
121 The orange-brown foliage and silver seedheads of Miscanthus make
a striking autumn combination with Acer caudifolium (Auckland
Botanic Gardens)   131
122 Harmony of leaf form and colour supports the strong contrast in
texture between Bergenia and Saxifraga (Hidcote Manor gardens,
Gloucestershire, UK)   136
123 Visual harmony can be found among natural forms as diverse as
trees and clouds (Avon, UK)   136
124 The close relationship of colours and textures shown by the ferns in
this forest at Te Urewera, New Zealand, emphasize the contrasting
form of the large-leaved tree ferns. The bank fern is Blechnum
�uviatile and the tree fern, Cyathea smithii   136
125 The visual qualities of plants can be delightful when related by
harmony and contrast to hard landscape materials. In this example
the rectilinear geometry of the hedge and brick edgings contrast with

33. List of Plates xxvii
organic forms of the plants while the texture and visual ‘softness’
of the pebble groundcover provides a link between ‘hard’ and
‘soft’ materials (Hounslow Civic Centre, London; Design: Preben
Jacobsen)   136
126 This restrained planting at Dartington Hall, Devon, UK, shows
mutual enhancement of complementary hues, combined with
harmony of texture and form. Note the colour harmony of the purple
�owers, grey foliage and the stone in wall and path   136
127 Symmetry is observed in the ground modelling and the repetition of
trees and shrubs either side of the path. By emphasizing the axis of
symmetry generated by the building the planting helps focus on the
entrance to these apartments at Kingston Dock, Glasgow   140
128 The drama of a single Agave brings a point of emphasis to the
remarkable stonework of viaduct and steps at Parc Guel, Barcelona,
Spain   140
129 The regular rhythm of the yew bastions and parterre beds re�ects the
buttressing of the church at Ashridge, Hertfordshire, UK   141
130 The forestry planting on the distant hillside includes drifts of different
species that are in scale with the patterns of the vegetation and
landform in the surrounding landscape (Snowdonia, Wales)   143
131 The largest structures in the landscape, such as the Humber Bridge,
near Hull, UK, require plantations and tree clumps of generous size to
maintain good generic scale relationships (Design: Weddle Landscape
Design)   143
132 This planting of sedges, Astelia chathamica and Libertia, together
with paving and pebbles, is of a scale that invites movement
and reinforces the drama of the distant landscape. An intricate
foreground would have been out of place here (Hamilton, New
Zealand, Design: Studio of Landscape Architecture)   143
133 Planting in a garden, whether public or private, should be of
suf�ciently small scale to invite prolonged observation and
enjoyment (Stoke-on-Trent National Garden Festival, UK)   144
134 Only tree and shrub groups of suf�cient scale will be perceived from
fast-moving vehicles on a fast road. Note the contrasts between the
forestry plantation in the background, the edge of regenerating native
bush, and the varied herbaceous �ora at the roadside (Bay of Plenty,
New Zealand)   145
135 When vehicles are passing at moderate speeds more variation
in shape and smaller groups of species can be appreciated
(Rotherham, UK)   145
136 The sunken garden at Thames Barrier Park in London, UK, is a
good example of planting that re�ects a central design concept. The
maritime history of the area is expressed in the form of the garden
and in the wave-like shapes of the yew hedges. The planting is
contained in long strips between the hedges and narrow paths. This
is an innovative development of the traditional mixed border with
hedge backing   147
137 The icon of the New World city grid has been applied, with a sense
of humour, to the planting in this San Francisco, USA, plaza to
represent the pervasive idea of the city as geometry   147
138 The inspiration for this planting is made explicit. A stream of blue,
white and purple pansies (Viola hybrids) tumbles down an arti�cial
hillside at the Stoke National Garden Festival, UK. The moorland
grasses and rushes not only reinforce the suggestion of an upland

34. The Planting Design Handbook xxviii
stream but their subdued browns and greens provide a complement
to the brighter colours of the pansies   147
139 Herbaceous perennial planting at Scampston Hall, York, UK, illustrates
Oudolf’s use of tints of pink, purple and yellow (Design: Piet Oudolf)  149
140 Use of bold foliaged species can create a jungle-like character in
temperate regions by echoing the large-leafed characteristic of
tropical rain forest (Newby Hall, Yorkshire, UK)   150
141 The spring garden is a common seasonal theme. This woodland
walk at Dartington Hall, in Devon, UK, is designed to be at its
peak in spring with carpets of naturalized woodland �owers and
shrubs such as Camellia and Magnolia   151
142 The Orchid Garden at Singapore Botanic Gardens is a superb
example of large-scale design on a taxonomic theme   152
143 Rose gardens are traditional examples of planting on a taxonomic
theme. This one at Newby Hall, Yorkshire, UK, features shrub and
species roses. Rose gardens can have a long ‘down time’ and many
rose shrubs look unattractive out of �ower. So care is needed to
include fruiting roses, roses with good autumn colour and winter
stem interest as well as complementary plants that provide interest in
the winter and spring   153
144 An arti�cial boulder scree with acid soil provides a habitat for
planting design at the Glasgow Garden Festival, Scotland. Heathers
(Calluna vulgaris), heaths (Erica sp.) and birch (Betula sp.) not only
grow well but also look at home in this kind of terrain   154
145 This classic example of a planted drystone retaining wall is at the
restored Jekyll and Lutyens garden at Hestercombe in Somerset, UK  154
146 The wild�ower meadow is a common habitat theme. This example
is near Whakatane, New Zealand. Most of the �owers as well as
grasses are introduced species but are nonetheless attractive and are
not out of place in this pastoral setting   154
147 The development of a hotel and conference centre in an old quarry
at Hagen, Germany, provides the opportunity for naturalistic planting
which reinforces the sense of place   154
148 A waterside theme may be adopted even when the soil is not in
contact with a water body by planting species such as Alchemilla
mollis and Salix matsudana ‘Tortuosa’ which we associate with water
but which do not require permanently moist soil (hospital courtyard,
Lincoln, UK)   154
149 The woodland habitat is well suited to ornamental planting and, in
many large gardens and parks, provides a theme for collections of
shade- and shelter-loving plants such as smooth Japanese maple
(Acer palmatum) (Bodnant, Wales)   155
150 This grouping at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand,
consisting of gossamer grass (Anemanthele lessoniana) and tawhai
or southern beech (Nothofagus sp.) forms a plant signature of
the typical forest edge/glade communities of the drier Canterbury
mountain forests   155
151 The South African meadow at Olympic Park, London, designed
by James Hitchmough. Note that the interpretation is liberal
rather than strict – the Carex testacea is a New Zealand endemic
sedge. Nevertheless the character of the planting is distinctive and
memorable   156

35. List of Plates xxix
152 New Zealand podocarp-broadleaved forest at Kaitoke near Wellington
showing massive emergent northern rata above a dense evergreen
broadleaved canopy and some shrubs and tree ferns below   160
153 Typical British oak woodland in spring, showing an understorey of
regenerating tree species as well as small trees and shrubs. The
herb layer is partly dormant but grass is vigorous in lighter areas
(Shef�eld, UK)   160
154 Interior of lowland rainforest, Waitakere Ranges, New Zealand   165
155 Interior of New Zealand Southern beech forest, Fiordland, New Zealand  165
156 A rich array of meadow �owers on the bank and moisture-loving
plants in the drainage swale at the foot of the slope at the site of
the London Olympic Park (Planting design: James Hitchmough and
Nigel Dunnett)   182
157 Molinia as a meadow matrix grass combined with Persicaria,
Astilbe, Iris and Myrica gale in a �oodplain planting (Trentham,
UK, Design: Piet Oudolf)   184
158 Molinia caerulea as a meadow matrix grass, seen here in a small
residential garden combined with cultivars of Salvia, Aster, Geranium
and Hesperantha (Shef�eld, UK)   184
159 The Geranium species seen �owering here were planted into
coarse grassland in this otherwise traditional urban park and have
become a successful part of an attractive meadow community.
Other plants successfully introduced were: Astrantia major, Galium
verum, Centaurea nigra, C. scabiosa, Persicaria bistorta ‘Superba’,
Succisa pratensis, Stellaria graminea and Knautia arvensis
(Shef�eld, UK. Planting design: Marian Tylecote)   184
160 Nature/native: native species used in a naturalistic way to mimic a
spontaneous wetland community (Shef�eld, UK. Design: Shef�eld
City Council)   189
161 Nature/exotic: exotic species used in a naturalistic way to form a self-
sustaining community (Shef�eld, UK. Design: Nigel Dunnett)   189
162 Art/native: native species planted as a display instead of
conventional planter bedding (Auckland Botanic Gardens)   189
163 Art/exotic: selected cultivars and hybrids displayed and intensively
managed as if they were works of art (the Victorian Italianate terrace
at Tatton Park, Cheshire, UK)   189
164 A spontaneous water meadow of the garden escape Aster novi-belgii
growing in frequently �ooded ground demonstrates the species’
natural habitat and ecological amplitude (Rotherham, UK)   191
165 Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus)
woodland has colonized and established itself in an abandoned
chalk quarry near the river Humber, UK. Note the light open
character of the main canopy and the rich shrub and herb growth
beneath it   254
166 In this high canopy oak (Quercus robur) woodland, a cross-section
of three-layered structure has been revealed by felling in preparation
for road construction. An understorey of shrubs including elder
(Sambucus nigra) and hazel (Corylus avellana) is well developed and
clearly distinguishable below the oak canopy. Beneath the shrubs
a �eld layer of bramble (Rubus fruticosus), honeysuckle (Lonicera
periclymenum) and shade-tolerant herb species can be found
although its density is limited by the shade cast by the two strata
above it (Nottinghamshire, UK)   259

36. The Planting Design Handbook xxx
167 This high canopy oak (Quercus robur) wood, which is located in a
country park, demonstrates a two-layer structure. The understorey
is largely absent but a �eld layer of grasses and other herbs is well
developed. The spatial qualities are quite different to those in a
three-layer wood and the openness beneath the tree canopy is well
suited to informal recreation use by comparatively large numbers of
people (Nottinghamshire, UK)   259
168 New Zealand forest establishing vigorously from planted stock including
the more light-tolerant podocarps such as rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum
– seen here with the pendulous foliage) and totara (Podocarpus totara).
Pioneer tree and shrub species tree ferns and ground ferns were also
included in the original planting (University of Canterbury, Christchurch,
New Zealand)   259
169 Natural colonization of forest tree and shrub species in sheltered
semi-shade under an old manuka stand. The manuka is even aged,
having colonized following the destruction of the original forest by
�re (Orongorongo range, near Wellington, New Zealand)   259
170 This woodland is 14 years from planting on an old industrial site
in the English Midlands. The trees visible in the photograph are
European ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and silver birch (Betula pendula)
and the shrub in the foreground is hazel (Corylus avellana). The �eld
layer of grasses has colonized unaided and could now be diversi�ed
with attractive woodland forbs. The original planting mix included
Betula pendula, Corylus avellana, Fraximus excelsior, Crataegus
monogyna, Pinus sylvestris, Prunus spinosa, Salix caprea and
Sambucus nigra   261
171 This Surrey (UK) woodland is being managed as coppice and
standard. It can be seen from the age of the standard oak that it is
still in its early years. The coppice layer consists mainly of Spanish
chestnut (Castanea sativa) and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia). The birch
(Betula pendula) in the foreground has also been cut back and is re-
growing strongly   263
172 Self-sown birch (Betula pendula) and goat willow (Salix caprea)
have colonized open land to form this pioneer low woodland at
Stocksbridge, Yorkshire, UK. Note the high canopy woodland
developing in the background   278
173 A mosaic of open space and young woodland of birch (Betula
pendula) and oak (Quercus petraea) at Blythe Valley Park, UK
(Designer: DSA Environment + Design, UK)   278
174 This fenced framework plantation for a science park in Warrington,
UK, contains a woodland scrub mix of transplants and groups of
staked ash ‘whips’ (Fraxinus excelsior). Note that the plantation
incorporates and protects a remnant of an old hedgerow   278
175 Scattered planting of low thicket scrub transplants protected by tree
shelters in an exposed coastal location in Cumbria, UK. Species
include burnet rose (Rosa pimpinellifolia), gorse (Ulex europaeus),
goat willow (Salix caprea) and sea buckthorn (Hippophae
rhamnoides)   280
176 Medium shrubland, including gorse (Ulex species) and dwarf willow
(Salix species), is now well established on a south-facing slope at
the wildlife garden site, planted for the 1984 Liverpool International
Garden Festival   280
177 High canopy woodland in an urban park in Shef�eld, UK, with an
open edge that allows free access between the open space, the path
that follows the edge and the interior of the wood   280

37. List of Plates xxxi
178 Gorse (Ulex europaeus) and wild roses (Rosa arvensis and Rosa
canina) form a medium shrub edge to roadside woodland planting
in Milton Keynes, UK   284
179 A clipped Cotoneaster lacteus hedge forms a neat dense edge to mixed
woodland planting at the entrance to a business area near Leicester, UK  284
180 Outlying groups of self-sown birch (Betula pendula) add to the
spatial intricacy and microclimatic diversity on the edge of this
pioneer low woodland, Stocksbridge, Yorkshire, UK   284
181 This belt of woodland is no more than 4 metres wide, but ten years
after planting it provides an excellent screen to extensive car parks. In
the future selected coppicing of shrubs and thinning of trees will be
necessary in order to maintain the visual density of the belt throughout its
height (Warrington, UK)   290
182 Traditional laying of a recently established rural hedge in Cheshire,
UK. Note the fence put up to contain stock while the hedge is
developing into a stock-proof barrier   293
183 Tall willow hedges shelter a kiwi fruit orchard in Bay of Plenty, New
Zealand. Salix matsudana is commonly used for this purpose   293
184 An urban hedgerow of Norway maple (Acer platanoides) planted in
a hedge of Cotoneaster lacteus. The restricted width available for
planting made this a suitable means of integrating the decked car
park within the planting structure of the of�ce development site   296
185 Hedge clipping, however, is easier if trees are planted next to rather
than within a hedge (Warrington, UK)   296
186 A magni�cent single-line avenue of the tropical rain tree (Albizia
saman), approximately 20 metres apart, line the approach to
Toloa College, Tonga   297
187 Curving avenues have a particular elegance. This plane (Platanus x
hispanica) avenue at Parc de la Villette, Paris, leads the visitor onwards
while subtly separating grass open space from curving promenade,
from vehicle access and the car park   297
188 An unusual avenue tree is ti kouka or the New Zealand cabbage
tree (Cordyline australis) seen here in Hawkes Bay, New Zealand.
It lacks the regularity of traditional avenue species but more than
compensates with character   298
189 These closely planted double avenues of Fagus sylvatica are part
of the great Renaissance park at Het Loo in the Netherlands. The
impression is of great green arcades lifted high on sturdy pillars of
the beech trunks   298
190 Small trees such as Robinia pseudoacacia ‘Bessoniana’ form intimate,
human-scale avenues and are particularly successful when set within
larger enclosures such as urban squares or streets (Vision Park,
Cambridge, UK)   299
191 The trunks of this small palm avenue are delightfully clothed with
climbers to give low-level detail to the curving space (Singapore
Botanical Gardens)   299
192 Extensive wetlands created as part of the development of sustainable
drainage for the Blythe Valley Business park, Birmingham, UK
(Design: DSA Environment and Design)   302
193 Urban wetland provides treatment of water drainage into the
Auckland Waitemata Harbour, New Zealand   302
194 Ornamental planting may also have a spatial role. This mixed
shrub and perennial planting creates a backdrop to seating as well

38. The Planting Design Handbook xxxii
as subdividing space in a city-centre park (Shef�eld, UK. Design:
Shef�eld City Council)   305
195 Woodland or scrub structure planting consisting mostly of native
species may offer detailed decorative interest of �ower, fruit and
foliage as well as spatial de�nition and shelter   305
196 Established shrubs and herbaceous plants are allowed to spill
over the path edge at Knightshayes Court, Devon, UK, to give a
delightfully irregular natural outline. Note how the scale of the curves
in the outline re�ects the size of the plant groupings   305
197 The edges of planting beds need protection in busy areas. These
sloping walls of stone sets are both a logical extension of the paving
and an attractive complement to the decorative qualities of the plant
material (Glasgow, Scotland)   305
198 Narrow planting beds do not provide adequate soil conditions and
the corners are especially vulnerable to trampling   306
199 A wide edging between perennial planting and mown grass has
many advantages. Mowing is easier, plants can be allowed to
spread informally over the edge, access and work to the border in
wet weather will cause less damage to the edge of the lawn, and
crispness of line is visually satisfying (Shef�eld city centre, UK)   306
200 A mixed planting of shrubs and herbaceous plants creates a fresh
and colourful ornamental landscape for this of�ce development in
Warrington, UK. Herbaceous plants in this scheme include Bergenia,
Iris, Astrantia major and Geranium species   308
201 It is partly the close proximity between the small light-foliaged tree
and the building that makes this planting successful. Harmony of
colour and complementary form and pattern make it a pleasing
association of trees and architecture in Germany   308
202 This multiple-layered ornamental planting at Newby Hall,
Yorkshire, UK, includes a light tree canopy of Betula jaquemontii,
a scattered shrub layer of azaleas (Rhododendron sp.) and a
diverse low groundcover including Tiarella cordifolia, Bergenia
cordifolia, Polygonum af�ne and Alchemilla mollis   308
203 The revival of interest in planting with perennials including grasses
and their use in public spaces is well represented here at Potter’s
Field Park in London (Planting Design: Piet Oudolf)   308
204 A diverse herb layer including oxlip (Primula elatior) planted under
birch (Betula species), coppiced hazel (Corylus avellana) and other
shrubs in Shef�eld Botanical Gardens, UK   311
205 The assertive form of Astelia chathamica in the foreground makes
it an effective accent plant in this public square in Whakatane, New
Zealand. Here it is contrasted with the �ne textures of the koromiko
(Corokia x virgata), pohuehue (Muehlenbeckia axillaris) and sand
coprosma Coprosma acerosa   312
206 The small group of Echinacea ‘White Swan’ in the centre of this
photograph forms a surprising highlight of this colourful composition
that is further dramatized by the low autumn light. Notice how the
pale colours stand out against the rich pinks, oranges and yellows
and how much of the foliage and �ower forms are linked by a
vertical character of line, in contrast to the radiating form of the
Echinacea �owers and the Mahonia foliage   312
207 The inspiration for a specimen group might come from a
natural plant assemblage such as this rainforest group of nikau
(Rhopalostylis sapida) kawakawa (Macropiper excelsa) and pate

39. List of Plates xxxiii
(Schef�era digitata) in Paparoa National Park, New Zealand. In
suitably shady and moist conditions the three species could be
planted to form the ornamental ‘plant signature’ of the forest from
which they originated   314
208 Astelia, Anigozanthos and Pachystegia, against a background of
Corokia hedge, make a simple and striking accent group near the
entrance to the observatory in Wellington Botanic Garden   314
209 This woodland wild garden at Wisley, UK, consists of a mix of
naturalized exotic herbaceous species including Alstroemeria,
Campanula, Geranium, Astrantia major, Aconitum and Astilbe mixed
with natives such as Digitalis purpurea and Hieracium. The utmost
sensitivity in management is required to establish and maintain this
kind of planting   316
210 A woodland garden in the tradition of William Robinson but located
in New Zealand and using old established native totara and titoki
as the canopy above shrub and herb layers which comprise a
mix of native and exotic species including Disporopsis longifolia,
Vancouveria, Cyclamen species, Clivia species, Anemanthele
lessoniana, and Jovellana sinclairii (Joy Plants, Pukekohe, New
Zealand. Design: Terry Hatch)   316
211 This is a small area of woodland garden based around
comparatively recently planted trees. It consists of two layers – a
formal tree arrangement but a naturalistic �eld layer. Note that
perennials such as Phlox paniculata adapt to the increasing shade as
the trees grow   316
212 A detail of the front meadow at Great Dixter, UK, in June, showing
an intimate mix of grasses, Rhinanthus minor, Camasses, Ranunculus,
Dachtylorhiza and Leucanthemum, developed by Christopher Lloyd
over many years of creative management   317
213 A grass-based meadow created from seed at the London Olympic
games site, pictured in June, featuring many well-known native
meadow �owers and resembling a particularly rich and diverse semi-
natural grassland (planting design: James Hitchmough)   317
214 A meadow of mostly British wild�owers sown without grasses and
creating a colourful naturalistic assemblage at the London Olympics
site in June (planting design: James Hitchmough)   317
215 An extensive living roof with a shallow growing medium, supporting
a variety of wild �owers typical of chalk downland, coastal sites and
other water-stressed environments. Cowslip (Primula varies) and
pasque �ower (Pulsatilla vulgaris) are conspicuous (Rotherham, UK.
Design: Nigel Dunnett)   318
216 An extensive living roof with a growing medium (Auckland, New
Zealand). The vegetation is something of a hybrid between short
tussock grassland and a sand dune community, both of which are
dry and low-nutrient habitats and so the plants found there are
suited to the conditions on the roof   318
217 ‘’Prairie planting on the New York High Line park, creating an
impression of the natural grassland community that inspired it
(Design: Piet Oudolf. Photo Fred Long)   320
218 This planting at Santa Barbara Botanic Gardens, California
combines shrubs, trees and herbaceous in a naturalistic way
producing what is effectively a ‘shrubland garden’ modelled on the
more open chaparral communities, and featuring Californian plants
such as Fremontodendron, Ceanothus, Clarkia and Penstemon   321

40. The Planting Design Handbook xxxiv
219 Drift planting of Monarda, Echinops, Miscanthus, Eupatorium and
Persicaria creates overlapping masses when viewed from eye level
(Trentham, UK. Design by Piet Oudolf)   323
220 Part of a rain garden planting mix of New Zealand herbaceous
species (Libertia, Astelia, Carex and Arthropodium species) used as a
herb layer below street trees (Auckland, New Zealand)   324
221 This broad, medium-height hedge of box (Buxus sempervirens)
provides low-level enclosure for bays of colourful bedding. A
weaving hedge such as this is an excellent means of structuring a
linear planting area and creating well-proportioned compartments
for planting display   329
222 Boundary de�nition and containment are important functions of
hedges. New Zealand totara (Podocarpus totara) is a good vformal
hedging plant for urban locations (Hamilton, New Zealand)   329
223 Wave-form clipped yew (Taxus baccata) at Thames Barrier Park, London  329
224 To allow good growth, planters that are separate from natural
ground (such as these on a roof garden in San Francisco), must be
of suf�cient width and depth to provide adequate soil volume and
avoid rapid drying out   333
225 If raised planters are to include standard trees, a generous width is
desirable because this allows good capture of natural precipitation
(Union Square, Seattle, USA)   333
226 Pleached lime trees (Tilia species) separate the building from the
bicycle park (Leuven, Belgium)   335
227 A large-scale climber tunnel clothed in Wisteria species creates
a dramatic vehicle entrance to Auckland Regional Botanical
Gardens, New Zealand   335
228 Boxed lime trees (Tilia species) create a geometric setting for
sculpture in a Bristol park, UK   335
229 Clipped Carpinus betulus (hornbeam) planted on a strict grid
in London’s Docklands redevelopment area. This approach is
traditional in France and represents the ultimate in the reduction,
abstraction and formalization of the spatial idiom of the forest   335
230 This climber framework at Parc de la Villette, Paris, re-interprets fruit-
growing techniques to create an intriguing space below the vines  336
231 The ‘supertrees’ at Singapore’s Gardens by the Bay, inspired by the
huge tropical trees that grace the older parts of the city, contribute
to solar energy generation and the site’s cooling systems. These
constructed ‘trees’ are clad with tropical epiphytes and climbers for
most of their height. As they mature, the climbers will clothe the steel
latticework visible in the photograph   336
232 A south-west-facing wall is an ideal location for growing tender
climbers and shrubs such as Camellia saluenensis, Cytisus battandieri,
Acacia dealbata, Abutilon species and Magnolia grandi�ora
(Bodnant, Wales)   338
233 A well-proportioned pergola with offset posts, furnished with Vitis,
Wisteria and Clematis at Barrington Court, UK   339
234 These steel and wire structures are specially designed to introduce
vegetation into a busy con�ned space in Germany. The climber is
Wisteria   339
235 A robust climber support system using steel rods and tensioned
cables The climber is Tecomanthe speciosa which, when mature, can

41. List of Plates xxxv
be massive and heavy. Its growth will eventually form a green ‘wall’
(Auckland International Airport, New Zealand)   339
236 This structure is designed to be a hybrid between a climber frame
and a fence. Hydrangea petiolaris is able to scramble up the open
timberwork with the aid of occasional tying in to the laths   339
237 Vitis coignetiae rambles through this double row of steel posts with
the aid of wires strung between the posts and forms a sculptural
combination of hard and soft elements at Broadwater Park,
Denham, UK (Design: Preben Jacobsen)   339
238 Alyssum and Aubrieta have colonized and are being maintained over
large areas of this stone retaining wall at Haddon Hall, UK. They
combine well with climbers and other planted species   341
239 River sand forms both the walking surface and a mulch-groundcover
beneath the planting at Jardins Agapanthe, in Normandy. The sand
performs a number of valuable functions: It uni�es the planting,
suggesting the natural beach habitats of plants like the blue-�owered
Eryngium. It also allows plant spacing to vary according to visual
preference and provides a superb colour backdrop to the foliage
and �ower hues of the plants (Design: Alexandre Thomas)   341
240 Rain garden planting in a public park, using New Zealand wetland
species (Auckland New Zealand Design: Nick Robinson)   341

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43. List of Tables
3.1 Plant type by reference to human dimensions   41
9.1 The interaction of process and material in planting design 188
10.1 Period of main interest (northern hemisphere)   233
10.2 Period of �ower (northern hemisphere)   233
11.1 High canopy woodland mix   268
11.2 Planting mix showing proportions   270
11.3 Planting mix showing group sizes   271
11.4 Spacing for each species   272
11.5 Woodland core mix (total area 10,000 square metres) ̠̀ 274
11.6 An example of a wet woodland mix   275
11.7 An example of a New Zealand low forest mix   277
11.8 Birchwood mix   279
11.9 An example of a shrub thicket mix (calcareous soil, UK)   281
11.10 Shrub thicket mix (lowland New Zealand)   281
11.11 Shrub thicket mix (poor soil, New Zealand)   281
11.12 Woodland scrub mix   282
11.13 An example of a tall edge mix   287
11.14 A New Zealand equivalent tall edge mix   287
12.1 Typical plant spacings   327
12.2 Converting spacing to density planting centres   328

44. This page intentionally left blank

45. Preface to the Third Edition
This third edition of The Planting Design Handbook has been comprehensively revised
and updated to account for recent developments in planting design theory and
practice, and changes in accepted plant names. In particular, sections have been added
on the ecology and design potential of herbaceous plant communities, ranging from
wild�ower meadows to naturalistic perennial plantings. This new coverage will
balance the detailed treatment of woodland and shrubland communities which has
been retained from the earlier editions. Many new photographs have been added to
illustrate successful design with herbaceous plants, either in ornamental meadows or as
part of mixed-plant assemblages. The design of the book itself has also been improved,
to give greater emphasis to the visual nature of the subject.
In this edition, like the previous ones, further examples from various parts of the
world have been added to illustrate how the principles and ideas discussed in the text
are realized in a range of climates and cultural se�ings. New Zealand features strongly
because of the author’s practice in that country and because of the need for a book on
planting design that addresses the distinctive character of the vegetation in that country
and the potential for planting design there. Although the �ora of New Zealand is quite
unique, its ecology has links with that of other warm temperate and humid subtropical
regions, so the material will be instructive for designers working in those climates in
other regions. It is hoped that the inclusion of these international examples will make
the handbook widely relevant as well as inspiring designers by illustrating contrasting
approaches and di�erent plant pale�es.
An international focus brings not only interest and variety, but also raises important
issues of plant selection. First, plants must be well suited to the climate of the site. The
plants illustrated in the plates and given as examples in the text are from a range of
climates, and the designer should check on suitability and availability in their own region
of work. To help the designer the location of photos has been given whenever possible.
Second, an understanding of both cultural and ecological context is important when
designing with plants within an existing ecosystem. A plant that is a choice ornamental
in one place (requiring expert care to keep it alive and in good health) may be problematic
in another (requiring costly management to keep it from degrading local biodiversity).
The reverse also applies – plants that are regarded as worthless in one culture may be

46. The Planting Design Handbook xl
of aesthetic, botanical or technological interest in another. The designer should always
check that species proposed will not become pests, and that those to be removed may
not have a special value to another culture or in another context. The examples given in
this book are intended to illustrate design principles and are not recipes for planting. As
a general rule, no plant should be used in design without a thorough knowledge of its
suitability for the local environment, ecology and culture.
A note on the photos: the photos are mostly by the author and have been selected to
illustrate particular points in the argument. They should not overwhelm the text by their
impact as photographs, but rather support it by a visual illustration.

47. Introduction
Planted vegetation is an essential part of our environment. The human landscape we
inhabit results from our manipulation of the inorganic substances and the organic life
forms of Earth. As soon as we consciously modify the vegetation in our human home,
whether to farm, to build or to make a garden, then we create the potential for planting
design. This book is about how to use plants in the planned, designed and managed
landscapes of the twenty-�rst century.
When we design with plants, we, in Ian McHarg’s famous words, ‘design with nature’.
This is true whether we are re-building eroded slopes, re-vegetating cleared forest, or
measuring out an urban garden, because all plants are living, growing, changing things
that form part of the dynamic pa�ern of the natural world. This makes plants quite
di�erent to any other medium of design. A living medium is the planting designer’s
greatest asset; it is also their biggest challenge. They must understand natural forms,
processes and interactions as well as visual and spatial phenomena. To design with
nature does not mean a�empting to imitate natural forms, it means understanding and
working with living processes.
In my work as an educator in landscape architecture and horticulture, and in my
professional experience as a landscape architect, I have become aware of the need for
a comprehensive and focused treatment of planting design. It is my belief – indeed it
is the premise of this book – that planting design is fundamental to landscape design
and to landscape architecture. Planting design can, and should, determine space and
form in the landscape, in both rural and urban places, and at scales great and small. To
relegate planting to the mere �lling of predetermined shapes is to regard it as if it were
a paving material or a cladding unit. Planting is the one medium that makes landscape
design unique among design disciplines and by using its full potential with con�dence
and innovation, designers in the landscape can develop a distinctive professional pro�le.
Much writing about planting design, especially for the garden market, relies heavily on
the notion of personal taste and the e�ects, impacts and displays that plants are capable
of, and much of it about style and fashion. As professional designers, however, we need a
systematic and comparative approach: we need an analytical understanding of the role of
planting in the landscape and to be able to identify and manipulate the basic tangible and
intangible aspects of design with plants. This is, indeed, the subject of this book.

48. The Planting Design Handbook 2
The visual and spatial qualities of planting are fundamental to its aesthetic impact
and I provide a systematic examination of these e�ects. In particular, I aim to convey the
exciting potential of plants as a three-dimensional design medium. At the same time, I
hope to show how lasting success with plants is dependent upon a deep appreciation of
plant form and natural processes.
In the text, I commonly refer to the ‘planting designer’. This is not a professional title;
rather it is a reference to the professional doing the planting design. The planting designer
will often be a landscape architect, but not necessarily. Because planting design is an
integral part of landscape design, much of the advice contained here will be relevant to the
process of landscape design in general, so I hope the book will be particularly helpful to
that profession. It is also aimed at professionals working in amenity horticulture, whether
they are responsible for private gardens, public plantings or corporate landscapes. In
addition, it will be relevant to urban designers, architects and civil engineers, because it
can help them solve aesthetic and technical problems that they encounter, and because
buildings, roads, bridges and other structures often need planting to help them achieve
good site planning.
Some of the principles of spatial and visual design discussed here are shared by
architecture and other three-dimensional design disciplines. All are concerned with the
qualities and experience of form/space and pa�ern. This book aims to show both what
planting designers have in common with other designers, and to explore what makes
living plants a unique medium for design. I hope that the common ground revealed by
this approach will help to promote shared inspiration among everybody who is working
for a be�er environment.
The �rst part of the book examines the principles of design with plants. It explores in
depth the formal qualities of planting and considers the underlying relationship between
these and the ecological and horticultural characteristics of vegetation. Planting design is
a visual subject, so I rely heavily on drawings, diagrams and photographs to support and
complement the text. I hope that these pictures will provide a parallel story to the text.
Part II explores the diversity of processes by which designers develop an idea or solve a
design problem. It traces the design from project inception to its realization on the ground
and shows how design principles can be applied through professional procedures. In
this way, it demonstrates how well-devised procedures can help the creative process.
Each stage is illustrated with examples of professional drawings produced by landscape
architects in practice and students in training. Note, however, that I do not a�empt to
give comprehensive advice on the management of landscape commissions or planting
contracts. This is the subject of a number of publications on professional practice, for
example, Nicola Garmory, Rachel Tennant and Clare Winsch’s Professional Practice
for Landscape Architects (2007) and Walter Rogers’s The Professional Practice of Landscape
Architecture (2010).
The �nal part of the book is entitled Practice. This a�empts to identify good design
technique and illustrate good practice in the choice and arrangement of species for
various kinds of planting. Examples of drawings of actual projects prepared by
landscape designers are used to demonstrate the recommendations of the text. I have
deliberately chosen drawings from everyday practice to demonstrate how ideas are
commonly explored and communicated in landscape professional practice. I have not
used drawings to impress in their own right nor a source book of inspirational images
for landscape illustrators.

49. Introduction 3
The text contains numerous plant names. Both scienti�c names (in italics) and local/
common/vernacular names have been given whenever possible. The scienti�c name
helps us to understand the position of a plant in the scienti�cally ordered plant kingdom
while local names help to give some picture of the plant’s cultural importance. Where no
common name is given this is normally because no such name is in widespread use or
because the common name is the same as or unmistakably similar to the scienti�c name
(for example Rosa = rose). If the reader has any doubt about the identity or common
name of a tree or shrub they can use reference books such as Mark Gri�ths’ Index of
Garden Plants, Geo� Bryant’s Botanica, and Hillier Nurseries’ The Hillier Manual of Trees
and Shrubs. The Royal Horticultural Society, Wikipedia and Wikispecies websites all have
good coverage of species including synonyms but are not exhaustive. There are some
excellent websites on local and regional �oras, such as in New Zealand, www.terrain.
net.nz, and the New Zealand Plant Conservation Network, www.nzpcn.org.nz. If you
are looking for information about local �ora, these specialist websites are usually the
best sources to consult. Readers interested in the Maori names of New Zealand plants
are referred to James Beever’s A Dictionary of Maori Plant Names. Botanical, ecological
and horticultural terms are explained as they are introduced into the text and de�ned
in the Glossary. If further information on such necessary jargon is needed, The Penguin
Dictionary of Botany, edited by S. Blackmore and E. Tootill and published by Allen Lane,
is a comprehensive reference tool.
A brief explanation is needed regarding the use of the word ‘natural’ and ‘wild’ in this
book. It is fully recognized that just about all habitats and all vegetation, wherever they
are found, have been to a greater or lesser extent a�ected by human activity. We humans
are, of course, part of nature and, given that we are natural beings, our creations cannot be
unnatural, any more than a bird’s nest is unnatural. The important point is that there is a
spectrum of human in�uence, from deliberate and intensive to accidental and remote. At
one end are the places and the vegetation least in�uenced by people (Antarctica, perhaps)
and at the other end we �nd those most deliberately created and controlled (the city).
The word ‘natural’ in common use refers to those aspects of the cosmos that are not
human artefacts, or at least those where non-human elements and processes dominate,
and this is the sense in which I will employ the term. Of course, much carefully designed
planting is intended to mimic or make use of natural processes within a planned
framework. From our point of view as designers, what ma�ers is the extent to which we
make use of these processes of plant growth and vegetation development and to what
extent we control and intervene in them.
The colonization of urban wasteland, for example, is a natural process and gives
rise to spontaneous vegetation, which I would refer to as ‘natural’ despite the fact that
it may well be dominated by exotic species introduced to the urban areas by people.
It is the process that ma�ers. I do not �nd the term ‘semi-natural’ helpful, because it
is too tied to the experience of the overwhelmingly cultural landscapes of Europe,
especially the British Isles, and it does not distinguish between degrees of naturalness.
In parts of the world which are less intensively humanized, there remain areas that still
deserve to be called wilderness, far from the urban environment. Although these areas
may have been in�uenced by human activities such as logging, burning, hunting, the
introduction of fauna and �ora, and climate change, they are still places where the
natural, that is non-human, processes dominate and when we go to these areas we
experience wild nature.

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51. PART I
PRINCIPLES

52. This page intentionally left blank

53. 1
Why Design?
What is the purpose of planting design? Plants grow in great quantity and diversity in
all sorts of places without, and often in spite of, our a�entions, so it is quite reasonable
to question the role of planting design in environmental planning and landscape
architecture.
The answer is, I believe, threefold. First, the design of planting helps us to make the
best use of our environment. A landscape that is truly functional is one that provides
for breadth of use and human involvement, and planting design is an essential element
in making and managing this kind of people–place relationship. Liveliness, complexity,
subtlety, resilience, �exibility and sustainability are some of the desirable qualities we can
cultivate with well-designed planting.
Second, planting design is an important part of restoring and maintaining a sustainable
relationship between people and their environment in a context of change, both local
and global. It does this by helping to conserve ecosystems and by enriching, creating
or reconstructing habitats. It also helps simply by introducing living green space where
before there was only a grey place.
Last, but not least, planting design o�ers aesthetic pleasures as complex and intense
as those we might encounter in galleries or concert halls. Its impact can be thought-
provoking, spiritually restoring, emotionally soothing, and stimulate our senses. The
sights, scents and sensations of plants, even the sound made by wind and rain in leaves
and branches – all add to the quality of daily life. Such aesthetic quality is often hard to
quantify, but its e�ect on well-being can be profound.
These three reasons for planting design – use, ecology, and aesthetics – are not
independent. Consider a landscape that gets its basic spatial order from the demands
of cultivation and husbandry. A classic example of this was the English countryside of
hedged �elds, which arose largely from the enclosure of open �elds in the eighteenth
and nineteenth centuries. This ordered framework provided not only containment and
shelter for stock but, as it matured, became an extensive and diverse wildlife habitat.
As well as its role in farming and wildlife, this countryside became one of the nation’s
great assets, a�racting tourists from around the world and representing a key part of the
national identity. It signi�ed a benign balance between production, nature and beauty.

54. The Planting Design Handbook 8
Unfortunately, this integrated and balanced character is now fading fast under pressure
from industrial farming techniques and urban development.
Without forge�ing the interrelationships, let us look a li�le more closely at each
aspect in turn.
Planting Design – an Expression of Function
Throughout history the arrangement and cultivation of plantings has expressed human
use of the land. This has been the case not only with the cultivation of food, timber
and other crops but also in planting which was intended for pleasure and recreation.
The designed forms of the earliest pleasure gardens in Persia were adapted from the
agricultural landscapes of the fertile river plain with its irrigation canals and regularly
spaced fruit trees. In eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England, hedges planted to
enclose �elds were intended to improve farming e�ciency and increase pro�ts. But
the shelter, containment and image of productive order that these hedges provided
also helped to give the English pastoral landscape a distinctive scenic character. The
relationship between usefulness and aesthetic reference is demonstrated by the common
structural role of the hedge in English gardens, particularly from the nineteenth century
onwards. The garden hedge is an echo of the hedged enclosures of the English lowland
countryside – it performs a related role, in a di�erent context and on a smaller scale.
The character and purpose of planting design is as varied as human use of the land.
The landscape designer plans for all kinds and levels of activity, ranging from occasional
visits to private or near-inaccessible landscapes to intensive multiple use of the public
realm in urban centres and recreational landscapes. Planting design has a role in the
landscapes where we live, work, study, play, gather and enjoy our leisure because all
these places need an environment that �ts and facilitates its purpose. It must provide
the right amount of space, the right microclimate and the right scale and character, as
well as speci�c facilities like a path, a seat, lighting and so on. To make a comparison, the
furniture designer creates a seat to sit on; the planting designer creates a place to sit in.
The planting is part of an environment that �ts the function.
Many activities require buildings, roads, car parks, waterways and other built
structures. Planting design is much more than a cosmetic treatment to be applied to
indi�erent or insensitive architecture and engineering in order to ‘soften’ harsh edges
or disguise an awkward layout. It plays a major role in integrating structures in the
environment, directing and articulating movement in the landscape, creating shade
and shelter, repairing damage to ecosystems and creating a place which is comfortable,
a�ractive and welcoming to people. New planting, as well as the skilful conservation of
existing vegetation, is an essential element in good site planning.
If it is well designed, the planting will be an apt expression of the needs of the people
who use a place. A children’s play area is a good example. The basic equipment like
swings and climbing structures allows children to engage in activities, but it does not
create the best environment for play. This needs more. It needs a de�ned and welcoming
place, separated from tra�c for safety, segregating boisterous play from quiet activities,
enclosing for shelter and, to give older children a sense of independence, providing
opportunities for adventure and raw materials for creative and fantasy play. Planting can
provide all of these.

55. Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content

56. Arch at Uxmal.
Immediately eastward of the Casa de Monjas are several ruined
structures shown in the plan, standing on terraces somewhat lower
than those last mentioned. Only one of these, and which one of the
four or five shown on the plan is not stated, has been more than
mentioned by any visitor. This one exception is the House of Birds. A
portion of its front is shown in the preceding cut, which sufficiently
explains the origin of the appellation. The interior is remarkable for
containing two rooms which are larger than any others at Uxmal,
measuring fourteen by fifty-two feet, and about twenty feet in

57. UXMAL—CASA DEL
ADIVINO.
height. One of these apartments has well-preserved traces of the
paint which formerly covered walls and ceiling; and the other has an
arch which differs somewhat from all others in this ancient city. Its
peculiarity is that the overlapping blocks of stone, instead of lying
horizontally as in other cases, are slightly inclined, as is shown in the
cut, forming a nearer approach to the principle of the true arch with
a key-stone than has been found elsewhere in Yucatan. It will also
be noticed in the cut that the blocks, instead of being all in regular
cubical form, are some of them cut elbow-shaped. This is a feature,
which, if it exists in other buildings, has not been particularly
noticed.
[V-48]
Still further eastward are the pyramid and
building at D, on the plan, which have been
called the Casa del Adivino, or Prophet's House;
the Casa del Enano, or Dwarf's House; Tolokh-eis, or Holy Mountain,
and Kingsborough's Pyramid; the first three names originating from
traditions among the natives respecting the former occupants of the
buildings: the latter having been applied by M. Waldeck in honor of
the Irish lord who aided in his explorations. Connecting the Casa del
Adivino with the Nunnery are lines of low mounds, or terraces,
possibly occupied in former times by buildings, forming a courtyard
which measures eighty-five by one hundred and thirty-five feet, and
in the centre of which, at z, is the usual rude column, or picote.
The supporting mound, or pyramid, in this case, from a base of one
hundred and fifty-five by two hundred and thirty-five feet, rounded
at the corners so as to form an oval rather than a rectangular figure,
[V-49]
rises with very steep sides to a height of eighty-eight feet,
forming at the summit a platform twenty-two by eighty-two feet.
The surface of this pyramid is faced with blocks of hewn stone laid in
mortar. The interior is presumably of rough stones in mortar,
although little or nothing is said on this point.
[V-50]
Excavations
prove that the structure is solid without interior galleries. The
surface blocks are cubical, about two feet in dimensions at the base,
if we may trust M. Waldeck's drawing, but diminishing toward the

58. top. They are not laid so as to break joints, yet so solid is the
structure that the powerful leverage of growing roots has caused
comparatively little damage. The eastern front is shown on the
following page. A stairway one hundred and two feet on the slope,
seventy feet wide at the base, but narrowing toward the summit,
composed of ninety steps, each step being about a foot high and
five or six inches wide, leads up this side. The slope of this stairway
is so steep, being inclined at an angle of about eighty degrees, that
visitors have found it very difficult to ascend and descend. Padre
Cogolludo was the first to complain of the steep grade. He says: 'I
once did go up that of Uxumual, and when I would come down, I
did repent me; because so narrow are the steps, and so many in
number, that the edifice goes up exceeding straight, and being of no
small height, the head swims, and there is even some peril in its
descent.'
[V-51]
Casa del Adivino at Uxmal.
In the centre of the western slope of the Prophets Pyramid, toward
the Nunnery, are certain structures, which M. Waldeck represents as
projecting portions of the pyramid, or piers, the lower one forming a

59. platform fifteen by forty feet, sixty feet up the slope; and the upper
rising from this platform and forming a second, twenty by twenty-
five feet, continuous with the main summit platform of the pyramid.
The upper projection, or pier, has since proved to be a distinct
building, with richly sculptured front,
[V-52]
one central door, and two
plain rooms in the interior; the outer one seven by fifteen feet, and
nineteen feet high; the inner, four by twelve feet, and eleven feet
high. The lower pier may have been a similar structure, but it is
completely in ruins below the central platform, except a few slight
traces of rooms near the base. Mr Stephens is disposed to believe
that a broad staircase of peculiar construction, supported by a
triangular arch-like stairways that will be mentioned later in a few
instances in connection with other Yucatan ruins—originally led up to
the front of the building on the slope; otherwise it is difficult to
imagine by what means these apartments could have been reached.
The stones of these projecting portions are longer than elsewhere,
and laid so as to break joints. On the summit platform stands a small
building, twelve feet wide, seventy-two feet long, and about sixteen
feet high, leaving a promenade five feet wide at its base. This
building presents no feature with which the reader is not already
perfectly familiar, except that it contains only one range of rooms,
having no dividing interior wall. The interior is divided into three
rooms, which do not communicate with each other, and are not
plastered. The central room is seven by twenty-four feet, and its
door is on the west, just opposite the platform formed by the
projecting pier. The end rooms are seven by nineteen feet, and open
on the promenade at either side of the eastern stairway.
[V-53]
Cut on the interior walls of the end rooms, seventy-two circular
figures, two or three inches in diameter, have been observed. M.
Waldeck, as usual, has a theory respecting these circles, or rather he
has two in case one should prove unsatisfactory. He thinks they may
have been made by prisoners to kill time, or they may have been a
record of sacrifices consummated in this cu. The sculptured
decorations of the exterior walls are described as elegant but simple.

60. UXMAL—
MISCELLANEOUS
RELICS.
We have here the back-ground of ornamental lattice-work, and
besides this the prominent feature is four full-length human figures
standing on the west front, two on each side of the doorway, and
overlooking the courtyard of the Casa de Monjas. They are the
figures of males, and are naked, except a sort of helmet on the
head, a scarf round the shoulders, and a belt round the waist. The
arms are crossed high on the breast, and each hand holds
something resembling a hammer. The genital organs are represented
in their proper proportions, and were evidently intended by the
sculptor as the prominent feature of the statues. All four had fallen
from their places, even at the time of M. Waldeck's visit, but this
explorer by careful search collected sufficient fragments of the four,
which are precisely alike, to reconstruct one. He intended to bring
these fragments away with him, but his intentions being thwarted by
the emissaries of the Mexican government, he buried the statue in a
locality only known to himself.
[V-54]
It remains to be stated that the
decorations of this Prophet's House, like that of the Nunnery, were
originally painted in bright colors. Blue, red, yellow, and white, were
found by M. Waldeck on the least exposed portions. There can be
but little doubt that this pyramid was a temple where the sacrifices
described in a preceding volume were celebrated. It has been
customary with many writers to speak of it, as of all similar
structures in America, as a Teocalli, the name of such temples in
Anáhuac; but thus to apply an Aztec name to monuments in regions
inhabited by people whose relation to the Aztecs or their ancestors is
yet far from proved, is at least injudicious, since it tends to cause
confusion when we come to consider the subject of aboriginal
history.
[V-55]
All the principal structures of Uxmal have now
been fully described, and as all conclusions and
general remarks respecting this city will be
deferred until I can include in such remarks all
the ruins of the state, I take leave of Uxmal with a mention of a very
few miscellaneous relics spoken of by different travelers.

61. No water has been found in the immediate vicinity of the city, the
dependence having probably been on artificial reservoirs and
aguadas, possibly also on subterranean springs, or senotes, whose
locality is not known. There are several of these aguadas within a
radius of a few miles of Uxmal. They resemble, in their present
abandoned condition, small natural ponds, and their stagnant waters
are thought to have much to do with the unhealthiness of the
locality. They have no appearance of being artificial, but the
inhabitants universally believe them to be so, and Mr Stephens, from
his observations in other parts of the country, is inclined to agree
with the general belief. I have already noticed the dome-shaped
underground apartments which occur frequently among the ruins,
and were probably used as cisterns, or reservoirs, for the storing up
of water for the use of the city. Mr Norman states also that one of
the numerous mounds, that occur in all directions, westward of the
Nunnery, "is found to be an immense reservoir or cistern, having a
double curb; the interior of which was beautifully finished with
stucco, and in good preservation." He further states that some of
these mounds have been opened and "seemed to have been
intended originally for sepulchres," although Mr Stephens could find
no traces of sepulchral relics.
M. Waldeck barely mentions the discovery of small fragments of flint
artificially shaped, but beyond this there is no record of relics in the
shape of implements. Traces of pottery are nearly as rare. Mr
Norman says he found fragments of broken vases on the pyramid E
of the plan; and Mr Stephens found similar fragments in one of the
reservoirs on the platform of the Governor's House, together with a
nearly complete tripod vase, one foot in diameter, with enameled
surface.
Mr Friederichsthal found on a low mound five stones lying, as he
states, from north-west to south-west (?), the middle one of which
was over twelve feet long and covered with carved figures.
A native reported to Sr Zavala that he had seen a stone table,
painted red, located in a cellar, and indicating a place of sacrifice.

62. This report would not be worth recording were it not for the fact that
similar tables are of frequent occurrence in Chiapas, as will be seen
in the following chapter.
The Abbé Domenech has something to say of Uxmal antiquities; he
says that "carved figures representing Boudha of Java, seated on a
Siva's head, were found at Uxmal, in Yucatan."
[V-54]
One and a half hour's ride westward from Uxmal a mound
surmounted with ruins, called Senuisacal, was seen at a distance;
and about the same distance north-westward, not far from Muna,
was found one of the typical buildings on a mound. This building
was nearly entire, except that the outer walls above the cornice had
fallen. Between this place and Uxmal, about five miles from the
latter, is a mound with two buildings, to which the same description
will apply. These ruins were seen by Mr Stephens during a hasty trip
from Uxmal, unaccompanied by his artist companion. Ruins observed
still further westward will be included in another group.
[V-55]
In describing the ruins outside of Uxmal which compose the central
group, and which may for the most part be passed over rapidly from
their similarity to each other and to those already described, I shall
locate each by bearing and distance as accurately as possible, and
all the principal localities are also laid down on the map. This matter
of location is not, however, very important. The whole central region
is strewn with mounds bearing ruined buildings; some of these have
received particular attention from the natives and from travelers, and
have consequently been named. I shall describe them by the names
that have been so applied, but it must be noted that very few of
these names are in any way connected with the aboriginal cities;
they were mostly applied at first to particular structures, and later to
the ruins in their immediate vicinity; consequently several of the
small groups which have been honored with distinct names, may, in
many instances, have formed a part of the same city.
At Sacbé,—meaning a 'paved road of white stone,' a name derived
from such a paved way in the vicinity, which will be mentioned later,

63. —four or five miles south-east of Uxmal, besides other 'old walls' is a
group of three buildings. One of them is twelve and a half by fifty-
three feet; none, however, present any peculiar feature, save that in
one of the doorways two columns appear.
[V-56]
Pyramid of Xcoch.
Somewhat less than ten miles eastward of Uxmal is the town of
Nohcacab, 'the great place of good land,' preserving the name of an
aboriginal town which formerly existed somewhere in this vicinity. In
this village are several mounds; and a sculptured head, with
specimens of pottery, has been dug up in the plaza. The surrounding
country within a radius of a few miles abounds in ruins, two of which
are particularly mentioned. The first is known as Xcoch, and consists

64. Nohpat
Sculpture.
THE PYRAMID OF
XCOCH.
SKULLS AND
CROSSBONES AT
NOHPAT.
of the pyramid shown in the cut. It is
between eighty and ninety feet high, plainly
visible from the Prophet's House at Uxmal,
but the buildings on its summit, like its sides,
are almost completely in ruins, although
traces of steps yet remain. Great and
marvelous stories were told by the natives
concerning a senote, or well, in this vicinity;
and it proved indeed to be a most wonderful
cavern with branching subterranean galleries,
worn by the feet of ancient carriers of water;
but it was entirely of natural formation, a
single block of sculptured stone, with the
worn paths being the only traces of man's
presence. The second of the ruins is that of
Nohpat, 'great lord,' three miles from
Nohcacab toward Uxmal, whose buildings are
plainly visible from it, and of which it may, not
improbably, have been a continuation or
dependency. A mound, or pyramid, two
hundred and fifty feet long at the base, and
one hundred and fifty feet high on the slope,
with a nearly perfect stairway on the southern
side, supports a portion of a dilapidated building,
which overlooks the numerous ruins scattered
over the plain at its foot. A single corridor, or
room, is left intact, and is only three feet and
five inches wide. At the foot of the stairway is a
platform with a picote, as at Uxmal, in its centre.
There was also lying at the foot of the steps, the flat stone
represented in the cut, measuring eleven and one third feet in
length by three feet ten inches in width. The human figure in low
relief on its surface is very rudely carved, and was moreover much
defaced by the rains to which for many years it had been exposed.
Near the pyramid another platform, two hundred feet square, and
raised about twenty feet, supports buildings at right angles with

65. each other, one of which has two stories built after a method which
will be made clear in describing other ruins. The only others of the
many monuments of Nohpat which throw any additional light on
Yucatan antiquities, are those found on a level spot, whose shape is
that of a right-angled triangle with a mound at each angle. Here are
many scattered blocks and fragments, two of which united formed
the statue shown in the cut on the next page. It is four and a
quarter feet high and a foot and a half in diameter. The face seems
to be represented as looking sideways or backward over the
shoulder, and is surmounted by a head-dress in which the head of a
wild beast may be made out, recalling slightly the idols which we
have already seen in Nicaragua. Other statues might doubtless be
reconstructed by means of a thorough search, but only the stone
blocks shown in the cut are particularly mentioned. They are twenty-
seven inches high and from sixteen to twenty-two inches wide,
bearing alternately sculptured on their fronts the skull and cross-
bones, symbols in later times—perhaps also when these carvings
were made—of death. In its original condition Nohpat may not
unlikely have been as grand a city as Uxmal, but it is almost
completely in ruins.
[V-57]
Statues at Nohpat.

66. RUINS OF KABAH.
Skull and Crossbones.
Interior Steps at Kabah.
In the same region, some five or six miles southward from
Nohcacab, and perhaps ten or twelve miles south-eastward from
Uxmal, is a most extensive group of ruins, probably the remains of
an ancient city, known as Kabah. Sixteen different structures are
located in a space about two thousand by three thousand feet, on
Mr Stephens' plan, which, however, was not formed by
measurements, but by observation from the top of a pyramid.
Norman is the only visitor, except Stephens and Catherwood, and his
description amounts to nothing. I proceed to describe such of Kabah
monuments as differ in construction and sculpture from those we
have previously examined, and consequently throw additional light
on Maya architecture.
A mound forms a summit platform, raised twenty feet, and
measuring one hundred and forty-two by two hundred feet.

67. Ascending the terrace from its south-western side, buildings of the
ordinary type appear on the right and left; the former resting on the
slope instead of on the summit of the terrace,—that is, the rear wall,
of great thickness, rises perpendicularly from the base. In the centre
of the platform is an enclosure seven feet high and twenty-seven
feet square, formed of hewn stones, the lower tier of which was
sculptured with a continuous line of hieroglyphics extending round
the circumference. No picote, however, was found within the
enclosure. Directly in front, or on the north-east side of the platform,
a stairway of twenty steps, forty feet wide, leads up to a higher
terrace, the arrangement being much like that of the northern
building of the Casa de Monjas at Uxmal. But in this case the upper
platform, instead of being long and narrow as usual, is nearly
square, and supports a building of the same shape, whose front at
the top of the stairway measures one hundred and fifty-one feet.
The advanced state of ruin in which the whole structure was found,
made it difficult to form an idea of its original plan, and Mr Stephens'
description in this case fails to present clearly the idea which he
formed on the subject. The front portion of the edifice, however,
which is the best preserved of all, has two double ranges of
apartments, separated by a very thick wall, and all under the same
roof. Two peculiarities were noted in these rooms. The inner rooms
of the front range have their floors two feet and eight inches higher
than the outer, and are entered from the latter by two stone steps;
while in one case at least these steps are cut from a single block of
stone, the lower step taking the form of a scroll, and the walls at the
sides are covered with carvings, as shown in the cut. Over the rear
wall of the front range rises a structure of hewn stone four feet thick
and fifteen feet high, which, like the turrets over the northern
building of the Nunnery and the Casa de Palomas at Uxmal, could
only have been intended as an ornament, but which from the
ground beneath presents every appearance of a second story. The
exterior sculpture of this front, except a small portion at the
northern end, has fallen, but enough remains to indicate that the
decorations were most rich and elaborate, though uniform; and,
unlike those of any structure yet met with, they covered the whole

68. surface of the front, both above and below the central cornice. The
cut shows the general appearance of these decorations.
[V-58]
This
building is called by the natives Xcoↄpoop, or 'straw hat doubled up.'
Sculptured Front at Kabah.
At a short distance from the ruin just described, in a north-easterly
direction, is another group, the details of whose arrangement, in the
absence of a carefully prepared plan, it is useless to attempt to
describe, but three new features presented by these ruins require
notice. First, one of them, from a base of one hundred and six by
one hundred and forty-seven feet, is built in three receding stories.
That is, the roof of each story, or range, forms a platform, or
promenade, before the doors of the one above; or, in other words,
the stories are built one above another on the slope of a pyramid.
Second, an exterior staircase leads up from story to story. These
staircases are supported by half of one of the regular triangular
arches resting against the top of the wall of the buildings. The
accompanying cut, although not representing this or any other
particular building, is intended as a half section to illustrate the
construction of the Maya structures in several stories, and that of the

69. stairways which afford access to the upper stories; a being the solid
mound, or terrace; bb, the apartments or corridors; d, the staircase;
and c, an open passage under the half arch of overlapping stones
that supports the stairway. In this Kabah building the stairway
leading to the foot of the third story is not immediately over the
lower one, but in another part of the edifice. The third peculiarity is
a double one, and is noticed in some of the doorways; since here for
the first time we find lintels of stone, supported each by a central
column, about six feet high, of rude workmanship, with square
blocks serving as pedestal and capital.
[V-59]
Yucatan Structure in Three Stories.
The Casa de Justicia, or Court House, is one hundred and thirteen
feet long, divided into five rooms, each nine by twenty feet. The
outer wall of this building is plain, except groups of three pillars each
between the doorways, and four rows of short pilasters that
surround it above the cornice, standing close together like the
similar ornaments on the Casa de Tortugas at Uxmal.

70. Arch at Kabah.
The solitary arch shown in the cut stands on a mound by itself. Its
span is fourteen feet, and its top fallen. "Darkness rests upon its
history, but in that desolation and solitude, among the ruins around,
it stood like the proud memorial of a Roman triumph."
[V-60]
Kabah is
not without its pyramid, which is one hundred and eighty feet square
at the base, and eighty feet high, with traces of ruined apartments
at the foot. In one of the buildings the two principal doorways are
under the stairway which leads up to the second story, and over one
of them was a wooden lintel ten feet long, composed of two beams

71. and covered with carving that seemed to represent a human figure
standing on a serpent. Mr Stephens carried these carved beams,
which were in almost a perfect state of preservation, to New York,
where they were burned. He considered them the most important
relics in the country, although his drawing does not indicate them to
be anything very remarkable, except as bearing a clearly cut and
complicated carving, executed on exceedingly hard wood without
implements of iron or steel. The building with the sculptured lintel,
and another, stand on an immense terrace, measuring one hundred
by eight hundred feet. One of the apartments has the red hand in
bright colors imprinted in many places on its walls. A stucco
ornament, painted in bright colors, much dilapidated, but apparently
having represented two large birds facing each other, was found in a
room of another building. In still another edifice, a room is described
as constructed on a new and curious plan, having "a raised platform
about four feet high, and in each of the inner corners was a rounded
vacant place, about large enough for a man to stand in." Another
new feature was a doorway—the only one in the building to which it
belonged—with sculptured stone jambs, each five feet eleven inches
high, two feet three inches wide, and composed of two blocks one
above the other. The sculptured designs are similar one to the other,
each consisting of a standing and kneeling figure over a line of
hieroglyphics. One of these decorated jambs is shown in the cut
given on the following page. The weapon in the hands of the
kneeling figure corresponds almost exactly with the flint-edged
swords used by the natives of the country at the time of the
conquest. This group of ruins, representing an aboriginal city
probably larger and more magnificent even than Uxmal, was
discovered by the workmen who made the road, or camino real, on
which the ruins stand; but so little interest did the discovery excite in
the minds of travelers over the road, that the knowledge of it did not
reach Mérida.
[V-61]

72. RUINS OF SANACTÉ.
Sculptured Door-Jamb at Kabah.
In this immediate vicinity, located on the road to Equelchacan, a
place not to be found on any map that I have seen, some artificial
caverns are reported, probably without any sufficient authority.
[V-62]

73. Front of Building at Sanacté.
Southward and south-eastward of Kabah, all included within a radius
of eight or ten miles, are ruins at Sanacté, Xampon, Chack,
Sabacché, Zayi, and Labná, the last two being extensive and
important. At Sanacté are two buildings, which stand in a milpa, or
cornfield. One has a high ornamental wall on its top, and the front of
another appears as represented in the cut. It will be noticed that in
this, as in most of the structures in this region, the doorways have
stone jambs, or posts, each of two pieces, instead of being formed
simply by the blocks that compose the walls; the lintels are also
generally of stone. At Xampon are the remains of a building that was
built continuously round a rectangle eighty by one hundred and five
feet; it is mostly fallen. In the immediate vicinity ruins of the

74. RUINS OF ZAYI.
ordinary type are mentioned under the names of Hiokowitz, Kuepak,
and Zekilna. At Chack a two-storied building stands on a terrace,
which is itself built on the summit of a natural stony hill. A very
remarkable feature at Chack is the natural senote which supplies
water to the modern as it did undoubtedly to the ancient
inhabitants. It is a narrow passage, or succession of passages and
small caverns, penetrating the earth for over fifteen hundred feet,
much of the distance the descent being nearly vertical. At Sabacché
is a building of a single apartment, whose front presents the
peculiarity of four cornices, dividing the surface into four nearly
equal portions, the lower cornice being as usual at the height of the
top of the doorway. The first space above the doorway is plain, like
that below; but the two upper spaces are divided by pilasters into
panels, which are filled with diamond lattice-work. Three other
buildings were visited, and one of them sketched by Catherwood,
but they present no new features except that the red hand, common
here as elsewhere, is larger than usual.
[V-63]
Casa Grande at Zayi.
At Zayi, situated in the midst of a beautiful landscape of rolling hills,
the principal edifice, called the Casa Grande, is built in three
receding stories, as already explained, extending round the four

75. sides of the supporting mound, which rests on a slight natural
elevation. The lower story is one hundred and twenty by two
hundred and sixty-five feet; the second, sixty by two hundred and
twenty feet; and the third, standing on the summit of the mound, is
eighteen by one hundred and fifty feet. The cut shows the ground
plan of the Casa Grande, much of which is fallen. A stairway thirty-
two feet wide leads up to the third story on the front, and a
narrower stairway to the second platform on the rear. Ten of the
northern rooms in the second story are completely filled with stone
and mortar, which for some unimaginable reason must have been
put in while the structure was being built. This part of the building is
known among the natives as the Casa Cerrada, or closed house. It
will be noticed from the plan that the front and rear platforms are
not exactly of the same width. With respect to the exterior walls,
those of the lower range are nearly all fallen. The western portion of
the front of the second range is shown in the cut on the following
page. Ranges of pillars, or pilasters, compose the bulk of the
ornamentation, both above and below the cornice. A strange if not
very artistic and delicate decoration found elsewhere on this
building, is the figure of a man standing on his hands with his legs
spread apart. The lintels are of stone, and many of the doorways are
of triple width, in which cases the lintel is supported by two rudely-
formed columns, about six and a half-feet high, with square capitals,
as shown in the following cut. The front of the third range appears
to have been entirely plain. In another building near by "a high
projection running along the wall" in the interior of an apartment is
mentioned. Some five hundred yards directly south of the Casa
Grande is a low, small, flat-roofed building, with a wide archway
extending completely through it. It is much dilapidated, and hardly
noticeable in itself, but from the centre of its flat roof rises the
extraordinary structure shown in the cut, which is a perpendicular
wall, two feet thick and thirty feet high, pierced with ranges of
openings, or windows, which give it, as the discoverer remarks, the
appearance of a New England factory. The stone of which it is
constructed is rough, and it was originally covered with ornaments in
stucco, a few of which still remain on the rear. The only other Zayi

76. monument mentioned is an immense terrace about fifteen hundred
feet square. Most of its surface was not explored, but one building
was noticed and sketched in which the floor of the inner range of
rooms is raised two feet and a half above that of the front range,
being reached by steps, as was the case in the building at Kabah,
already described. The interior wall was also decorated with a row of
pilasters. The superstitious natives, like those I have spoken of at
Utatlan in Guatemala, hear mysterious music every Good Friday,
proceeding from among the ruins.
[V-64]
Front of Casa Grande at Zayi.

77. RUINS OF LABNÁ.
Wall at Zayi.
The ruins of Labná comprise some buildings equal
in extent and magnificence to any in Yucatan, but
all far gone in decay. In one case a mound forty-
five feet in height supports a building twenty by forty-three feet, of
the ordinary type, except that its southern front is a perpendicular
wall, thirty feet high above the cornice over the doorways. This front
has no openings like other similar walls already noticed, but was
originally covered throughout its whole surface with colossal
ornaments in stucco, of which but a few small fragments remained,
the whole structure being, when examined, on the point of falling.
Among the figures of which sufficient portions remain to identify
their original form, are: a row of death's heads, two lines of human
figures in high relief, an immense seated human figure, a ball, or
globe, supported by a man kneeling on one knee and by another
standing at its side. All the figures were painted in bright colors still
visible, and the whole structure appeared to its only visitors "the
most curious and extraordinary" seen in the country. Another
building, surrounding a courtyard, which was entered through a
gateway, differed in its plan from those seen elsewhere, but the plan
unfortunately is not given. Over each of the interior, or court,
doorways, on one side at least, is a niche occupied by a painted
stucco ornament supposed to represent the sun. Near by, a terrace
four hundred feet long and one hundred and fifty feet wide supports
a building of two receding stories with a front of two hundred and
eighty-two feet. The upper story consists of a single line of
apartments and its walls are perfectly plain. The lower story has a

78. double line of rooms, and its front is elaborately sculptured, the chief
peculiarity in this front being that it presents three distinct styles in
as many portions of the wall. The opposite cut shows a corner of
this wall in which the open mouth of an alligator or monster, from
which looks out a human face, is a new and remarkable feature in
Maya decoration. On the roof of the lower range is a narrow opening
which leads vertically to a chamber like those found so frequently at
Uxmal, except that this, instead of being dome-shaped, is like the
ordinary rooms, with triangular-arched ceiling, being seven by eleven
feet and ten feet high. Both sides and bottom are covered with
cement, and there is nothing but its position in the mass of masonry,
between the arches and over the interior apartments, to indicate
that it was not originally used as a cistern for storing water. There is
also in connection with the ruins of Labná an entrance to what may
well be supposed to have been a subterranean senote like those
noticed at Xcoch and Chack, but it could not be explored. It was
noted that the natives about Labná, had much less superstitious fear
respecting the spirits of the antiguos haunting the ruins than those
of most other localities, although even they had no desire to explore
the various apartments.

79. Corner at Labná.
At Tabi, a few leagues distant, is a heap of ruins, from which
material had been taken for the construction of a modern church,
and many sculptured fragments had been inserted in the walls of the
hacienda buildings. A stream of water was pouring from the open
mouth of a stone idol, possibly worshiped by the ancient inhabitants;
"to such base uses," etc. A cave near by was the subject of much
marvelous report, but its exploration led to nothing in an antiquarian
point of view.
[V-65]

80. XUL, SACACAL, AND
CHACCHOB.
At Kewick, seven or eight miles southward of Labná, a large space is
strewn with the remains of a ruined city, the casa real itself being
built on the terrace of an ancient mound. One single stone, however,
among these ruins demands the attention of the reader, familiar as
he now is with the general features of ancient Maya art. This stone
is one of those which compose the top layer, joining the sides of the
ceiling in one of the apartments. Singled out for some inexplicable
reason from its fellows, it bore a painting in bright colors, chiefly red
and green, representing a grotesquely adorned human form
surrounded by a line of hieroglyphics. The painting measured
eighteen by thirty inches and was taken out from its place by Mr
Stephens for the purpose of removal, but proved too heavy for that
purpose. Two fronts were sketched by Mr Catherwood at Kewick;
one had a line of pillars separated by diamond-shaped ornaments on
each side of the doorway; the other was decorated also with a line
of pillars, or pilasters, standing close together, as on the Casa de
Tortugas at Uxmal.
[V-66]
Xul, a modern village near by, stands also on the
site of an aboriginal town, and the cura's
residence is built of material from an ancient
mound, many sculptured stones occupying prominent places in the
walls; the church moreover contains sixteen columns from the
neighboring ruins of Nohcacab. Two leagues from Xul where some
ruins were seen, two apartments had red paintings on the plastered
walls and ceilings. A row of legs, suggesting a procession, heads
decorated with plumes, and human figures standing on their hands,
all well-drawn and natural to the life, were still visible, and
interesting even in their mutilated state. The rancho buildings at
Nohcacab—a second place of the same name as the one already
mentioned towards Uxmal—are also decorated with relics from the
'old walls,' but nothing of interest was seen in connection with the
ruins themselves, except one room in which the ceiling formed an
acute angle at the top instead of being united by a layer of
horizontal stones as in other places.
[V-67]

81. Some leagues further eastward, in the neighborhood of the town of
Tekax, ruins are mentioned at Sacacal, Ticum, Santa María, and
Chacchob. At Sacacal is a chamber with an opening at the top, as at
Labná, only much larger; and this one has also three recesses, about
two feet deep, in the sides. An apartment here has a painted stone
in the top layer as at Kewick; and one building has its wall rounded
instead of straight, although this is only on the exterior, the inner
surface being straight as usual. The remains at Ticum were only
reported to exist by the Cura of San José. At Santa María a high
mound only was seen.
[V-68]
At Chacchob ruins of the usual type are
represented, by a Spanish writer in a Yucatan magazine, to be
enclosed within a wall, straight from north to south, the rest of the
circumference of over six thousand feet being semi-circular. The only
entrance is in the centre of the straight side. A well occupies the
centre of the enclosure, the chief pyramid is on the summit of a
natural elevation, and in one room a door was noticed which was
much wider at the top than at the bottom. On the edge of a wall
eight hundred varas distant, grooves worn by the ropes formerly
used in drawing water are still to be seen.
[V-69]
Further north, in the north-eastern corner of the rectangle which
contains our central group of ruins, are Akil and Mani, the relics of
the former locality, so far as known, being chiefly built into the walls
of modern buildings. Mani was a prominent city at the time of the
conquest, and the modern village stands on the remains of the
aboriginal town, mounds and other relics not described being yet
visible. Mr Stephens here found some documents, dating back to the
coming of the Spaniards, which are of great importance in
connection with the question of the antiquity of the Yucatan ruins,
and will be noticed when I come to speak of that point. The only
monuments of the central group remaining to be mentioned are
those of Chunhuhu, in the extreme south-western corner of the
rectangle. These are very extensive, evidently the remains of a large
city, and several of the buildings were sketched by Mr Catherwood,
being of one story, and having grotesque human figures as a

82. RUINS OF CHICHEN
ITZA.
prominent feature in their exterior decoration. One is plastered on
the outside, as Mr Stephens thinks all the Yucatan buildings may
have been originally—that is, on the plain portions of their walls.
One front has the frequently noticed line of close-standing pilasters,
with full-length human figures at intervals, which stand with uplifted
hands, as if supporting the weight of the upper cornice.
[V-70]
The next, or eastern, group of Yucatan
antiquities includes little beside the ruined city of
Chichen Itza,
[V-71]
a city which was famous in
the ancient traditionary annals of the Mayas, whose structures
served both natives and Spaniards as fortifications at the time of the
conquest, and whose ruins have been more or less known to the
inhabitants of the country since that epoch. The ruins lie twenty
miles west of Valladolid, the chief town of the eastern portion of the
state, on a public road in plain view of all travelers by that route. In
this case the original Maya name has been retained, Chichen
meaning 'mouth of wells,' and Itza being the name of a branch of
the Maya people, or of a royal family, which played a most
prominent part in Yucatan history. The name Chichen comes
probably from two great senotes which supplied the ancient city with
water, and which differ from the complicated underground passages
noted in other parts of the state, being immense natural pits of great
depth, with nearly perpendicular sides, the only traces of artificial
improvement being in the winding steps that lead down to the
water's surface, and slight remains of a wall about the edge of the
precipice. So far as explored, the remains may be included in a
rectangle measuring two thousand by three thousand feet, and their
arrangement is shown in the plan on the next page, made by Mr
Catherwood.
[V-72]

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