The Qualitative Research Method-Ethnography

Qualitative Research

1. Definition: Ethnography is a qualitative research method used to study people in their natural environments by observing their behaviors, practices, and interactions. WHAT IS ETHNOGRAPHY? Origin: Derived from anthropology, ethnography focuses on understanding cultural and social phenomena through immersion in the field, allowing for contextual insights.

2. Three Characteristics of Ethnography Ethnography as a Methodology: Provides a framework for investigating social groups and practices, offering holistic perspectives. Emphasizes understanding the meaning and context behind human behavior.

3. 2. Ethnography as a Toolbox of Methods: Utilizes multiple methods (e.g., observations, interviews, document collection) to explore cultural phenomena. This flexibility allows ethnographers to adapt to diverse research settings. 3. Ethnography as a Product of the Research Process: The outcome is a detailed narrative that combines rich descriptions with analytical insights into the group’s cultural practices.

4. ACTIONING ETHNOGRAPHY - PLANNING 1. Planning Issues: Access: Gaining entry to the community being studied, which requires building trust with participants. Ethics: Ensuring informed consent and protecting confidentiality are critical ethical considerations. 2. Sampling: Non-random sampling is used, focusing on individuals or groups who provide rich insights into the research question.

5. ACTIONING ETHNOGRAPHY - UNDERTAKING THE RESEARCH Data Collection: Participant Observation : The researcher actively participates while observing. In-depth Interviews : Allows for understanding individuals’ perspectives in detail.

6. Data Collection: Life Histories : Exploring participants' personal stories and histories to provide context. Documentary Data : Collecting documents or artifacts related to the study.

7. ACTIONING ETHNOGRAPHY - DATA COLLECTION Triangulation: Using multiple data sources (e.g., interviews, observations, documents) to enhance the credibility of findings. Reflexivity in Ethnography: Acknowledging the researcher’s subjectivity and how personal biases might influence the research process.

8. ANALYZING DATA • Using Technology in Data Analysis: Ethnographers can utilize software tools (e.g., NVivo) to assist in coding and categorizing data. • Writing Up: Thick descriptions provide detailed accounts of the cultural context, followed by analysis and interpretation.

9. EVALUATING THE QUALITY OF ETHNOGRAPHIC WORK Credibility: Ensuring the research accurately reflects participants' experiences. Transferability : The potential to apply findings to other settings. Dependability: The consistency of research processes and findings. Confirmability : Ensuring findings are grounded in the data rather than researcher bias.

10. METHODOLOGICAL AND THEORETICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN ETHNOGRAPHY Ethnography has evolved with new methodologies and theoretical frameworks. This allows ethnographers to address complex social and cultural phenomena with different perspectives.

11. TYPES OF ETHNOGRAPHY Classical/Traditional/Realist Ethnography: Focuses on providing an objective, descriptive account of a group. Genre Ethnography: Examines specific genres or forms of culture (e.g., music, art, sports). Rapid Ethnography: A quicker approach, often used when time or access is limited. Feminist Ethnography: Focuses on gender dynamics and women’s experiences.

12. Critical Ethnography: Examines power structures, often with the aim of social change. Online Ethnography: Studying online communities and digital spaces. Duoethnography : A collaborative approach where two researchers share their perspectives. Autoethnography: The researcher uses their own experiences to explore cultural phenomena.

13. THEORY AND ETHNOGRAPHY Theoretical Discovery: Generating new theories from the data that emerge during the ethnographic process. Theoretical Extension: Building on existing theories by applying them to new settings or groups. Theoretical Refinement: Fine-tuning and improving theories through ethnographic research.

14. ETHNOGRAPHY IN MEDICAL EDUCATION Looking Back: Ethnography has been used in medical education to explore teaching, learning, and socialization processes within medical settings. Scoping Review: A review of ethnographic studies in medical education helps identify key themes and methodologies used.

15. ETHNOGRAPHY IN MEDICAL EDUCATION - FINDINGS Medical Culture Ethnographic studies reveal how medical students are socialized into the profession through clinical rotations, mentoring, and interactions with patients. Hidden Curriculum These studies uncover the implicit norms and values passed on in medical training that influence student behavior and attitudes.

16. ETHNOGRAPHY IN MEDICAL EDUCATION - DISCUSSION Ethnography provides in-depth insights into the culture of medical schools and hospitals. It sheds light on how power dynamics, hierarchies, and informal learning structures impact the education and socialization of medical professionals.

17. CHALLENGES IN ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH IN MEDICAL EDUCATION Access: Gaining entry to medical settings, especially for sensitive research involving students or patients. Ethical Issues: Balancing participant confidentiality and informed consent while researching within clinical environments. Time Constraints: Ethnographic studies are typically long-term, and this can conflict with time-sensitive academic and medical training schedules.

18. Ethnography offers rich insights into social contexts and is invaluable in fields like medical education. CONCLUSION By combining thick descriptions with reflexive analysis, ethnographers uncover the complexities of teaching, learning, and professional development. Future Ethnographic Work in education and healthcare will continue to push the boundaries of how we understand and improve institutional cultures.

19. REFERENCES Aspers, P., & Corte, U. (2019). What is Qualitative in Qualitative Research? Qualitative Sociology, 42(2), 139-160. Scott Reeves, Jennifer Peller, Joanne Goldman & Simon Kitto (2013) Ethnography in qualitative educational research: AMEE Guide No. 80, Medical Teacher, 35:8, e1365-e1379, DOI: 10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3109/0142159X.2013.804977

20. How Phenomenology Can Help Us Learn From the Experiences of Others Stephanie Claire A. de Paz

21. Phenomenon a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose cause or explanation is in question

22. Phenomenology Qualitative research Study of phenomena or an individual’s lived experiences

23. Phenomenology Transcendental Hermeneutic (descriptive) (interpretive)

24. Edmund Husserl father of phenomenology TRANSCENDENTAL PHENOMENOLOGY “pure phenomenology” “understand the phenomenon AS IT IS” “to DESCRIBE without imposing any preconceptions or interpretations”

25. EXAMPLE :

26. Transcendental Subjectivity GOAL: TABULA RASA

27. Steps of Reduction: Transcendental Stage Transcendental-Phenomenological Reduction Imaginative Variation 1. Bracketing ( epoche ) 2. Horizonalization 3. Clustering 4. Textualization OTHER TERMS “ Universal Essences ”

28. Martin Heidegger Husserl’s student HERMENEUTIC PHENOMENOLOGY “to INTERPRET experiences and phenomena via the individual’s lifeworld”

29. Interpretive Process: Identify an interesting phenomenon Investigate experience Reflect on the essential themes Write → Reflect → Write Maintain a strong orientation to the phenomenon under study Consider how the data (the parts) contribute to the understanding of the phenomena (the whole)

30. EXAMPLE :

31. Three Contemporary Approaches to Phenomenology Lifeworld Research Post-intentional Phenomenology Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA)

32. Lifeworld Research Key figures: Peter Ashworth & Karin Dahlberg Explores how daily experiences manifest in the life-world of individuals through consideration of selfhood, sociality, embodiment, temporality, and spatiality

33. EXAMPLE :

34. Post-intentional Phenomenology Key figure: Mark Vagle Treats the phenomenon as the unit of analysis but asserts that phenomena are multiple, partial, contextual, and in flux

35. Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) Key figure: Jonathan Smith The researcher performs an active role in the interpretive process.

36. References : Høgmo , B. K., Bondas , T., & Alstveit , M. (2021). Going blindly into the women’s world: a reflective lifeworld research study of fathers’ expectations of and experiences with municipal postnatal healthcare services. International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-Being, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/17482631.2021.1918887 How do you compare and contrast different types of phenomenological data analysis methods? (2023, September 1). https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/how-do-you-compare-contrast-different-types-phenomenological Mole, L., Kent, B., Hickson, M., & Abbott, R. (2019). ‘It’s what you do that makes a difference’ An interpretative phenomenological analysis of health care professionals and home care workers experiences of nutritional care for people living with dementia at home. BMC Geriatrics, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-019-1270-4 Mukherjee, P. (2023). Denial, Resilience, Resignation or Acceptance—What leads to career success? A post-intentional phenomenological study among Indian women. In Springer proceedings in business and economics (pp. 763–781). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0197-5_48 Neubauer, B. E., Witkop, C. T., & Varpio , L. (2019). How phenomenology can help us learn from the experiences of others. Perspectives on medical education, 8, 90-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40037-019-0509-2 Tudy , R. A., & Gauran-Tudy , I. (2020). Struggles, coping mechanisms, and insights of childless teachers in the Philippines: A descriptive phenomenological approach. The Qualitative Report, 25(5), 1256-1278. https://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol25/iss5/7 Van Oorsouw , R., Klooster , E., Koenders, N., Van Der Wees, P. J., Van Den Boogaard, M., & Oerlemans, A. J. M. (2022). Longing for homelikeness : A hermeneutic phenomenological analysis of patients’ lived experiences in recovery from COVID‐19‐associated intensive care unit acquired weakness. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 78(10), 3358–3370. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.15338

37. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick, 2008) Evan Mae D. Lavisores

38. DATA COLLECTION Data collection is a crucial stage in any research study, enabling researchers to gather information essential for answering research questions, testing hypotheses, and achieving study objectives ( Karunarathna et al., 2024).

39. QUALITATIVE DATA Qualitative data is non-numerical information represented through words, descriptions, and observations. This type of data is typically collected using unstructured methods such as interviews, observations, and document reviews , aiming to gain deeper insights into phenomena.

40. INTERVIEW Interviews are a fundamental method of data collection that involves asking questions directly to participants and recording their responses which allows researchers to obtain more in-depth and confidential information.

41. 3 Types of Qualitative Research Interviews Structured Unstructured Semi-structured

42. Structured Interviews Verbally administered questionnaires with predetermined questions. No variation or follow-up questions. Quick and easy to administer. Useful when clarification is needed or for respondents with literacy/numeracy issues. Limited in-depth responses.

43. Uns tructured Interviews No preconceived theories or ideas. Performed with little or no organization Open-ended, evolving from the participant’s initial response. Time-consuming and difficult to manage. Can be confusing for participants due to lack of guidance. Best for obtaining deep insights or exploring unknown subjects.

44. Semi-s tructured Interviews Consist of several key questions that help define the area or subject to be explored. Allow the interviewer and interviewee to diverge to pursue an idea or response in more detail. Provide participants with guidance on what to talk about while maintaining flexibility. Enable the discovery and elaboration of important information that may not have been initially considered.

45. The Purpose of Research Interviews To explore the views, experiences, beliefs, and motivations of individuals on specific matters. To provide a deeper understanding of social phenomena. Most appropriate when little is known about the study phenomenon or when detailed insights are required from individual participants. Suitable for exploring sensitive topics.

46. Developing the Interview: The Process Before the Interview: Educate the Respondent – Inform them about the study details and assure them of ethical principles such as anonymity and confidentiality. Choose an Appropriate Setting – Conduct the interview in a quiet, distraction-free environment. Establish Rapport – Build trust and comfort with the respondent. Familiarize Yourself with the Interview Schedule – Be well-prepared and flexible in following the interview guide.

47. Key Interview Skills: - Attentive listening - Open and emotionally neutral body language. - Strategic use of silence. - Reflecting on the respondent’s remarks. - Seeking clarifications when necessary.

48. Ending the Interview: Express gratitude to the respondent. Ask if they would like to add anything. Record and transcribe the interview. Make field notes to capture additional observations .

49. A structured group discussion on a specific topic conducted for research purposes. Guided, monitored, and recorded by a facilitator. Used to gather insights on collective views and the underlying meanings behind them. Effective for generating a deep understanding of participants' experiences and beliefs. FOCUS GROUP

50. Suggested Criteria for Using Focus Groups: As a standalone method for researching group norms, meanings, and processes. In a multi-method design to explore a topic or collect group language/narratives for later stages. To clarify, extend, qualify, or challenge data gathered through other methods. To provide feedback to research participants on study results.

51. When to Avoid Focus Groups (Morgan's Criteria): If participants’ expectations about the research outcomes cannot be fulfilled. If participants feel uneasy with each other and are unlikely to share openly. If the topic is not relevant or of interest to the participants. If statistical data is needed—focus groups provide depth and insight but not numerical results.

52. Conducting Focus Groups: Group Composition Careful selection is essential for high-quality discussion. No single "best" composition—group dynamics are influenced by factors such as age, gender, and social/professional status. Interaction is key to a successful focus group. Pre-existing groups: Easier to recruit, share experiences, and feel more comfortable discussing or challenging ideas. Stranger groups: May encourage more open discussion without fear of repercussions. Can lead to deeper, more challenging discussions and richer data.

53. Conducting Focus Groups: Group Size It is better to slightly over-recruit to account for potential non-attendance. Optimal size: 6–8 participants (excluding researchers). Can work with as few as 3 and as many as 14 participants. Small groups: Risk limited discussion. Large groups: Can become chaotic, difficult to manage, and frustrating for participants who feel unheard.

54. Moderating a Focus Group: Key Principles and Skills Participants should be encouraged to share their views actively and respectfully, fostering fruitful discussions. Moderators must guide, not participate, to avoid bias and allow open responses. Be prepared for critical feedback, even on sensitive topics. Recognize that a moderator’s suitability can vary by group, depending on individual characteristics. A natural, comfortable moderator helps participants feel relaxed and engaged.

55. Focus Group Venue, Recording, and Analysis Venue: Should be accessible, comfortable, quiet, and free from distractions. Recording and Observation: Focus groups are recorded and may be observed by a researcher. Acknowledge recording at the start and ensure confidentiality. Use a high-quality microphone; observation is preferred over videotaping. Transcription and Analysis: Transcription is time-consuming Verbatim transcripts include speaker identification and may require observational notes. Analysis must consider group dynamics and context, as interactions influence individual responses.

56. References: Gill, P., Stewart, K., Treasure, E. et al. Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. Br Dent J 204, 291–295 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2008.192 Karunarathna , I., Gunasena , P., Hapuarachchi , T., & Gunathilake, S. (2024). The crucial role of data collection in research: Techniques, challenges, and best practices. Uva Clinical Research, 1 (1), 1–24.