The Social Construction of "Race"
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Mar 08, 2020
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About This Presentation
This presentation investigates how notion of “race” is socially constructed. It arose concurrently with the advent of European exploration as a justification and rationale for conquest and domination of the globe beginning in the 15th century of the Common Era. Therefore, “race” is an histor...
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•Assumptions
•Human Origins
•Theoretical Foundations
•The Social Construction of “Race”
•Assumptions
•Human Origins
•Theoretical Foundations
•The Social Construction of “Race”
ASSUMPTIONS
ASSUMPTIONS
•The notion of “race” is discursively constructed.
•The conceptof “race” arose concurrently with the
advent of European exploration as a justification and
rationale for conquest and domination of the globe
beginning in the 15
th
century of the Common Era.
•“Race” is an historical, “scientific,” and biological
myth. It is an idea.
•Geneticists tell us that there is often more variability
withina given so-called “race” than between “races,”
and that there are no essential geneticmarkers linked
specifically to “race.”
•The notion of “race” is discursively constructed.
•The conceptof “race” arose concurrently with the
advent of European exploration as a justification and
rationale for conquest and domination of the globe
beginning in the 15
th
century of the Common Era.
•“Race” is an historical, “scientific,” and biological
myth. It is an idea.
•Geneticists tell us that there is often more variability
withina given so-called “race” than between “races,”
and that there are no essential geneticmarkers linked
specifically to “race.”
“ETHNORACIAL
ASSIGNMENT”
•The construction / invention of ethnicity and
“race” by dominant groups: what other
groups call us.
“ETHNORACIAL IDENTITY”
•The meanings of ethnicity and “race” shared
within a community: what we call ourselves.
Brodkin, 1998
ASSIGNMENT”
•The construction / invention of ethnicity and
“race” by dominant groups: what other
groups call us.
“ETHNORACIAL IDENTITY”
•The meanings of ethnicity and “race” shared
within a community: what we call ourselves.
Brodkin, 1998
HUMAN ORIGINS
From The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey, by Spencer Wells
•Single Origin Hypothesis: human ancestors
originated in Africa
•Eventually migrated throughout the world
•Based on genetic evidence, allhuman beings
descended from humans who lived in Africa about
60,000 years ago.
•Earliest groups of humans believed to find their
present-day descendants among the Sanpeople of
southwestern Africa.
From The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey, by Spencer Wells
•Single Origin Hypothesis: human ancestors
originated in Africa
•Eventually migrated throughout the world
•Based on genetic evidence, allhuman beings
descended from humans who lived in Africa about
60,000 years ago.
•Earliest groups of humans believed to find their
present-day descendants among the Sanpeople of
southwestern Africa.
First Wave Migration
•Stayed near oceans shores, tracing a band
along the coastal areas of the Indian Ocean
including parts of Arabian Peninsula, the
Middle East, the Indian subcontinent,and
into South East Asia, down into what is now
Indonesia, and eventually reaching Australia.
•Stayed near oceans shores, tracing a band
along the coastal areas of the Indian Ocean
including parts of Arabian Peninsula, the
Middle East, the Indian subcontinent,and
into South East Asia, down into what is now
Indonesia, and eventually reaching Australia.
First Wave Migration
•Left dark-skinned peoplealong its path,
including isolated groups of dark-skinned
people in south east Asia such as the
aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands
off of Thailand, the Semang of Malaysia, and
the Aeta of the Philippines.
•Left dark-skinned peoplealong its path,
including isolated groups of dark-skinned
people in south east Asia such as the
aboriginal population of the Andaman Islands
off of Thailand, the Semang of Malaysia, and
the Aeta of the Philippines.
Second Wave Migration
•Took a northerly course, splitting somewhere
in the area of present-day Syriato sweep to
interior Asia, where it split several more
times in Central Asia, north of Afghanistan.
•Took a northerly course, splitting somewhere
in the area of present-day Syriato sweep to
interior Asia, where it split several more
times in Central Asia, north of Afghanistan.
Second Wave Migration
•From Central Asia, small group migrated
towards northeast, following reindeer. These
were theChukchi people, a few of whom still
live a nomadic lifestyle today.
•From Central Asia, small group migrated
towards northeast, following reindeer. These
were theChukchi people, a few of whom still
live a nomadic lifestyle today.
Second Wave Migration
•An even smaller group, estimated at no more
than 20 Chukchis, crossed what is now the
Bering Sea approximately 13,000 years ago
during the last glacial period, and migrated
into North America.
•They are the ancestors of Native Americans,
and 800 years later, they reached as far as
South America.
•An even smaller group, estimated at no more
than 20 Chukchis, crossed what is now the
Bering Sea approximately 13,000 years ago
during the last glacial period, and migrated
into North America.
•They are the ancestors of Native Americans,
and 800 years later, they reached as far as
South America.
Human Physical Diversity
•African diaspora believed to have begun
50,000years ago.
•Long enough for many changes to have
occurred in humans remaining in Africa.
•The genetic trends reported involve humans
who left Africa, and their genetic histories.
•African diaspora believed to have begun
50,000years ago.
•Long enough for many changes to have
occurred in humans remaining in Africa.
•The genetic trends reported involve humans
who left Africa, and their genetic histories.
Human Physical Diversity
•The diversity found throughout the world are
related to many factors, including geographic
location:
•Those whose early ancestors remained
closer to the Earth’s equator, maintained
greater amounts of skin melanin, and thicker
wavier hair for protection from skin and hair
damage.
•The diversity found throughout the world are
related to many factors, including geographic
location:
•Those whose early ancestors remained
closer to the Earth’s equator, maintained
greater amounts of skin melanin, and thicker
wavier hair for protection from skin and hair
damage.
Human Physical Diversity
•Those whose early ancestors traveled further
away from the Earth’s equator, developed
less skin melanin and lighter and thinner hair
strands to allow the skin to absorb
appropriate amounts of Vitamin Dfrom the
sun.
•Those whose early ancestors traveled further
away from the Earth’s equator, developed
less skin melanin and lighter and thinner hair
strands to allow the skin to absorb
appropriate amounts of Vitamin Dfrom the
sun.
THE SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION
OF
“RACE”
CONSTRUCTION
OF
“RACE”
THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORKS
FRAMEWORKS
Social Construction of Identity
•“Race”
•“Ethnicity”
•“Gender”
•“Sex”
•“Disability”
•“Religion”
•“Socioeconomic Class”
•Others…
•“Race”
•“Ethnicity”
•“Gender”
•“Sex”
•“Disability”
•“Religion”
•“Socioeconomic Class”
•Others…
POSTSTRUCTURALISM
•General Practices:
1.The concept of “self” as a singular and
coherent entity is a fictionalconstruct (the
individual comprises multiple and conflicting
socially constructed tensions and knowledge
claims, (e.g. gender, class, race, profession,
etc.)
2.Every individual creates a new and individual
purpose, meaning, and existence.
•General Practices:
1.The concept of “self” as a singular and
coherent entity is a fictionalconstruct (the
individual comprises multiple and conflicting
socially constructed tensions and knowledge
claims, (e.g. gender, class, race, profession,
etc.)
2.Every individual creates a new and individual
purpose, meaning, and existence.
PATRIARCHY
“What is patriarchy? A society
is patriarchal to the degree
that it promotes male privilege
by being male dominated,
male identified, and male
centered. It is also organized
around an obsession with
control and involves as one of
its aspects the oppression of
women.”
Johnson, Allan G. (1997). The
gender knot: Unraveling our
patriarchal legacy, Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, p. 5.
“What is patriarchy? A society
is patriarchal to the degree
that it promotes male privilege
by being male dominated,
male identified, and male
centered. It is also organized
around an obsession with
control and involves as one of
its aspects the oppression of
women.”
Johnson, Allan G. (1997). The
gender knot: Unraveling our
patriarchal legacy, Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, p. 5.
WHITE
SUPREMACY
Anti-Defamation League
White supremacy is a term used to
characterize various belief systems
(on a continuum) central to which
are one or more of the following key
tenets:
1) whites
should have
dominance
over people of
other
backgrounds,
especially
where they may
co-exist;
2) whites
should live
by
themselve
s in a
whites-only
society;
3) white
people
have their
own
"culture"
that is
superior to
other
cultures;
4) white
people are
genetically
superior to
other
people.
SUPREMACY
Anti-Defamation League
White supremacy is a term used to
characterize various belief systems
(on a continuum) central to which
are one or more of the following key
tenets:
1) whites
should have
dominance
over people of
other
backgrounds,
especially
where they may
co-exist;
2) whites
should live
by
themselve
s in a
whites-only
society;
3) white
people
have their
own
"culture"
that is
superior to
other
cultures;
4) white
people are
genetically
superior to
other
people.
“Settler colonialismis a form
of colonialism,which seeks to
replace the original population of
the colonizedterritory with a
new society of settlers. As with
all forms of colonialism, it is
based on exogenous
domination, typically organized
or supported by an imperial
authority.”
Wikipedia
Settler
Colonialism
of colonialism,which seeks to
replace the original population of
the colonizedterritory with a
new society of settlers. As with
all forms of colonialism, it is
based on exogenous
domination, typically organized
or supported by an imperial
authority.”
Wikipedia
Settler
Colonialism
1.Counter-Storytelling as Counter-
Narrative, Counter-Hegemony
2.The permanence of racism; racism
is “normal”
3.Whiteness as property; the property
functions of whiteness
4.Interest Conversion: white people
will support civil rights when they
see what is in it for them as white
people
5.Critique of Liberalism: Whites are
the primary beneficiaries of civil
rights legislation; the failure of
incrementalism; the elimination of
racism requires large-scale
sweeping change efforts.
Critical Race
Theory (CRT)
Derrick Bell, Patricia
Williams, Richard Delgado,
KimberléWilliams
Crenshaw, CamaraPhyllis
Jones, Mari Matsuda, and
others
Narrative, Counter-Hegemony
2.The permanence of racism; racism
is “normal”
3.Whiteness as property; the property
functions of whiteness
4.Interest Conversion: white people
will support civil rights when they
see what is in it for them as white
people
5.Critique of Liberalism: Whites are
the primary beneficiaries of civil
rights legislation; the failure of
incrementalism; the elimination of
racism requires large-scale
sweeping change efforts.
Critical Race
Theory (CRT)
Derrick Bell, Patricia
Williams, Richard Delgado,
KimberléWilliams
Crenshaw, CamaraPhyllis
Jones, Mari Matsuda, and
others
OLDER
FORMS OF
RACISM
Valerie Batts
Slavery
“Jim Crow” laws
Lynchings
Cross Burnings
•Segregated Educational,
•Employment,
•Business,
•Governmental Institutions,
•and More
De Jure (by law)
FORMS OF
RACISM
Valerie Batts
Slavery
“Jim Crow” laws
Lynchings
Cross Burnings
•Segregated Educational,
•Employment,
•Business,
•Governmental Institutions,
•and More
De Jure (by law)
While some of the
Older Forms of
Racism still exist
today on a De Facto
basis (in fact while not
in law), Batts lists
Newer Forms of
Racism
Older Forms of
Racism still exist
today on a De Facto
basis (in fact while not
in law), Batts lists
Newer Forms of
Racism
NEWER
FORMS OF
RACISM
Valerie Batts
Dysfunctional Rescuing
Blaming the Victims
Avoidance of Contact
Denial of Cultural Differences
Denial of Political Significance of
Differences
FORMS OF
RACISM
Valerie Batts
Dysfunctional Rescuing
Blaming the Victims
Avoidance of Contact
Denial of Cultural Differences
Denial of Political Significance of
Differences
DYSFUNCTIONAL
RESCUING
Where white people
“help” people of color in
a condescending way
believing they can’t help
themselves.
RESCUING
Where white people
“help” people of color in
a condescending way
believing they can’t help
themselves.
BLAMING
THE VICTIMS
of systematic
oppression for the
oppression itself.
THE VICTIMS
of systematic
oppression for the
oppression itself.
AVOIDANCE
OF CONTACT
Where white people self
segregate in their
personal and
professional lives from
people of color, and
where white people show
little interest in learning
about the cultures of
communities of color.
OF CONTACT
Where white people self
segregate in their
personal and
professional lives from
people of color, and
where white people show
little interest in learning
about the cultures of
communities of color.
DENIAL OF
CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES
The notion of “color
blindness,” which
minimizes the cultural
and behavioral
difference among
people, which simply
mask discomfort with
racialized differences.
CULTURAL
DIFFERENCES
The notion of “color
blindness,” which
minimizes the cultural
and behavioral
difference among
people, which simply
mask discomfort with
racialized differences.
DENIAL OF
POLITICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
OF
DIFFERENCES
Where white people
deny the profound
impact regarding the
social, political, and
economic realities of the
lives of people of color.
(Meritocracy: You should
be able to succeed on
your own merit
regardless of your
background.)
POLITICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
OF
DIFFERENCES
Where white people
deny the profound
impact regarding the
social, political, and
economic realities of the
lives of people of color.
(Meritocracy: You should
be able to succeed on
your own merit
regardless of your
background.)
Deculturalization &
Cultural Genocide
•Cultural Genocide:
–The process of destroying a people’s culture and replacing it
with a new culture. This works through the process of
deculturalization.
•Deculturalization:
–The attempt to destroy other cultures through forced
acquiescence and assimilation to majority rules and
standards.
Joel Spring
Cultural Genocide
•Cultural Genocide:
–The process of destroying a people’s culture and replacing it
with a new culture. This works through the process of
deculturalization.
•Deculturalization:
–The attempt to destroy other cultures through forced
acquiescence and assimilation to majority rules and
standards.
Joel Spring
Cultural Pluralism
•Horace Kallen
•Jewish immigrant and sociologist
•Polish & Latvian heritage
•Coined “Cultural Pluralism” to challenge
image of so-called “melting pot,” which
he considered to be inherently
undemocratic
•Kallenenvisioned U.S. in image of a
great symphony orchestra, not sounding
in unison (the “melting pot”), but one
where all the disparate cultures play in
harmony & retain their unique &
distinctive tones and timbres
Horace Kallen
•Horace Kallen
•Jewish immigrant and sociologist
•Polish & Latvian heritage
•Coined “Cultural Pluralism” to challenge
image of so-called “melting pot,” which
he considered to be inherently
undemocratic
•Kallenenvisioned U.S. in image of a
great symphony orchestra, not sounding
in unison (the “melting pot”), but one
where all the disparate cultures play in
harmony & retain their unique &
distinctive tones and timbres
Horace Kallen
Queer Theory
•Queer theory is a set of ideas based around
the idea that identities are notfixed and do
not determine who we are. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It suggests that it is meaningless to talk in
general about “women” or “lesbians” or “gay
males” or anyother group. (www.theory.org.uk)
•Queer theory is a set of ideas based around
the idea that identities are notfixed and do
not determine who we are. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It suggests that it is meaningless to talk in
general about “women” or “lesbians” or “gay
males” or anyother group. (www.theory.org.uk)
Queer Theory
•Identities consist of so many elements that to
assume that people can be seen collectively
on the basis ofoneshared characteristic is
wrong. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It proposes that we deliberately challenge all
notions of fixed identity, in varied and non-
predictable ways. (www.theory.org.uk)
•Identities consist of so many elements that to
assume that people can be seen collectively
on the basis ofoneshared characteristic is
wrong. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It proposes that we deliberately challenge all
notions of fixed identity, in varied and non-
predictable ways. (www.theory.org.uk)
Performativity
•Gender [and race] come from “the power of
discourseto produce effects through
reiteration” (Butler, BTM,p. 20).
•“Gender is a repeated stylization of the
body, a set of repeated acts within a highly
rigid regulatory frame that congeal over
time to produce the appearanceof
substance, of a natural sort of being”
(Butler, GT, p. 33).
•“Gender” and “Race” and “Sexual Identity”
do not reallyexist outside of language.
Judith Butler
•Gender [and race] come from “the power of
discourseto produce effects through
reiteration” (Butler, BTM,p. 20).
•“Gender is a repeated stylization of the
body, a set of repeated acts within a highly
rigid regulatory frame that congeal over
time to produce the appearanceof
substance, of a natural sort of being”
(Butler, GT, p. 33).
•“Gender” and “Race” and “Sexual Identity”
do not reallyexist outside of language.
Judith Butler
Performativity
•“The act that one does, the act that one
performs, is, in a sense, an act that has been
going on before one arrived on the scene.
Hence, gender and race are acts which have
been rehearsed, much as a script survives
the particular actorswho make use of it, but
which requires individual actors in order to
be actualized and reproduced as reality once
again” (Butler, GT).
•“The act that one does, the act that one
performs, is, in a sense, an act that has been
going on before one arrived on the scene.
Hence, gender and race are acts which have
been rehearsed, much as a script survives
the particular actorswho make use of it, but
which requires individual actors in order to
be actualized and reproduced as reality once
again” (Butler, GT).
“Performativity” vs.
“Performance”
•“PERFORMATIVITY”:
–Not voluntary, reiteration or reenactment of
established norms, a mode of discursive
production
•“PERFORMANCE”:
–Voluntary, a theatrical production, a bounded
act in that it draws on, mimics, and often
exaggerates existing signifiers and codes,
rather than being an original (self-) creation
“Performance”
•“PERFORMATIVITY”:
–Not voluntary, reiteration or reenactment of
established norms, a mode of discursive
production
•“PERFORMANCE”:
–Voluntary, a theatrical production, a bounded
act in that it draws on, mimics, and often
exaggerates existing signifiers and codes,
rather than being an original (self-) creation
Performativity
•Judith Butler argues that we all put on a
gender performance, whether traditional or
not. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It is not a question of whether to doa gender
performance, but what form that performance
will take. (www.theory.org.uk)
•Judith Butler argues that we all put on a
gender performance, whether traditional or
not. (www.theory.org.uk)
•It is not a question of whether to doa gender
performance, but what form that performance
will take. (www.theory.org.uk)
Performativity
•“Race” is also a verb, that we are “raced”
through a constellation of practices that
construct and control racial subjectivities.
•“Heterosexual” identity is likewise
“performative” in the sense that the content
of heterosexual identity has tobe produced,
fabricated, made up, and acted out.
•“Race” is also a verb, that we are “raced”
through a constellation of practices that
construct and control racial subjectivities.
•“Heterosexual” identity is likewise
“performative” in the sense that the content
of heterosexual identity has tobe produced,
fabricated, made up, and acted out.
“Race”
•“Race” can also be considered as a socially
constructed category and as a “performative”
–“[R]ace” is partially produced as an effect of
the history of racism, that its boundaries and
meanings are constructed over time not only
in the service of racism, but also in the
service of the contestation of racism (Butler,
1993, p. 18).
•“Race” can also be considered as a socially
constructed category and as a “performative”
–“[R]ace” is partially produced as an effect of
the history of racism, that its boundaries and
meanings are constructed over time not only
in the service of racism, but also in the
service of the contestation of racism (Butler,
1993, p. 18).
“Race”
•The meaning of “race” is reiterated and
regulated through an ongoing process, a racial
history of being “acted upon”:
–[W]e can see that institutional exercises
repeatedly construct race within a set of
differentials that seek to maintain and control
racial separateness. This could also be
described as part of the performativity of race
(Butler, in Breen and Blumenfeld, 2005, p. 11).
•The meaning of “race” is reiterated and
regulated through an ongoing process, a racial
history of being “acted upon”:
–[W]e can see that institutional exercises
repeatedly construct race within a set of
differentials that seek to maintain and control
racial separateness. This could also be
described as part of the performativity of race
(Butler, in Breen and Blumenfeld, 2005, p. 11).
Performativity
(Discuss in pairs the following)
•“Gender and Race are constructions that regularly
conceal their genesis [their origins], the tacit
collective agreement to perform, produce, and
sustain discrete and polar genders and races as
cultural fictionsis obscured by the credibility of
those productions—and the punishments that attend
not agreeing to believe in them. The historical
possibilities materialized through various corporeal
styles are nothing other than these punitively
regulated cultural fictionsalternately embodied and
deflected under duress…”(GT, p. 140).
(Discuss in pairs the following)
•“Gender and Race are constructions that regularly
conceal their genesis [their origins], the tacit
collective agreement to perform, produce, and
sustain discrete and polar genders and races as
cultural fictionsis obscured by the credibility of
those productions—and the punishments that attend
not agreeing to believe in them. The historical
possibilities materialized through various corporeal
styles are nothing other than these punitively
regulated cultural fictionsalternately embodied and
deflected under duress…”(GT, p. 140).
Performativity
•By choosing to be different about it, we might
work to change gender and racial norms and
the binary understanding of masculinity and
femininity [and white and people of color].
(www.theory.org.uk)
•By choosing to be different about it, we might
work to change gender and racial norms and
the binary understanding of masculinity and
femininity [and white and people of color].
(www.theory.org.uk)
THE SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTION
[THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE
“PERFORMATIVITY”]
OF “RACE”
CONSTRUCTION
[THE ESTABLISHMENT
OF THE
“PERFORMATIVITY”]
OF “RACE”
THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING
Under “Human” Category:
•Monogenism Theory:
–All people are descendants from an “original
pair”: Adam & Eve
•Polygenism Theory:
–The numerous human populations of the world
have descended from different “original pairs”
created in different places: different genetic
strains, multiple human origins, “non-Adamical
man.” (Brace, 2005)
Under “Human” Category:
•Monogenism Theory:
–All people are descendants from an “original
pair”: Adam & Eve
•Polygenism Theory:
–The numerous human populations of the world
have descended from different “original pairs”
created in different places: different genetic
strains, multiple human origins, “non-Adamical
man.” (Brace, 2005)
PHILIPPUS AUREOLUS
PARACELSUS (1493-1541)
•Born Theophrastus
Bombastus von Hohenheim, in
Switzerland
•Changed name to Philippus
Aureolus Paracelsus
•Studied medicine but never
earned a degree
•Early polygenist
(Brace, 2005)
PARACELSUS (1493-1541)
•Born Theophrastus
Bombastus von Hohenheim, in
Switzerland
•Changed name to Philippus
Aureolus Paracelsus
•Studied medicine but never
earned a degree
•Early polygenist
(Brace, 2005)
ISAAC DE LA PEYRERE (1594-1676)
•Born in Bordeaux to a noble family of
“Marrano” Calvinists.
•Book: Systemema Theologica ex
Praeadamitarium Hypothesi (A Theological
System upon the Presupposition that Men
Were before Adam).
•Assertion:Adam & Eve were the ancestors of
the Jews but notthe Gentiles who
descended from people who had lived before
Adam.
(Brace, 2005)
•Born in Bordeaux to a noble family of
“Marrano” Calvinists.
•Book: Systemema Theologica ex
Praeadamitarium Hypothesi (A Theological
System upon the Presupposition that Men
Were before Adam).
•Assertion:Adam & Eve were the ancestors of
the Jews but notthe Gentiles who
descended from people who had lived before
Adam.
(Brace, 2005)
VOLTAIRE (1664-1778)
•French Philosopher, Deist:
“Only the blind could
doubt the original
distinction between the
human races.”
•French Philosopher, Deist:
“Only the blind could
doubt the original
distinction between the
human races.”
CARL LINNAEUS (1707-1778)
•Born Carl Linné
•Swedish Botanist, Physician, and
Zoologist.
•“Father of Modern Taxonomy”
•Book: SystemaNaturae
•“Linnaean Taxonomy”: System of
Scientific Hierarchical Classification.
•Kingdoms; Classes; Orders; Genera
(Genus); Species.
(Wikipedia)
•Born Carl Linné
•Swedish Botanist, Physician, and
Zoologist.
•“Father of Modern Taxonomy”
•Book: SystemaNaturae
•“Linnaean Taxonomy”: System of
Scientific Hierarchical Classification.
•Kingdoms; Classes; Orders; Genera
(Genus); Species.
(Wikipedia)
CARL LINNAEUS (1707-1778)
•He is also known as “The Father of Scientific
Racism.”
•Five levels under Homo sapiens, based
initially on place of origin, then on skin color:
–Europeanus
–Asiaticus
–Americanus
–Monstrosus
–Africanus
•He is also known as “The Father of Scientific
Racism.”
•Five levels under Homo sapiens, based
initially on place of origin, then on skin color:
–Europeanus
–Asiaticus
–Americanus
–Monstrosus
–Africanus
CARL LINNAEUS (1707-1778)
•Europeanus: sanguine, pale, muscular, swift, clever,
inventive, governed by laws.
•Asiaticus: melancholic, yellow, inflexible, severe,
avaricious, dark-eyed, governed by opinions.
•Americanus (Native Americans): choleric, copper-
colored, straightforward, eager, combative, governed by
customs.
•Monstrosus (dwarfs of the Alps, the Patagonian giant,
the monorchid Hottentot): agile, fainthearted.
•Africanus: phlegmatic, black, slow, relaxed, negligent,
governed by impulse.
•Europeanus: sanguine, pale, muscular, swift, clever,
inventive, governed by laws.
•Asiaticus: melancholic, yellow, inflexible, severe,
avaricious, dark-eyed, governed by opinions.
•Americanus (Native Americans): choleric, copper-
colored, straightforward, eager, combative, governed by
customs.
•Monstrosus (dwarfs of the Alps, the Patagonian giant,
the monorchid Hottentot): agile, fainthearted.
•Africanus: phlegmatic, black, slow, relaxed, negligent,
governed by impulse.
POST-LINNAEUS TAXONOMY
Later European scientists separated Homo sapiensin six
different categories:
1.Caucasoid:Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia
2.Mongoloid:East Asia, Siberia, the Americas
3.Polynesians:
4.Native Americans:
5.Australoid:indigenous Australians
6.Negroid:Central and Southern Africa
(Ramon)
Later European scientists separated Homo sapiensin six
different categories:
1.Caucasoid:Europe, North Africa, Southwest Asia
2.Mongoloid:East Asia, Siberia, the Americas
3.Polynesians:
4.Native Americans:
5.Australoid:indigenous Australians
6.Negroid:Central and Southern Africa
(Ramon)
COLONEL JEAN BAPTISTE BORY
DE SAINT-VINCENT (1778-1846)
•Chief of the Scientific Commission in Algeria.
•Book: L’Homme (Homo: Essai Zoologique sur le
Genre Humain),1825
•Polygenist.
•He recognized 15 human groups each of
which he regarded as a proper “species.”
•He mentioned the “certainty” that “each
Adam” had to have had his own particular
locale or “cradle.”
(Brace, 2005)
DE SAINT-VINCENT (1778-1846)
•Chief of the Scientific Commission in Algeria.
•Book: L’Homme (Homo: Essai Zoologique sur le
Genre Humain),1825
•Polygenist.
•He recognized 15 human groups each of
which he regarded as a proper “species.”
•He mentioned the “certainty” that “each
Adam” had to have had his own particular
locale or “cradle.”
(Brace, 2005)
LOUIS-ANTOINE DESMOULINS
(1796-1828)
•French physiologist
•Book: Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines
•16 “species” & 25 human “races”
•He rejected the possibility that environmental
circumstances or climate could produce any changes in
the observed spectrum of human biological differences.
•Human “species” & “races” preserve all the traits
that they “indubitably had since the beginning”
wherever they have remained “pure and without
mixture.”
(Brace, 2005)
(1796-1828)
•French physiologist
•Book: Histoire Naturelle des Races Humaines
•16 “species” & 25 human “races”
•He rejected the possibility that environmental
circumstances or climate could produce any changes in
the observed spectrum of human biological differences.
•Human “species” & “races” preserve all the traits
that they “indubitably had since the beginning”
wherever they have remained “pure and without
mixture.”
(Brace, 2005)
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH
(1752-1840)
•German, Professor of Medicine
•Coined the term “Caucasian” to refer to
people of European origin.
•From Sir John Chardin (1643-1713)
–French Protestant traveler
–He proclaimed that inhabitants of the
Republic of Georgia, situated in the
Caucasus Mountains, were the most
beautiful people in the world.
(Brace, 2005)
(1752-1840)
•German, Professor of Medicine
•Coined the term “Caucasian” to refer to
people of European origin.
•From Sir John Chardin (1643-1713)
–French Protestant traveler
–He proclaimed that inhabitants of the
Republic of Georgia, situated in the
Caucasus Mountains, were the most
beautiful people in the world.
(Brace, 2005)
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH
(1752-1840)
•He was a monogenist.
•The nisus formativus, or vital force, caused
by differences in climate, nutrition, or mode
of life over many generation had led to
changes in form from that present in the
beginning, represented by Caucasians.
•Caucasians represented the closest
approximation of God’s intent for the
human form.
(1752-1840)
•He was a monogenist.
•The nisus formativus, or vital force, caused
by differences in climate, nutrition, or mode
of life over many generation had led to
changes in form from that present in the
beginning, represented by Caucasians.
•Caucasians represented the closest
approximation of God’s intent for the
human form.
JOHANN FRIEDRICH BLUMENBACH
(1752-1840)
•Changes from the assumed original
Caucasians he labeled “degenerations.”
•Other human populations were
“degenerate” to the extent that they
departed from that original.
•Degeneris: Latin –“removed from one’s
origin.”
(1752-1840)
•Changes from the assumed original
Caucasians he labeled “degenerations.”
•Other human populations were
“degenerate” to the extent that they
departed from that original.
•Degeneris: Latin –“removed from one’s
origin.”
CHARLES DARWIN
1809-1882
•On the Origin of
Species (1859), he
posited an evolutionary
theory of plant and
animal development.
•Physical, mental, &
moral characteristics of
humans evolved over
time from our ape-like
ancestors.
1809-1882
•On the Origin of
Species (1859), he
posited an evolutionary
theory of plant and
animal development.
•Physical, mental, &
moral characteristics of
humans evolved over
time from our ape-like
ancestors.
CHARLES DARWIN
•“Biological Determinism”:
Essentialist or biological bases for
human behavior.
•Jews, for example, have a “uniform
appearance” independent of their
geographic locations.
•“Biological Determinism”:
Essentialist or biological bases for
human behavior.
•Jews, for example, have a “uniform
appearance” independent of their
geographic locations.
“SOCIAL DARWINISTS”
•Extended Darwin’s theories:
–Jews, black Africans, homosexuals are
lower / earlier forms of human species.
–They are all distinct lower “racial” types with
immutable biological characteristics.
–Jews are of a separate “race”: a “mixed” or
“bastard race.”
–Jews crossed “racial” barriers by
interbreeding with black Africans during the
Jewish Diaspora.
•Extended Darwin’s theories:
–Jews, black Africans, homosexuals are
lower / earlier forms of human species.
–They are all distinct lower “racial” types with
immutable biological characteristics.
–Jews are of a separate “race”: a “mixed” or
“bastard race.”
–Jews crossed “racial” barriers by
interbreeding with black Africans during the
Jewish Diaspora.
JEWISH & BLACK
“RACIAL” CONNECTION
•In European society, Jews were socially
constructed as the “white Negroes” by
the prevailing dominant culture(Gilman,
1999).
“In the eyes of the non-Jew who defined
them in Western [European] society, the
Jews became the blacks” (Gilman, 1999).
“[T]he male Jew and the male African were
conceived of as equivalent threats to the
white race” (Thandeka, 1999).
“RACIAL” CONNECTION
•In European society, Jews were socially
constructed as the “white Negroes” by
the prevailing dominant culture(Gilman,
1999).
“In the eyes of the non-Jew who defined
them in Western [European] society, the
Jews became the blacks” (Gilman, 1999).
“[T]he male Jew and the male African were
conceived of as equivalent threats to the
white race” (Thandeka, 1999).
ERNEST RENAN
1823-1892
•French historian
and writer.
•Posited that the
Jewish or “Semitic”
mind is superficial,
while the “Aryan”
mind is natural and
wise.
1823-1892
•French historian
and writer.
•Posited that the
Jewish or “Semitic”
mind is superficial,
while the “Aryan”
mind is natural and
wise.
JOSEPH-ARTHUR
DE GOBINEAU, 1816-1882
•French diplomat & essayist.
•Polygenist.
•1853, in Essays on the Inequality of the
Human Races,posited a supposed “Aryan”
race: an “original tribe” that resided in the
Himalayas, which was the “cradle of the
Caucasian race.”
•Jews were nota part of this tribe.
DE GOBINEAU, 1816-1882
•French diplomat & essayist.
•Polygenist.
•1853, in Essays on the Inequality of the
Human Races,posited a supposed “Aryan”
race: an “original tribe” that resided in the
Himalayas, which was the “cradle of the
Caucasian race.”
•Jews were nota part of this tribe.
•Austrian sex researcher
•Sex “nauseous disease”
•Homosexuality sign of
“degeneration,” product of
vice
Richard Krafft-Ebing
•Sex “nauseous disease”
•Homosexuality sign of
“degeneration,” product of
vice
Richard Krafft-Ebing
•U.S. Physician, 1921:
“A physical examination of [female homosexuals] will
in practically every instance disclose an abnormally
prominent clitoris.”
Perry M. Lichtenstein
“A physical examination of [female homosexuals] will
in practically every instance disclose an abnormally
prominent clitoris.”
Perry M. Lichtenstein
•U.S. Physician, 1896:
“[The lesbian] is usually of a
masculine type, or if she
presented none of the
‘characteristics’ of the male, was
a subject of pelvic disorder, with
scanty menstruation, and was
more or less hysterical and
insane.”
Allan McClane Hamilton
“[The lesbian] is usually of a
masculine type, or if she
presented none of the
‘characteristics’ of the male, was
a subject of pelvic disorder, with
scanty menstruation, and was
more or less hysterical and
insane.”
Allan McClane Hamilton
•French Forensic Medical Scientist,
1857:
“This degeneracy is evidenced
in men who engage in same-
sex eroticism by their
underdeveloped, tapered
penis resembling that of a
dog, and a naturally smooth
anus lacking in radial folds.”
Ambrose Tardieu
1857:
“This degeneracy is evidenced
in men who engage in same-
sex eroticism by their
underdeveloped, tapered
penis resembling that of a
dog, and a naturally smooth
anus lacking in radial folds.”
Ambrose Tardieu
FRANCIS GALTON
1822-1911
•A cousin of Charles Darwin.
•British psychologist.
•A founder of the “Eugenics
Movement.”
•He coined the term “eugenics” in
1883 from the Greek, “well born”
or “good origins or breeding.”
•The science of improving
qualities of a “race” by
controlling human breeding.
1822-1911
•A cousin of Charles Darwin.
•British psychologist.
•A founder of the “Eugenics
Movement.”
•He coined the term “eugenics” in
1883 from the Greek, “well born”
or “good origins or breeding.”
•The science of improving
qualities of a “race” by
controlling human breeding.
FRANCIS GALTON
1822-1911
•Book: Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its
Laws and Consequences (1869)
•Book: Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its
Development (1883).
•He claimed that the purpose of eugenics was to
promote “judicious mating in order to give the
more suitable races or strains of blood a better
chance of prevailing speedily over the less
suitable”(Galton, 1883, p. 25).
•Assessed the relative intellectual
capabilities of the so-called “races,”
including Africans, Australians,
Chinese, Jews, and others.
1822-1911
•Book: Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its
Laws and Consequences (1869)
•Book: Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its
Development (1883).
•He claimed that the purpose of eugenics was to
promote “judicious mating in order to give the
more suitable races or strains of blood a better
chance of prevailing speedily over the less
suitable”(Galton, 1883, p. 25).
•Assessed the relative intellectual
capabilities of the so-called “races,”
including Africans, Australians,
Chinese, Jews, and others.
FRANCIS GALTON
1822-1911
•“Degenerates”: deterioration to a level
below the acceptable standards that
were implicit in the Great Chain of Being
hierarchy of worth (in Brace, p. 178).
•His work influenced mandatory
sterilization laws in U.S. & Germany.
•Elites in the British Isles most intelligent.
•“The average intellectual standard of the
Negro race is some two grades below
our own” [Anglo-Saxons] (Galton, 1869, p.
327).
1822-1911
•“Degenerates”: deterioration to a level
below the acceptable standards that
were implicit in the Great Chain of Being
hierarchy of worth (in Brace, p. 178).
•His work influenced mandatory
sterilization laws in U.S. & Germany.
•Elites in the British Isles most intelligent.
•“The average intellectual standard of the
Negro race is some two grades below
our own” [Anglo-Saxons] (Galton, 1869, p.
327).
By Sheer Pluck: A Tale of the Ashanti
by G. A. Henty, 1884
Black people are “just like children.
They are always either laughing or
quarrelling. They are good-natured
and passionate, indolent, but will
work hard for a time; clever up to a
certain point, densely stupid
beyond….They are absolutely
without originality, absolutely
without inventive power.”
by G. A. Henty, 1884
Black people are “just like children.
They are always either laughing or
quarrelling. They are good-natured
and passionate, indolent, but will
work hard for a time; clever up to a
certain point, densely stupid
beyond….They are absolutely
without originality, absolutely
without inventive power.”
FRANCIS GALTON
1822-1911
•“The Australian type is at least
one grade below the African
Negro”
•“The Jews are specialized for a
parasitical existence upon other
nations.”
•Jews are easily identifiable by their
“Jewish physiognomy.”
1822-1911
•“The Australian type is at least
one grade below the African
Negro”
•“The Jews are specialized for a
parasitical existence upon other
nations.”
•Jews are easily identifiable by their
“Jewish physiognomy.”
“JEWISH PHYSIOGNOMY”
•Eyes (large, bulbous)
•Gaze (pathological, searing, cunning, cold, piercing)
•Nose (hooked, large, curling nasal folds)
•Lips (prominent, thick)
•Forehead (receding)
•Chin (receding)
•Ears (large)
•Hair (curly, black)
•Skin (dark, “swarthy”)
•Shoulders (stooping)
•Feet (weak, flat)
•Rump (deflated)
•Eyes (large, bulbous)
•Gaze (pathological, searing, cunning, cold, piercing)
•Nose (hooked, large, curling nasal folds)
•Lips (prominent, thick)
•Forehead (receding)
•Chin (receding)
•Ears (large)
•Hair (curly, black)
•Skin (dark, “swarthy”)
•Shoulders (stooping)
•Feet (weak, flat)
•Rump (deflated)
PHRENOLOGY
•An stream of Eugenics.
•The study of the shape & size of the
human skull.
•Based on the belief that the size and
shape of the skull indicates human
mental facilities and moral
character.
•An stream of Eugenics.
•The study of the shape & size of the
human skull.
•Based on the belief that the size and
shape of the skull indicates human
mental facilities and moral
character.
PHRENOLOGY
•“African skulls” indicate they are inferior to white
races intellectually, culturally, and morally.
•Phrenologists claimed Africans as unsuited to work
other than that supervised by white people.
•Justified enslavement of Africans.
•A section of the “Jewish skull and brain”are
“abnormally developed” indicating that Jews are
highly concerned with money and finances.
•“African skulls” indicate they are inferior to white
races intellectually, culturally, and morally.
•Phrenologists claimed Africans as unsuited to work
other than that supervised by white people.
•Justified enslavement of Africans.
•A section of the “Jewish skull and brain”are
“abnormally developed” indicating that Jews are
highly concerned with money and finances.
“Manifest Destiny”
•The belief that the United States destined by
Providence to expand from Atlantic to Pacific
(from “sea to shining sea”), & led by so-called
“Anglo-Saxon race.”
•Justified stealing Native American territories
•Justified war with Mexico
•The belief that the United States destined by
Providence to expand from Atlantic to Pacific
(from “sea to shining sea”), & led by so-called
“Anglo-Saxon race.”
•Justified stealing Native American territories
•Justified war with Mexico
“Race,” Immigration, & Citizenship
•1790, Naturalization Act
•Excluded “nonwhites” from citizenship
–Enslaved Africans
–Asians
–Native Americans (“domestic foreigners”)
•1924, Native Americans rights of citizenship
•Asians continued denied naturalized citizenship status
•1790, Naturalization Act
•Excluded “nonwhites” from citizenship
–Enslaved Africans
–Asians
–Native Americans (“domestic foreigners”)
•1924, Native Americans rights of citizenship
•Asians continued denied naturalized citizenship status
JEFFERSON DAVIS
President, Confederate States of America
“[Slavery] was established by
decree of Almighty God...it is
sanctioned in the Bible, in both
Testaments, from Genesis to
Revelation...it has existed in all
ages, has been found among the
people of the highest civilization,
and in nations of the highest
proficiency in the arts.”
President, Confederate States of America
“[Slavery] was established by
decree of Almighty God...it is
sanctioned in the Bible, in both
Testaments, from Genesis to
Revelation...it has existed in all
ages, has been found among the
people of the highest civilization,
and in nations of the highest
proficiency in the arts.”
“Race,” Immigration, & Citizenship
•1882, Chinese Exclusion Act
–Also illegal for Chinese to marry Whites or Blacks
•1917, Immigration Act further prohibited immigration
from Asian countries, the “Barred Zone.”
–China, India, Siam, Burma, Asiatic Russian,
Polynesian Islands, Afghanistan.
•1882, Chinese Exclusion Act
–Also illegal for Chinese to marry Whites or Blacks
•1917, Immigration Act further prohibited immigration
from Asian countries, the “Barred Zone.”
–China, India, Siam, Burma, Asiatic Russian,
Polynesian Islands, Afghanistan.
Takao Ozawa v United States
Takao Ozawa, a Japanese man, filed for citizenship
under Naturalization Act of 1906
Which allowed white persons and persons of
African descent or African nativity to naturalize.
Asians termed an “unassimilateablerace” and not
entitled to citizenship.
Ozawa attempted to have Japanese classified as
"white.“
Claimed his skin is “white”
1922, Supreme Court
Denied naturalized citizenship status.
Takao Ozawa, a Japanese man, filed for citizenship
under Naturalization Act of 1906
Which allowed white persons and persons of
African descent or African nativity to naturalize.
Asians termed an “unassimilateablerace” and not
entitled to citizenship.
Ozawa attempted to have Japanese classified as
"white.“
Claimed his skin is “white”
1922, Supreme Court
Denied naturalized citizenship status.
1896, Plessy v. Ferguson
•Supreme Court Case
•Sustaining racial segregation & “Jim Crow”
laws
•Setting precedent: “Separate but Equal”
June 7, 1892, East Louisiana
Railroad
Homer Plessy forced off
“whites-only” railroad car &
onto “colored” car.
Plessy “one-eights black,”
“seven-eights white”
•Supreme Court Case
•Sustaining racial segregation & “Jim Crow”
laws
•Setting precedent: “Separate but Equal”
June 7, 1892, East Louisiana
Railroad
Homer Plessy forced off
“whites-only” railroad car &
onto “colored” car.
Plessy “one-eights black,”
“seven-eights white”
Blacks
Lynched
A Jew
Lynched
Lynched
A Jew
Lynched
Anti-Miscegenation Laws
•Many states: outlawed interracial sexual
relations
•Outlawed interracial marriage
•Example: Mildred Deloris & Richard Loving
–Married in D.C.
–Residents of and lived in Virginia
–Arrested
•Many states: outlawed interracial sexual
relations
•Outlawed interracial marriage
•Example: Mildred Deloris & Richard Loving
–Married in D.C.
–Residents of and lived in Virginia
–Arrested
Judge Leon M. Bazile
“Act to Preserve Racial Integrity, 1924,”
Ruling, Virginia, July 1958,
Richard Perry Loving & Mildred Delores Jeeter
“Almighty God created the races
white, black, yellow, Malay and red,
and He placed them on separate
continents. And but for the
interference with His arrangement
there would be no cause for such
marriages. The fact that He separated
the races shows that He did not intend
for the races to mix.”
“Act to Preserve Racial Integrity, 1924,”
Ruling, Virginia, July 1958,
Richard Perry Loving & Mildred Delores Jeeter
“Almighty God created the races
white, black, yellow, Malay and red,
and He placed them on separate
continents. And but for the
interference with His arrangement
there would be no cause for such
marriages. The fact that He separated
the races shows that He did not intend
for the races to mix.”
1967, Loving v. Virginia
•Supreme Court Decision
•Struck down anti-miscegenation laws in
remaining 16 states
•Supreme Court Decision
•Struck down anti-miscegenation laws in
remaining 16 states
Racialization of Religion
•A process when a specific religion becomes identified
by a direct or indirect reference to a real or imagined
physical appearance or ethnic/racial characteristic.
•Certain phonotypical features associated with a group
and attached to race in popular discourse become
associated with a particular religion or religions. Race
thereby becomes a proxy for religious affiliation in the
[U.S.] visual library (Joshi, 2006).
•A process when a specific religion becomes identified
by a direct or indirect reference to a real or imagined
physical appearance or ethnic/racial characteristic.
•Certain phonotypical features associated with a group
and attached to race in popular discourse become
associated with a particular religion or religions. Race
thereby becomes a proxy for religious affiliation in the
[U.S.] visual library (Joshi, 2006).
Racialization of Religion
An Example
A white woman of English, Irish, and Swedish heritage grows up in
a home in Iowa following the tenets of the Christian Methodist faith.
When she was 32-years-old, she met, fell in love with, and married
an Iranian professor from a nearby university who teaches Islamic
Culture and Religion and is himself a Muslim. Before their marriage,
the woman studied and converted to Islam, and now she wears the
traditional hijab, the veil customarily worn by some Muslim women
covering the head and chest. Many people now consider this
woman as no longer “white,” but, rather, as a person of color by
converting to Islam and marrying a man of Iranian descent. This
example underscores the racialization of religion.
An Example
A white woman of English, Irish, and Swedish heritage grows up in
a home in Iowa following the tenets of the Christian Methodist faith.
When she was 32-years-old, she met, fell in love with, and married
an Iranian professor from a nearby university who teaches Islamic
Culture and Religion and is himself a Muslim. Before their marriage,
the woman studied and converted to Islam, and now she wears the
traditional hijab, the veil customarily worn by some Muslim women
covering the head and chest. Many people now consider this
woman as no longer “white,” but, rather, as a person of color by
converting to Islam and marrying a man of Iranian descent. This
example underscores the racialization of religion.
Racialization of Language
An Example
A married Jewish couple of German birth and descent flee
Germany during the rise of the Nazis in 1933 and immigrate to
Colombia in South America. Within 5 years after arriving, they
produce and raise three children. Colombian society defines
this family as European-heritage white. One of the children
comes to the United States to attend college. When she enters
the U.S., she suddenly becomes “Latina” owing to her country
of birth and her first language of Spanish. Not only does
language through discursive regimes racialize, but also, in
many instances, language itself is racialized.
An Example
A married Jewish couple of German birth and descent flee
Germany during the rise of the Nazis in 1933 and immigrate to
Colombia in South America. Within 5 years after arriving, they
produce and raise three children. Colombian society defines
this family as European-heritage white. One of the children
comes to the United States to attend college. When she enters
the U.S., she suddenly becomes “Latina” owing to her country
of birth and her first language of Spanish. Not only does
language through discursive regimes racialize, but also, in
many instances, language itself is racialized.
MADISON GRANT
1865-1937
•U.S. Lawyer, Eugenicist
•Co-founder, with Henry Fairfield Osborn, of
the Galton Society for the Study of the
Origin and Evolution of Man, 1918.
•Grant Influential in Immigration Restriction
and Anti-Miscegenation Policies.
•Book: The Passing of the Great Race(1916)
detailing the so-called “racial” history of
Europe: in fact, a work of “scientific
racism.”
1865-1937
•U.S. Lawyer, Eugenicist
•Co-founder, with Henry Fairfield Osborn, of
the Galton Society for the Study of the
Origin and Evolution of Man, 1918.
•Grant Influential in Immigration Restriction
and Anti-Miscegenation Policies.
•Book: The Passing of the Great Race(1916)
detailing the so-called “racial” history of
Europe: in fact, a work of “scientific
racism.”
MADISON GRANT
1865-1937
•“Racialization” of Jews codified in
The Passing of the Great Race(1916)
•European “Racial” Hierarchy:
–“Nordics”(Northwestern Europe—superior)
–“Alpines”(Central Europe—somewhat inferior)
–“Mediterraneans”(Southern and Eastern Europe—
inferior)
–Jews(most inferior)
1865-1937
•“Racialization” of Jews codified in
The Passing of the Great Race(1916)
•European “Racial” Hierarchy:
–“Nordics”(Northwestern Europe—superior)
–“Alpines”(Central Europe—somewhat inferior)
–“Mediterraneans”(Southern and Eastern Europe—
inferior)
–Jews(most inferior)
MADISON GRANT
1865-1937
•Nordics: natural rulers & administrators, which
accounted for England’s “extraordinary ability to govern
justly & firmly the lower races” (Grant, 1916, p. 207).
•Alpines: “…always and everywhere a race of peasants”
with a tendency toward “democracy” although submissive
to authority. (p. 227).
•Mediterraneans: inferior to both Nordics & Alpines in
“bodily stamina,” but superior in “the field of art.” Also,
superior to the Alpines in “intellectual attainments,” but
far behind Nordics “in literature and in scientific research
and discovery” (p. 229)
1865-1937
•Nordics: natural rulers & administrators, which
accounted for England’s “extraordinary ability to govern
justly & firmly the lower races” (Grant, 1916, p. 207).
•Alpines: “…always and everywhere a race of peasants”
with a tendency toward “democracy” although submissive
to authority. (p. 227).
•Mediterraneans: inferior to both Nordics & Alpines in
“bodily stamina,” but superior in “the field of art.” Also,
superior to the Alpines in “intellectual attainments,” but
far behind Nordics “in literature and in scientific research
and discovery” (p. 229)
MADISON GRANT
1865-1937
•Polish Jews: “…the Polish Jew, whose dwarf stature,
peculiar mentality and ruthless concentration on self-
interest….(p. 16), present themselves in “swarms” (p. 63).
“The result of the mixture of two races, in the long run,
gives us a race reverting to the more ancient
generalization and lower type. The cross between a white
man and an Indian is an Indian, the cross between a white
man and a Negro is a Negro, the cross between a white
man and a Hindu is a Hindu, and the cross between any of
the three European races and a Jew is a Jew” (p. 18).
1865-1937
•Polish Jews: “…the Polish Jew, whose dwarf stature,
peculiar mentality and ruthless concentration on self-
interest….(p. 16), present themselves in “swarms” (p. 63).
“The result of the mixture of two races, in the long run,
gives us a race reverting to the more ancient
generalization and lower type. The cross between a white
man and an Indian is an Indian, the cross between a white
man and a Negro is a Negro, the cross between a white
man and a Hindu is a Hindu, and the cross between any of
the three European races and a Jew is a Jew” (p. 18).
MADISON GRANT
1865-1937
•Former President Teddy Roosevelt, of Grant’s book: “the
work of an American scholar and gentleman; and all
Americans should be sincerely grateful to you for writing
it” (Roosevelt, 1933, in Brace, p. 177).
•Grant’s book translated in German and provided added
justification to Adolph Hitler in the writing of Mein Kampf
(Brace, 2005).
•Hitler wrote to Grant and referred to Grant’s book as his
“Bible” (Kühl, 1994, p. 85).
•Grant’s book impacted U.S. immigration legislation of
1924.
1865-1937
•Former President Teddy Roosevelt, of Grant’s book: “the
work of an American scholar and gentleman; and all
Americans should be sincerely grateful to you for writing
it” (Roosevelt, 1933, in Brace, p. 177).
•Grant’s book translated in German and provided added
justification to Adolph Hitler in the writing of Mein Kampf
(Brace, 2005).
•Hitler wrote to Grant and referred to Grant’s book as his
“Bible” (Kühl, 1994, p. 85).
•Grant’s book impacted U.S. immigration legislation of
1924.
1924 Immigration Act
1924 Johnson-Reed Immigration Act: a.k.a. “National
Origins Quota Act,” or “National Quota Act”
Restrictive quotas: Eastern & Southern Europe
Viewed as Europe’s lower “races”
Jews (“Hebrew race”), Poles, Italians, Greeks, Slaves
Prohibitions of “aliens ineligible
to citizenship”
(Asians from 1790 Naturalization Act)
Increased numbers
Great Britain, Germany
1924 Johnson-Reed Immigration Act: a.k.a. “National
Origins Quota Act,” or “National Quota Act”
Restrictive quotas: Eastern & Southern Europe
Viewed as Europe’s lower “races”
Jews (“Hebrew race”), Poles, Italians, Greeks, Slaves
Prohibitions of “aliens ineligible
to citizenship”
(Asians from 1790 Naturalization Act)
Increased numbers
Great Britain, Germany
IMMIGRATION LEGISLATION
•The National Origins Act of 1924 established quota
percentages based on the census population in
1890. The number of immigrants to be admitted
annually was limited to 2% of the foreign-born
individuals of each nationality living in the U.S. in
1890.
–Restricted immigration rights almost exclusively to
northwestern Europeans in order to “protect our values
… [as] a Western Christian civilization.” (Feagin 1997, p.35).
–Functioned to prevent Catholics, Jews, and other non-
Protestant groups from immigrating to the United States.
•The National Origins Act of 1924 established quota
percentages based on the census population in
1890. The number of immigrants to be admitted
annually was limited to 2% of the foreign-born
individuals of each nationality living in the U.S. in
1890.
–Restricted immigration rights almost exclusively to
northwestern Europeans in order to “protect our values
… [as] a Western Christian civilization.” (Feagin 1997, p.35).
–Functioned to prevent Catholics, Jews, and other non-
Protestant groups from immigrating to the United States.
Wagner-Rogers Bill
•1939, Congress refusedto pass Wagner-
Rogers Bill
•Would have permitted entry of 20,000
children, primarily Jewish, from Eastern
Europe over existing quotas.
“20,000 charming children would, all too soon, grow
into 20,000 ugly adults.”
Laura Delano, cousin of F.D.R.
•1939, Congress refusedto pass Wagner-
Rogers Bill
•Would have permitted entry of 20,000
children, primarily Jewish, from Eastern
Europe over existing quotas.
“20,000 charming children would, all too soon, grow
into 20,000 ugly adults.”
Laura Delano, cousin of F.D.R.
Japanese American
Internment (Concentration) Camps
•120,000 Japanese Americans
•Uprooted from homes
•Transported to Internment Camps
•Interior U.S.
Internment (Concentration) Camps
•120,000 Japanese Americans
•Uprooted from homes
•Transported to Internment Camps
•Interior U.S.
Japanese American
Internment (Concentration) Camps
Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S.214 (1944), landmark
United States Supreme Court decision ruled 6-3 constitutional,
Executive Order 9066 “as a matter of military urgency,” ordering
Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II
regardlessof citizenship.
Fred Korematsu
Internment (Concentration) Camps
Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S.214 (1944), landmark
United States Supreme Court decision ruled 6-3 constitutional,
Executive Order 9066 “as a matter of military urgency,” ordering
Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II
regardlessof citizenship.
Fred Korematsu
Magnuson Act
Though the Magnuson Act of 1943 gave
Chinese immigrants a path toward citizenship
and the right to vote, until 1952, federal policy
disqualified immigrants from most other Asian
countries citizenship status and voting rights.
Though the Magnuson Act of 1943 gave
Chinese immigrants a path toward citizenship
and the right to vote, until 1952, federal policy
disqualified immigrants from most other Asian
countries citizenship status and voting rights.
Have We Learned Anything?
•Following the 9/11 attacks
•31% of U.S.-Americans agreed with the
statement:
•“Muslims in the U.S. should be incarcerated
like we incarcerated Japanese Americans
during WWII.”
•Following the 9/11 attacks
•31% of U.S.-Americans agreed with the
statement:
•“Muslims in the U.S. should be incarcerated
like we incarcerated Japanese Americans
during WWII.”
CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT
(1866-1944)
•Instructor of Zoology, Harvard
University
•1910, Director of the Cold Springs
Laboratory, Long Island, NY
•Founded Eugenics Record Office
•Books: Heredity in Relation to
Eugenics (1911);Race Crossing in
Jamaica (1929).
(1866-1944)
•Instructor of Zoology, Harvard
University
•1910, Director of the Cold Springs
Laboratory, Long Island, NY
•Founded Eugenics Record Office
•Books: Heredity in Relation to
Eugenics (1911);Race Crossing in
Jamaica (1929).
CHARLES BENEDICT DAVENPORT
(1866-1944)
•Argued against miscegenation, mixing
of Whites and Blacks resulted in
cultural and biological “degradation.”
•Favored mandatory sterilization of “the
unfit.”
•Elected chair of Galton Society for the Study of
the Origin and Evolution of Man, 1918.
(1866-1944)
•Argued against miscegenation, mixing
of Whites and Blacks resulted in
cultural and biological “degradation.”
•Favored mandatory sterilization of “the
unfit.”
•Elected chair of Galton Society for the Study of
the Origin and Evolution of Man, 1918.
Harry Hamilton Laughlin
(1880-1943)
•U.S. Eugenicist
•Davenport hired Laughlin to become
superintendent of the Eugenics
Record Office in 1910 -1939.
•Advocate with Davenport for
mandatory sterilization of “the unfit.”
•Crafted his “model sterilization law”
for the “uprooting of inborn
defectiveness” (Laughlin, 1914, p. 13).
(1880-1943)
•U.S. Eugenicist
•Davenport hired Laughlin to become
superintendent of the Eugenics
Record Office in 1910 -1939.
•Advocate with Davenport for
mandatory sterilization of “the unfit.”
•Crafted his “model sterilization law”
for the “uprooting of inborn
defectiveness” (Laughlin, 1914, p. 13).
Harry Hamilton Laughlin
(1880-1943)
•His law included involuntary
sterilization for “the feeble minded, the
insane, criminals, epileptics,
alcoholics, blind persons, deaf
persons, deformed persons, and
indigent persons.”
•Majority of U.S. states passed
sterilizations laws, and as late as 1992,
22 still had them on their books.
(Brace, 2005)
(1880-1943)
•His law included involuntary
sterilization for “the feeble minded, the
insane, criminals, epileptics,
alcoholics, blind persons, deaf
persons, deformed persons, and
indigent persons.”
•Majority of U.S. states passed
sterilizations laws, and as late as 1992,
22 still had them on their books.
(Brace, 2005)
Harry Hamilton Laughlin
(1880-1943)
•1927, Germany passed sterilization law, and in 1933,
Hitler made it compulsory by passing the Law for the
Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring.
•Hitler’s law loosely based on Laughlin's model.
•Over 350,000 persons involuntarily sterilized in Nazi
Germany.
•Laughlin awarded honorary degree by the University
of Heidelberg in 1936 for his work on behalf of the
“science of racial cleansing.”
(1880-1943)
•1927, Germany passed sterilization law, and in 1933,
Hitler made it compulsory by passing the Law for the
Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring.
•Hitler’s law loosely based on Laughlin's model.
•Over 350,000 persons involuntarily sterilized in Nazi
Germany.
•Laughlin awarded honorary degree by the University
of Heidelberg in 1936 for his work on behalf of the
“science of racial cleansing.”
NAZI “RACIAL”
PHILOSOPHY
•“Racial” arguments
were the cornerstone
for justification of
persecution of Jews
(as well as most people
of color and people
with disabilities).
•Jews and others were
descendants from
inferior “racialstands.”
PHILOSOPHY
•“Racial” arguments
were the cornerstone
for justification of
persecution of Jews
(as well as most people
of color and people
with disabilities).
•Jews and others were
descendants from
inferior “racialstands.”
NAZI“RACIAL”
PHILOSOPHY
•Germany lost WWI because of its internal
enemies: the Jews.
•Nazi campaign of “moral, racial, and sexual
purity” led to an intense and violent
campaign against Jews and other groups.
•Estimated 6 million Jews were murdered:
equal to two-thirds of European Jewry, and
one-third of the entire world-wide Jewish
population.
PHILOSOPHY
•Germany lost WWI because of its internal
enemies: the Jews.
•Nazi campaign of “moral, racial, and sexual
purity” led to an intense and violent
campaign against Jews and other groups.
•Estimated 6 million Jews were murdered:
equal to two-thirds of European Jewry, and
one-third of the entire world-wide Jewish
population.
NAZI “RACIAL”
PHILOSOPHY
•The Nazis asserted
that Jews were
polluting the Aryan
“race.” They forced
Jews to wear the
YellowStar of David
patches, a sign of
“race pollution.”
PHILOSOPHY
•The Nazis asserted
that Jews were
polluting the Aryan
“race.” They forced
Jews to wear the
YellowStar of David
patches, a sign of
“race pollution.”
1950s -1960s
•Tumultuous social change
•Challenge underlying assumptions
•Authority
•Power relationships
•Tumultuous social change
•Challenge underlying assumptions
•Authority
•Power relationships
Civil Rights
•1954, Brown v. Board of Education (Topeka,
Kansas)
•Supreme Court
•Unconstitutional: “Separate but Equal” in public
education
Linda Brown & mother
Linda Brown attending
integrated school
•1954, Brown v. Board of Education (Topeka,
Kansas)
•Supreme Court
•Unconstitutional: “Separate but Equal” in public
education
Linda Brown & mother
Linda Brown attending
integrated school
Civil Rights
Rosa Parks
•1955, refusal to give up seat white person
•Montgomery, Alabama
•Municipal bus boycott
Rosa Parks
•1955, refusal to give up seat white person
•Montgomery, Alabama
•Municipal bus boycott
Civil Rights
Lunch counter sit-in to end segregation
Lunch counter sit-in to end segregation
Civil Rights
1963, National March on Washington
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
1963, National March on Washington
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.
Civil Rights
•Movement to improve working conditions, wages
•Farm Workers
César Chávez
Founder, National Farm Workers
Association
•Movement to improve working conditions, wages
•Farm Workers
César Chávez
Founder, National Farm Workers
Association
Free Speech Movement
•1964-1965
•Student Protest
•University of California, Berkeley
•Students insisted university lift ban of on-
campus political activities
•Grant students' right free speech
& academic freedom
•1964-1965
•Student Protest
•University of California, Berkeley
•Students insisted university lift ban of on-
campus political activities
•Grant students' right free speech
& academic freedom
Vietnam War
Environmental Movement
•Earth Day
–Proposed: U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson
–First, April 22, 1970
–Environmental teach-in
•Earth Day
–Proposed: U.S. Senator Gaylord Nelson
–First, April 22, 1970
–Environmental teach-in
Disability Rights Movement
1952, McCarran Walters Act
•The McCarran Walters Act overturned the
1924 Act.
•The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
removed 'natural origins' as the basis of U.S.
immigration legislation, and was framed as
an amendment to the 1952 McCarran-Walter
Act.
•The McCarran Walters Act overturned the
1924 Act.
•The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
removed 'natural origins' as the basis of U.S.
immigration legislation, and was framed as
an amendment to the 1952 McCarran-Walter
Act.
Immigration and Nationality Act 1965
•Abolished National Origins Formula from
•National Origins of 1924
•Increased immigration from Asian and Latin
American countries and religious
backgrounds
•Allowed 170,000 immigrants from the Eastern
Hemisphere, 20,000 per each country
•120,000 from Western Hemisphere
•300,000 total visas allowed
•Abolished National Origins Formula from
•National Origins of 1924
•Increased immigration from Asian and Latin
American countries and religious
backgrounds
•Allowed 170,000 immigrants from the Eastern
Hemisphere, 20,000 per each country
•120,000 from Western Hemisphere
•300,000 total visas allowed
Cultural Pluralism
Horace Kallen
Jewish immigrant and sociologist
Polish and Latvian heritage
Coined “cultural pluralism” to challenge the image of
the so-called “melting pot,” which he considered to be
inherently undemocratic
Kallenenvisioned a United States in the image of a
great symphony orchestra, not sounding in unison
(the “melting pot”), but rather, one in which all the
disparate cultures play in harmony and retain their
unique and distinctive tones and timbres
Horace Kallen
Jewish immigrant and sociologist
Polish and Latvian heritage
Coined “cultural pluralism” to challenge the image of
the so-called “melting pot,” which he considered to be
inherently undemocratic
Kallenenvisioned a United States in the image of a
great symphony orchestra, not sounding in unison
(the “melting pot”), but rather, one in which all the
disparate cultures play in harmony and retain their
unique and distinctive tones and timbres
“STATISTICAL DIRECTIVE
NUMBER FIFTEEN”
U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 1973
Official Racial Categories
1.African American
2.Asian American
3.Puerto Rican / Latino
4.Native American / Pacific Islander
5.Non-Hispanic White
NUMBER FIFTEEN”
U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 1973
Official Racial Categories
1.African American
2.Asian American
3.Puerto Rican / Latino
4.Native American / Pacific Islander
5.Non-Hispanic White
“Racial Profiling”
•“Racial profiling occurs when race is used by law
enforcement or private security officials, to any
degree, as a basis for criminal suspicion in non-
suspect specific investigations.”
•Racial profiling constitutes a form of discrimination,
based on race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, and
other identities “undermines the basic human rights
and freedoms to which every person is entitled.”
Amnesty International
•“Racial profiling occurs when race is used by law
enforcement or private security officials, to any
degree, as a basis for criminal suspicion in non-
suspect specific investigations.”
•Racial profiling constitutes a form of discrimination,
based on race, ethnicity, religion, nationality, and
other identities “undermines the basic human rights
and freedoms to which every person is entitled.”
Amnesty International
Racial Oppression
“Racial oppression is not just what happens
to raced people, it is the how and why
people emerge as raced. It is precisely
because racial oppression is so persistent
and painful that it becomes imperative to ask
how power and discourse operate to
produce raced bodies”
(Wilchins, 2004, p. 121)
“Racial oppression is not just what happens
to raced people, it is the how and why
people emerge as raced. It is precisely
because racial oppression is so persistent
and painful that it becomes imperative to ask
how power and discourse operate to
produce raced bodies”
(Wilchins, 2004, p. 121)
“Race” as Continuum not Binary
•“Race” is socially constructed as a
Continuum and not as a Binary dependent on
the contexts of time and place.
I
•“Race” is socially constructed as a
Continuum and not as a Binary dependent on
the contexts of time and place.
I
References & Further Readings
•Adams, Maurianne and Bracey, John. (2000). Strangers and neighbors: Teaching and
writing about blacks and Jews. The Chronicle Review of The Chronicle of Higher Education,
November 3. B7-B10.
•Andree, Richard. (1881). Zur Volkskunde der Juden. Leipzig.
•Biale, D., Galchinsky, M., and Heschel, S. (1998). Insider/Outsider: American Jews and
Multiculturalism.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
•Blumenfeld, W. J. (2012). On the discursive construction of Jewish “racialization” and “race
passing”: Jews as “u-boats” with a mysterious “queer light.” Journal of Critical Thought &
Praxis, 1(1), 1-28.
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2006). Christian Privilege and the Promotion of “Secular” and Not-
So “Secular” Mainline Christianity in Public Schooling and in the Larger Society. Equity and
Excellence in Education, 39(3).
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2006a). Outside/Inside/Between Sides: An Investigation of
Ashkenazi Jewish Perceptions on Their “Race.” Multicultural Perspectives: Journal of the
National Association for Multicultural Education. 8(3).
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2001). Black and Off-White: An Investigation of African American
and Jewish Conflict from Ashkenazi Jewish American Perspectives. Doctoral Dissertation,
Social Justice Education Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.
•Brace, C. Loring. (2005). “Race” Is a Four-Letter Word. Oxford/New York: Oxford University
Press.
•Brodkin, K. (1998). How Jews became White Folks & What That Says about Race in America.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
•Adams, Maurianne and Bracey, John. (2000). Strangers and neighbors: Teaching and
writing about blacks and Jews. The Chronicle Review of The Chronicle of Higher Education,
November 3. B7-B10.
•Andree, Richard. (1881). Zur Volkskunde der Juden. Leipzig.
•Biale, D., Galchinsky, M., and Heschel, S. (1998). Insider/Outsider: American Jews and
Multiculturalism.Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
•Blumenfeld, W. J. (2012). On the discursive construction of Jewish “racialization” and “race
passing”: Jews as “u-boats” with a mysterious “queer light.” Journal of Critical Thought &
Praxis, 1(1), 1-28.
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2006). Christian Privilege and the Promotion of “Secular” and Not-
So “Secular” Mainline Christianity in Public Schooling and in the Larger Society. Equity and
Excellence in Education, 39(3).
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2006a). Outside/Inside/Between Sides: An Investigation of
Ashkenazi Jewish Perceptions on Their “Race.” Multicultural Perspectives: Journal of the
National Association for Multicultural Education. 8(3).
•Blumenfeld, Warren J. (2001). Black and Off-White: An Investigation of African American
and Jewish Conflict from Ashkenazi Jewish American Perspectives. Doctoral Dissertation,
Social Justice Education Program, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts.
•Brace, C. Loring. (2005). “Race” Is a Four-Letter Word. Oxford/New York: Oxford University
Press.
•Brodkin, K. (1998). How Jews became White Folks & What That Says about Race in America.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
References & Further Readings
•Butler, Judith. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York:
Routledge.
•Butler, Judith. (1973). Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York:
Routledge.
•Cameron, S. C., & Wycoff, S. M. (1998). The destructive nature of the term race: Growing
•beyond a false paradigm. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 277-285.
•Feagin, Joe R. (1997). Old Poison in New Bottles: The Deep Roots of Modern Nativism. In J. F.
Perea (Ed). Immigrants Out: The New Nativism and the Anti-Immigrant Impulse in the United
States (pp. 13-43). New York: New York University Press.
•Feagin, J., and Feagin, C. (1993). Racial and ethnic relations. New York: Prentice Hall.
•Fishberg, Maurice. (1911). Jews, Race, and Environment. New York: Schribner’s
•Foucault, Michel. (1980). The History of Sexuality, Part 1 (R. Hurley, Trans.). New York:
Vintage Books
•Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum
•Galton, Francis. (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development.. London:
Macmillan.
•Galton, Francis. (1869). Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences.
London: Macmillan.
•
•Butler, Judith. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York:
Routledge.
•Butler, Judith. (1973). Bodies that Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York:
Routledge.
•Cameron, S. C., & Wycoff, S. M. (1998). The destructive nature of the term race: Growing
•beyond a false paradigm. Journal of Counseling & Development, 76, 277-285.
•Feagin, Joe R. (1997). Old Poison in New Bottles: The Deep Roots of Modern Nativism. In J. F.
Perea (Ed). Immigrants Out: The New Nativism and the Anti-Immigrant Impulse in the United
States (pp. 13-43). New York: New York University Press.
•Feagin, J., and Feagin, C. (1993). Racial and ethnic relations. New York: Prentice Hall.
•Fishberg, Maurice. (1911). Jews, Race, and Environment. New York: Schribner’s
•Foucault, Michel. (1980). The History of Sexuality, Part 1 (R. Hurley, Trans.). New York:
Vintage Books
•Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum
•Galton, Francis. (1883). Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development.. London:
Macmillan.
•Galton, Francis. (1869). Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences.
London: Macmillan.
•
References & Further Reading
•Gates, H. L. Jr. (1989). Figures in Black: Words, signs, and the “racial” self. New York: Oxford
•University Press.
•Gilman, Sander. (1991). The Jew’s Body.New York: Routledge.
•Gramsci, Antonio. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith,
Trans.). New York: International.
•Grant, Madison. (1916). The Passing of the Great Race. New York: S. Scribner’s Sons.
•Hamilton, A. M. The civil responsibility of sexual perverts. American Journal of Insanity, 52,
April 1896, 503-509.
•Hitler, Adolph. (1943). Main Kampf. Ralph Manheim (trans.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
•Itzkovitz, D. (1999). Passing like me. South Atlantic Quarterly,98, 1-2.
•Joshi, KhyatiE. (2006). The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States,
Equity and Excellence in Education, 39(3).
•Krafft-Ebing, R. V. (1886). Psychopathiasexualis: Eineklinisch-forensischestudie. Stuttgart:
Ferdinand Enke.
•Kühl, Stefan. (1994). The Nazi Connection; Eugenics, American Racism, and German National
Socialism, Oxford/New York: O.U.P.
•Gates, H. L. Jr. (1989). Figures in Black: Words, signs, and the “racial” self. New York: Oxford
•University Press.
•Gilman, Sander. (1991). The Jew’s Body.New York: Routledge.
•Gramsci, Antonio. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks (Q. Hoare & G. N. Smith,
Trans.). New York: International.
•Grant, Madison. (1916). The Passing of the Great Race. New York: S. Scribner’s Sons.
•Hamilton, A. M. The civil responsibility of sexual perverts. American Journal of Insanity, 52,
April 1896, 503-509.
•Hitler, Adolph. (1943). Main Kampf. Ralph Manheim (trans.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
•Itzkovitz, D. (1999). Passing like me. South Atlantic Quarterly,98, 1-2.
•Joshi, KhyatiE. (2006). The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States,
Equity and Excellence in Education, 39(3).
•Krafft-Ebing, R. V. (1886). Psychopathiasexualis: Eineklinisch-forensischestudie. Stuttgart:
Ferdinand Enke.
•Kühl, Stefan. (1994). The Nazi Connection; Eugenics, American Racism, and German National
Socialism, Oxford/New York: O.U.P.
References & Further Readings
•Laughlin, Harry H. (1914). Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical
Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasma in the American Population. Eugenics Record
Office, bulletin 10. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
•Lewis, E., & Ardizzone, H. (2001). Love on trial: An American scandal in Black and White. New
York and London: W. W. Norton Co.
•Lichtenstein, P. M., (1921). The “fairy” and the “lady lover.” The Medical Review of Reviews, 27:
327.
•Laughlin, Harry H. (1914). Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical
Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasma in the American Population. Eugenics Record
Office, bulletin 10. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
•Lewis, E., & Ardizzone, H. (2001). Love on trial: An American scandal in Black and White. New
York and London: W. W. Norton Co.
•Lichtenstein, P. M., (1921). The “fairy” and the “lady lover.” The Medical Review of Reviews, 27:
327
•Ramon, Gloria. Race: Social Concept, Biological Idea,
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f00/web2/ramon2/html
•Selden, Steven. (1999). Inheriting Shame: The Story of Eugenics and Racism in America. New
York: Teachers College Press.
•Laughlin, Harry H. (1914). Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical
Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasma in the American Population. Eugenics Record
Office, bulletin 10. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
•Lewis, E., & Ardizzone, H. (2001). Love on trial: An American scandal in Black and White. New
York and London: W. W. Norton Co.
•Lichtenstein, P. M., (1921). The “fairy” and the “lady lover.” The Medical Review of Reviews, 27:
327.
•Laughlin, Harry H. (1914). Report of the Committee to Study and to Report on the Best Practical
Means of Cutting Off the Defective Germ-Plasma in the American Population. Eugenics Record
Office, bulletin 10. Cold Spring Harbor, NY.
•Lewis, E., & Ardizzone, H. (2001). Love on trial: An American scandal in Black and White. New
York and London: W. W. Norton Co.
•Lichtenstein, P. M., (1921). The “fairy” and the “lady lover.” The Medical Review of Reviews, 27:
327
•Ramon, Gloria. Race: Social Concept, Biological Idea,
http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f00/web2/ramon2/html
•Selden, Steven. (1999). Inheriting Shame: The Story of Eugenics and Racism in America. New
York: Teachers College Press.
References & Further Readings
•Schlossberg, L. (2001). Introduction: Rites of passing. In M. C. Sánchez and L. Schlossberg
(Eds.). Passing: Identity and interpretation in sexuality, race, and religion(pp. 1-12). New
York: New York University Press.
•Sefa Dei, G. J. (2000). Towards an anti-racism discursive framework. In G. J. Sefa Dei, A.
Calliste (Eds.). Power, knowledge, and anti-racism education: A critical reader(pp. 34-40).
Halifax, Canada: Fernwood Publishing, pp. 34-40.
•Tardieu, A. A. (1857). Étude medico-legale sur les attentats aux moeurs. Paris: J. B. Baillière.
•Thandeka. (1999). The Cost of Whiteness. In Tikkun, May/June.
•Wagner, Richard. (1850, 1894). The Jews in Music.Taken fromThe Theatre, Richard
Wagner's Prose Works, Volume 3, pages 79-100, Essay originally published in 1850 in
Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen: Volume V, pages 66-85.
•Wells, Spencer. (2002). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. New York: Random House.
•West, Cornel.(1993). Race matters. New York: Vintage Books.
•Wilchins, Riki. (2004). Queer Theory, Gender Theory. Los Angeles: Alyson Books
•Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences:
Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45(12), 1297-1303.
•Schlossberg, L. (2001). Introduction: Rites of passing. In M. C. Sánchez and L. Schlossberg
(Eds.). Passing: Identity and interpretation in sexuality, race, and religion(pp. 1-12). New
York: New York University Press.
•Sefa Dei, G. J. (2000). Towards an anti-racism discursive framework. In G. J. Sefa Dei, A.
Calliste (Eds.). Power, knowledge, and anti-racism education: A critical reader(pp. 34-40).
Halifax, Canada: Fernwood Publishing, pp. 34-40.
•Tardieu, A. A. (1857). Étude medico-legale sur les attentats aux moeurs. Paris: J. B. Baillière.
•Thandeka. (1999). The Cost of Whiteness. In Tikkun, May/June.
•Wagner, Richard. (1850, 1894). The Jews in Music.Taken fromThe Theatre, Richard
Wagner's Prose Works, Volume 3, pages 79-100, Essay originally published in 1850 in
Sämtliche Schriften und Dichtungen: Volume V, pages 66-85.
•Wells, Spencer. (2002). The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey. New York: Random House.
•West, Cornel.(1993). Race matters. New York: Vintage Books.
•Wilchins, Riki. (2004). Queer Theory, Gender Theory. Los Angeles: Alyson Books
•Zuckerman, M. (1990). Some dubious premises in research and theory on racial differences:
Scientific, social, and ethical issues. American Psychologist, 45(12), 1297-1303.
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