Theory of Mind- Mind Computations - Notes 1.pptx

Mind Computations Atoms Ions & Transport and ATP

1. “Theory of Mind” Insights about Human and Artificial Intelligence

2. “Theory of Mind” Insights about Human and Artificial Intelligence Lecture Notes – Part 1 Dr. Wael Wahby Lecturer of Internal Medicine & Nephrology Cairo University MPA, Harvard University Founder of Yashfii and Thotron (AI Startups)

3. Introduction

4. Understanding the “Mind” T he “Mind” of humans is both a miracle and a mystery . It has puzzled, both philosophers and neuroscientists and is far from being completely understood. https://www.deviantart.com/misean77/art/Medieval-Philosopher-1004725130 (Creative Commons) https://www.flickr.com/photos/arselectronica/8163518759 (Creative Commons) At the same time, it has inspired computer scientists and artificial intelligence ( AI ) innovators.

5. Image Generated by Dall-E through copilot.Microsoft.com This course is designed to give you a glimpse into what neuroscientists see as facts about the brain, and the relationship of this to theories philosophers made about it. It’s very interesting to see the “ Mind ” from different angles and compare it to computers and different types of AI. We hope this inspires you to innovate and build new types and applications of AI. Our Journey

6. The “Mind” as a Computer

7. Building Blocks of the “Mind” To understand the “Mind” this course takes a bottom-up approach , from understanding its smallest building units , towards how billions of these units are organized across different “levels” , to build the brain and thus the functions of the “Mind” + K + K https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Structure_of_Neuron.png youtube.com/watch?v=QJ8AW5pi2T4&list=PLybg94GvOJ9EQp4lGx2kxTvA4Y7HUo5VY&index=5 & youtube.com/watch?v=3Ov6tuhZ2ro&list=PLybg94GvOJ9EQp4lGx2kxTvA4Y7HUo5VY&index=7.MP4 https://www.deviantart.com/hackmau5/art/Brain-all-lit-up-in-activity-965641646 (Creative Commons)

8. To analyze the analyze different components and functional units of the human mind, w e can use the same “ I nput-Processing-Output” (“IPO”) approach used extensively in the analysis of man-made computational systems. Kenneth Leroy Busbee, Programming Fundamentals - A Modular Structured Approach Using C++ (OpenStax CNX), accessed March 12, 2024, http://archive.org/details/cnx-org-col10621 https://www.needpix.com/photo/download/964509/calculator-numbers-0-1-2-3-4-5-6 (Creative Commons) We demonstrate how at each of these levels, some form of “ computation ” is done. Neuroscience has shown that the brain can only “compute” complicated calculations and think logically, by combining smaller computations together to build progressively higher levels of computation. Input B = 5 Input A = 6 Output = 11 Let’s take an example of a very simple computer (e.g. a calculator that can only “add”). Processing: 6 + 5 This calculator processed the input data according to a predefined rule, and produced an output on a screen 🚫 🚫 🚫 11 Computation Systems: “IPO” Approach

9. 1- Dave Braunschweig, “Input-Process-Output Model,” Programming Fundamentals – A Modular Structured Approach, 2nd Edition, Chapter 2, available in the website of Kirkwood Community College, December 15, 2018, https://kirkwood.pressbooks.pub/programmingfundamentals/chapter/input-process-output-model/ 2- "Input, Process, Output, and Conventional Technology,” Introduction to Assistive Technology, Module 4, an online course on the website of The University of Iowa's Center for Assistive Technology Education and Research, accessed March 12, 2024, https://www.continuetolearn.uiowa.edu/nas1/07c187/Module%204/module_4_p2.html Below is a reminder of components used to analyze systems using the “IPO” approach. Examples from the calculator analogy we used before are highlighted in this color. Input: A “requirement from the environment” 1 . A piece of “information entered into the computer system” 2 (“6” and “5”). Input Device: This is used to enter the information into the “computer from an external source” 2 (keypads of the calculator). This device may need to transform the data into a form understandable by that “computer”. (In the calculator analogy, converting numbers in my brain, into electrical signals inside the calculator). Processing: A “computation” 1 based on the input information (Addition of “6” and “5”). Processing Device: The component(s) that “process or transform information provided as an input” 2 into an output. (“Addition of 6 and 5”). Output: A “provision for the environment” 1 .For example output could be a signal that is mechanical, visual, hearable or electrical signal. It can even be an abstract “idea” (like “11”). Output Device: Component(s) used by a system to “communicate” output “information in a usable form” 2 . (The screen of the calculator). Computation Systems: “IPO” Approach

10. The “Computations” of Single Atoms

11. Structure of Atoms https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%81tomo_de_Oro.gif Protons Neutrons Electrons Nucleus Each atoms consist of A Nucleus. The nucleus consists of Protons (Positively charged) Neutrons (Neutral. Not charged) Electrons (Negatively charged) (the orange circles rotating around the ”Nucleus” in this diagram)

12. The “Nucleus” of Atoms

13. نوى البلح Still Image of Date from video by the instructor https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Date_palm_pit_cover.jpg

14. Eac h Atom has a “Nucleus” But remember that every human cell also has a ”Nucleus”, and that their “division” (called fission in case of the Nuclei of atoms) create miracles.

15. “Computations” of Atoms ? https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hidr%C3%B3geno_atom.gif https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atom_lithium.gif Both have “Creative Commons” Licenses according to Google Image Search filtering Can you think of “ computations ” that are automatically done by atoms

16. “Mind” of Atoms https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hydrogen_GIF.gif https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Atom_animation.gif Both have “Creative Commons” Licenses according to Google Image Search filtering IF 1 Proton THEN 1 Electron IF 3 Protons THEN 3 Electrons

17.   Atom “Computations”: “IPO” Approach

18. The “Computations”by 2 Molecules

19. Molecules and Ions Na Cl + When an “Ionic Bond” is formed between 2 atoms (as shown below), can we consider eac h of these molecules to have a “ Computational System ”? -

20. Molecules and Ions Na - - - - - - - - - - - - Na has 11 protons Cl has 17 protons & thus 11 electrons a rranged in rings: & thus 17 electrons arranged in rings as: 2 8 1 - Cl - - - - - - - - - 2 7 - - 8 - - - - - - - “Ionic Bond: Sodium Chloride, or Table Salt,” Britannica Kids, accessed March 12, 2024, https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/92139

21. Molecules and Ions “Ionic Bond: Sodium Chloride, or Table Salt,” Britannica Kids, accessed March 12, 2024, https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/92139 Na - - - - - - - - - - - - The outer electron ring of Na has only 1 electron .. While the outer electron ring of Cl has 1 electron less than its full capacity (it can carry 8 electrons) 2 8 1 - Cl - - - - - - - - - 2 7 - - 8 - - - - - -

22. Molecules and Ions Na - - - - - - - - - - - - A “chemical reaction” can thus occur, in which Na “gives” this 1 outer electron .. thus becoming relatively positive by 1 charge (i.e. a “Na + ion” ) .. while Cl “receives” this extra electron thus becoming relatively negative by 1 charge (i.e. a “Cl - ion” ) 2 8 1 - Cl - - - - - - - - - 2 7 - - 8 - - - - - - .. And an “ionic bond” is thus formed between Na + and Cl - “Simulations & Videos for Lesson 4.5: Energy Levels, Electrons, and Ionic Bonding,” American Chemical Society, accessed March 12, 2024, https://www.acs.org/middleschoolchemistry/simulations/chapter4/lesson5.html.

23. Below is an application of the “IPO” approach on the computational system of forming a ions (e.g. sodium ions) from atoms (e.g. sodium atoms), provided the conditions are suitable , demonstrating miraculous “intelligent design”. Text made small (this size) is information you will not be asked about in the exam, but may be interesting to contemplate. Input 1: Distance between the “Atom A” and “Atom B” (e.g. the “Sodium atom” and the closest “Chloride atom”). Input 2: Number of electrons in the outer rings of each of atom A. (the “Sodium atom”). Input 3: Number of electrons in the outer rings of each of atom B. (the “Chloride atom”). Input Device: The outer electron rings of atom 2 (the “Chloride atom”). Processing: Are “Atom A” and “Atom B” close enough? AND do the number of electrons in the outer rings of atoms A and B induce a reaction. Processing Device: It is more energy-efficient for Chlorine to gain one electron than to lose seven in order to acquire a stable outer electron ring (1 proton attracts 1 electron). Output: 1 electron is transferred from atom A to atom B (from a Sodium atom to a Chloride atom. This leads to the formation of 1 Sodium Ion (Na+) Output Device: Availability of Sodium ions for functions such as conducting electricity. Ionic Bonds “Computations”: “IPO” Approach “Simulations & Videos for Lesson 4.5: Energy Levels, Electrons, and Ionic Bonding,” American Chemical Society, accessed March 12, 2024, https://www.acs.org/middleschoolchemistry/simulations/chapter4/lesson5.html . “Explain the Formation of Sodium Chloride.,” BYJU'S website of online courses accessed March 12, 2024, https://byjus.com/question-answer/explain-the-formation-of-sodium-chloride/

24. The Collective “ Computations ” by Groups of Ions

25. Diffusion This gif image shows the movement of the molecules of a colored chemical placed in the center of the fluid, toward the periphery. This type of spontaneous movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration is called “Diffusion”. Did you know that electrical conduction inside cells and thus thinking are impossible without diffusion? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aTn56X_fa7Y

26. Diffusion into and out of a “Cell” In the following slides we shall have a look at examples of diffusion of Sodium ions Which are (labeled as Na + ) FROM INSIDE a “cell” to the OUTSIDE of that “cell” Potassium ions Which are (labeled as K + ) FROM OUTSIDE that “cell” to the INSIDE of that “cell” + Na + K These same processes of diffusion of these ions can be observed with a synthetic “compartment” in a test tube, outside the human body, or with living Compartments in the body, called “ Cells ”, including nerve cells. Note that we chose to have the molecules move in these directions because these are the directions of diffusion normally happening in and out of “ cells ”.

27. Diffusion across a “Membrane” OUTSIDE This dotted green line represents a simplified “ Cell Membrane ”, which normally surrounds cells and separates the INSIDE of the cell … INSIDE + Na + K ... from the environment OUTSIDE of the cell . Membrane In the following 2 examples (2 slides) we assume that the ion in question can Freely Pass Through the Cell Membrane

28. Diffusion: Computations of Groups of Ions + THEN Diffusion : From Side B To INSIDE Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na IF Concentration of an Ion “OUTSIDE” IS MORE THAN “INSIDE” AND this Ion Can Freely Pass the Membrane OUTSIDE INSIDE Membrane

29. + THEN Diffusion : From INSIDE To OUTSIDE K IF Concentration of an Ion “INSIDE” IS MORE THAN “OUTSIDE” AND this Ion Can Pass the “Membrane” OUTSIDE + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K + K Diffusion: Computations of Groups of Ions INSIDE Membrane

30.   Diffusion as a “Computation”: “IPO” Approach

31. Passive Transport vs Active Transport

32. Stones on a Mountain It takes energy for you to lift some stones to get them to the top of a mountain. By doing so, the energy you insert into the system to move each stone becomes converted into a type of “ potential energy ”, that becomes stored in that stone. If you let go of these stones, on the steep slope of the mountain (also called a “ gradient ”), the “ potential energy ” in each of these stones will be converted back again into movement , as they fall downwards to the bottom of the mountain. These types of transport are very similar to the types of transport inside cells described next.

33. Passive vs Active Transport + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na This “potential energy” is used to move the molecules in the process of “Diffusion”. Thus “Diffusion” is a type of “passive transport”. This means that it happens without any need to spend any new energy. It takes energy to move ions to areas of high concentration. This is called “active transport”. The energy you insert into the system to move ions becomes converted into a type of “ potential energy ”, that becomes stored in ions that are present in areas of high concentration. This happens to Na + and K + ions using a miraculous “ Sodium-Potassium Pump ” (described later)

34. Concentration Gradients + Na + Na + Na + Na The difference of concentrations of ions between two points (analogous to the top and bottom of the mountain), that leads to stored energy, is like the slope (gradient) of a mountain, and is thus called a ”concentration gradient”. + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na + Na Here there is a HIGHER the difference in concentrations between 2 areas (analogous to the top and bottom of the mountain), 🡪 i.e. a HIGHER “concentration gradient” (analogous to a steeper mountain slope) 🡪 FASTER DIFFUSION Here there is a LOWER the difference in concentrations between 2 areas , 🡪 i.e. a LOWER “concentration gradient” (analogous to a steeper mountain slope) 🡪 SLOWER DIFFUSION

35. “Computations” by the “Energy Currency” of the Cell

36. ATP: The “Energy Currency” of Cells “ATP | Learn Science at Scitable,” accessed May 2, 2024, https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/atp-318/   When humans burn food, almost all the storage of energy happens by performing the steps of the equation shown above from FROM RIGHT to left: By using energy and ADP to build new ATP molecules. Furthermore, almost all the energy consuming activities of the cell are done by performing the steps of the equation shown above BUT FROM LEFT to right: by breaking down ATP to produce energy . For example, one of the most important structures using this energy is the Sodium- Potassium Pump (described later)

37. Below is an application of the “IPO” approach on the computational systems of “Generating ATP” using the equation described above Input A: Concentration of an ATP in the region of interest. Input B: Concentration of an ADP in the region of interest. Input Device: Areas inside protein molecules designed to fit only ADP (in a lock and key fashion). Processing: How high is the Concentration of ADP compared to ATP? Processing Device: Changes in the structures of proteins described above if ADP fits in it them. Output: Production of as much ATP as the cell needs. Output Device: ATP available in the cell for consumption (e.g. by the sodium potassium pump, needed for conduction of electrical impulse). “Computations” involving ATP / ADP

38. “ Intelligence ” in the “Powerhouse” of (Rechargeable Batteries) of the Cell

39. Human-Made Batteries https://www.rawpixel.com/image/6329587/png-sticker-public-domain (Public Domain) All have Positive and Negative electrodes .. and use Ions somehow to generate these charges - https://www.dummies.com/article/technology/electronics/general-electronics/how-batteries-work-138048/

40. Human-Made Batteries (Rechargeable) .. and this includes the famous Rechargeable Lithium Batteries https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-an-intercalation-Li-ion-rechargeable-battery-Most-commercially_fig2_332326791 https://www.explainthatstuff.com/batteries.html

41. Human-Made Batteries (Rechargeable) https://www.flickr.com/photos/argonne/5029455937 (Creative Commons License) .. which involve some Ion Movement for discharging .. and for recharging - - - - - - - - -

42. Human-Made Batteries https://www.needpix.com/photo/741308/battery-full-charge-flat-battery-batteries-weak-charge and even rechargeable batteries need down-time for Recharging But batteries’ charges run out This is in contrast to the “Mitochondrion” which doesn’t need any down-time ! It Recharges continuously while powering activities at the same time

43. Mitochondrion: The Cell’s “Powerhouse” Dane M Wolf et al., “Individual Cristae within the Same Mitochondrion Display Different Membrane Potentials and Are Functionally Independent,” The EMBO Journal 38, no. 22 (November 15, 2019): e101056, https://doi.org/10.15252/embj.2018101056 The Intermembrane Space is subdivided into “sub-parts”, that should be “polarized” to be able to produce electricity. Therefore each “sub-part” can have an independent voltage (the difference between the voltage in “intermembrane space” versus the “matrix”). Thus Each sub-part functions like a “cell” in a battery `There insulating structures for each of these are “sub-parts”. When 1 “sub-part” doesn’t work and thus becomes depolarized (like this one labeled with green), the insulation isolates it from the rest of the sub-parts, allowing the other sub-parts to function as usual. Outer membrane of the mitochondrion Inner membrane of the mitochondrion Matrix Intermembrane Space

44. ATP Synthase - Animation https://madamescientist.com/2011/12/11/smallest-rotary-motor-in-biology-the-atp-synthase/ ATP Synthase is one of the most important structures in Mitocnodria, and the final step in the production of most of the ATP inside Mitochondria Burning (oxidation) of food is used to create a higher concentration of Hydrogen ions (H + ) on one side of a membrane inside Mitochnondria + H + H + H + H + H + H + H H + move across the membrane due to their concentration gradient. And thus make the “ATP synthase” spin like a motor.

45. ATP Synthase - Animation https://madamescientist.com/2011/12/11/smallest-rotary-motor-in-biology-the-atp-synthase/ The energy from spinning is used to combine ADP with 1 inorganic phosphate molecule to form ATP . This is the smallest known rotary motor on Earth !! + H + H + H + H + H + H + H

46. ATP Synthase - Animation ADP Phosphate ATP If you look carefully into this animation you will see: ADP and Phosphate entering the “ATP Synthase” And they are combined inside it to form ATP Then ATP is seen exiting the “ATP Synthase”

47. ATP Synthase - Animation If you look carefully into this animation you will see: ADP and Phosphate entering the “ATP Synthase” And they are combined inside it to form ATP which is then seen exiting the “ATP Synthase”

48. ATP Synthase – Real Images “Propeller Rotation of F1,” accessed April 19, 2024, http://www.k2.phys.waseda.ac.jp/F1movies/F1Prop.htm It rotates at 130 to 350 times / second This is a Slow playback at 1/267 the original speed, with a gold bead attached for visualization “Full-Speed Rotation of F1,” accessed April 19, 2024, http://www.k2.phys.waseda.ac.jp/F1movies/F1full.htm . Hiroshi Ueno et al., “ATP-Driven Stepwise Rotation of FoF1-ATP Synthase,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 102, no. 5 (February 2005): 1333–38, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407857102. These are real videos of the rotating “ATP Synthase” !!!

49. Voltage-Gated Channels vs. Transistors

50. Transistors as building blocks ! Just like ion channels are important building blocks of the neurons, transistors are important building blocks of modern electronics, with billions of transistors in some microprocessors. The illustration to your left shows the basic functionality of one of the most common transistors used nowadays. They are built using semiconductors, most commonly silicon. n -type silicon (with this color in the diagram) has a tendency to be N egatively charged where it meets the p-type silicon p -type silicon (with this color in the diagram) has a tendency to be P ositively charged where it meets the n-type silicon Source (metal accepting input current) Drain (metal giving output current, based on the processing of the inputs) + + + + + + + + + + + Chris Woodford, “How Do Transistors Work?,” Explain that Stuff, January 10, 2007, http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtransistorswork.html Cassiano Ferro Moraes, “Understanding Transistors: What They Are and How They Work,” accessed March 12, 2024, https://www.wevolver.com/article/understanding-transistors-what-they-are-and-how-they-work, https://www.needpix.com/photo/18521/transistor-electronics-science-semiconductor-hardware-ic-integrated-chip-circuit (Creative Commons) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2SA1837_pnp_transistor_%28Inchange_Semiconductor%29.jpg (Creative Commons) + - - - - - - Insulating layer Gate (metal taking another input current) Source Drain Gate

51. Source Drain + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - Gate Source Drain + + + + + + + + + + + + - - - - - - Gate This illustration shows the basic functionality of one of the most commonly used transistors, a FET (“field effect transistor”). The transistor processes “Input A” and “Input B” (which is a small electrical “field”) which produces an “effect” which leads to the “Output”. Chris Woodford, “How Do Transistors Work?,” Explain that Stuff, January 10, 2007, http://www.explainthatstuff.com/howtransistorswork.html “Transistor - Silicon, Amplification, Switching | Britannica,” accessed March 12, 2024, https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor/Innovation-at-Bell-Labs When an electric field IS applied at the “GATE” electric, charges move 🡪 a current IS to flow (i.e. the switch is turned “ON” Input B = 0 (i.e. an electric field is NOT applied at the “GATE”) Input A = 1 (i.e. Power Source is Connnected) Output = 0 (i.e. current is not allowed to flow) In this example, when an electric field is NOT applied at the “GATE” electric current is NOT allowed to flow (i.e. the switch is turned “OFF” Input B = 1 (i.e. an electric field IS applied at the “GATE”) Input A = 1 (i.e. Power Source is Connnected) Output = 1 (i.e. current IS allowed to flow) OFF !! ON !! - - - Transistors: Processing Inputs

52. Thank you.