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Thermo-Ecology
ExergyasaMeasureof
Sustainability
Wojciech Stanek
Paweł Gładysz
Lucyna Czarnowska
Tomasz Simla

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Dedicated to the memory of
Professor Jan Szargut
(09.09.1923e21.11.2017)
Professor Jan Szargut was one of the world’s pioneers of exergy analysis and his
adventure with exergy dates back to its beginnings in world science. His subsequent
and signiﬁcant contribution to the ﬁeld of exergy analysis is certainly not to be over-
estimated. One of the important applications of exergy analysis proposed by Szargut
is thermo-ecological cost (TEC), which connects exergy and ecology. Presentation
of the general theory and algorithms of TEC as well as examples of TEC application
is the aim of this book. The authors would like to dedicate the book to the memory of
Professor Jan Szargutea scientiﬁc authority for many generations of thermody-
namicists especially dealing with exergy analysis. Within this section the authors
have included a short proﬁle of the life and work of Professor Jan Szargut.
Professor Jan Szargut passed away on 21 November 2017. He was, and forever
will remain, an undisputed authority in the ﬁeld of thermodynamics and mechanical
engineering. His contributions to these ﬁelds of science, in particular to the ﬁeld of
exergy analysis, are widely appreciated among the international scientiﬁc commu-
nity. It is difﬁcult to ﬁnd a work in the ﬁeld of exergy analysis that would not use
or does not refer to the achievements of
the professor. He was also a great teacher
contributing to the education of a whole
generation of engineers who became
key managers in the Polish power and
steel industry. His death is a great pain
and an irreplaceable loss for all of us.
Jan Szargut was born on 9 September
1923 in Lwo´w (at that time in Poland,
currently in Ukraine). There he spent
his young years, attending both primary
and secondary schools, and in 1941 he
passed his GCSE. In 1942, during
the German occupation, he became a
student of the Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering at the Technical University
of Lwo´w, existing under the name
Technische Fachkurse. After the War, in
1946, he moved to Gliwice together
with the whole Technical University of
Lwo´w, and he continued his studies at
Professor Jan Szargut, Full Member of Polish
Academy of Science.
Honoris Causa Doctor of the Silesian
University of Technology, Cze˛ stochowa
University of Technology and AGH Krakow
University of Science and Technology.

the Silesian University of Technology. He graduated in 1948 and in the same year was
employed as a senior research assistant. During 1951e54 Jan Szargut participated in
PhD studies under the supervision of Professor Stanis1aw Oche˛duszko(aformerPhD
student of Wilhelm Nusselt), and in 1955 Professor Szargut received his doctoral
degree based on the dissertation “Balance equations resulting from the ﬁrst and
second law of thermodynamics”. In 1957 he became Head of the Chair of Thermal
Engineering. During 1960e62 Jan Szargut was Dean of the Faculty of Mechanical
and Power Engineering, Silesian University of Technology. After 1971 he was Head
of the Institute of Thermal Technology, and held this position until his retirement
in 1993. In 1976, he was elected a member of the Polish Academy of Sciences.
The scientiﬁc activities of Professor Szargut began in the early 1950s. At that
time, he was one of the ﬁrst scientists in the world to initiate research in the area
of exergy analysis of thermal processes. In 1956 Szargut published a paper “Balance
of potentials in physical processes resulting from the second law of thermody-
namics” (in Polish). Although the title does not explicitly include the word “exergy”,
the paper actually summarizes the early stage of Szargut’s activity in the new ﬁeld of
thermodynamics:exergy analysis. Within further works devoted to exergy analysis,
Professor Szargut proposed a reference environment to calculate the chemical
exergy of the elements on Earth. This approach has been one of the most commonly
used methods until now and is essential for further development of exergy-based
concepts.
In his works, Professor Szargut applied exergy analysis to investigate various
thermal and metallurgical processes. Additionally, he proposed a number of
Professor Jan Szargut Professor Stanis1aw Oche˛ duszko Professor Witold Oko1o-Ku1ak
Creators of the Silesian School of Thermodynamics and Faculty of Mechanical and Power
Engineering, Silesian University of Technology.
vi Dedicated to the memory of Professor Jan Szargut

ecological and economic applications of exergy. For example, the concept of
cumulative exergy consumption was an actual milestone for the “exergy community”,
constituting a base for advanced branches of exergy analysisethermo-economics
and thermo-ecology. The latter, also developed by Szargut, can be applied to
investigate the inﬂuence of human consumption activities on the depletion of
natural resources. Therefore this application of exergy perfectly matches the idea
of sustainability.
The achievements of Szargut in the ﬁeld of exergy analysis were published in
four important monographs:
1. Szargut J., Petela R.Exergy. PWN Warszawa 1965 (in Polish) andEksergija,
Moscow 1968 (in Russian);
2. Szargut J., Moris D.R., Steward F.R.Exergy Analysis of Thermal, Chemical and
Metallurgical Processes. Hampshire, New York 1988 (in English);
3. Szargut J.ExergyeTechnical and Ecological Applications. WIT Press 2005 (in
English);
4. Szargut J.ExergyeHandbook of Calculation and Application. SUT Press 2007
(in Polish).
The area of Jan Szargut’s scientiﬁc activities was not only limited to exergy
analysis. The early years of his scientiﬁc career were simultaneously devoted to
the theory of energy balances of chemical processes and to the theory of reference
states for chemical enthalpy and exergy. At that time, Szargut introduced the concept
“enthalpy of devaluation”, being a generalized form of the lower heating value.
In the 1950s Jan Szargut also worked on the application of the least squares
adjustment method to measurement data reconciliation for mass and energy bal-
ances in chemical processes. In 1984, he published a monograph “Least squares
adjustment method in thermal engineering” (in Polish).
During his scientiﬁc carrier, Jan Szargut published many academic coursebooks
on the fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics, e.g.:Thermodynamics(1971
and reissues),Theory of Thermal Processes(1973),Applied Thermodynamics
(1991 and reissues),Exercises in Applied Thermodynamics(1979 and reissues;
co-author),Thermodynamic and Economic Analysis in Industrial Thermal Engi-
neering(1983) andFundamentals of Thermal Engineering(1998 and reissues;
co-author). For many years, these books have been an invaluable source of
knowledge for students learning thermodynamics and thermal engineering at the
Silesian University of Technology. For these scientiﬁc and didactic activities,
Professor Szargut is considered to be the creator of the Polish School of Thermal
Engineering and one of the creators of the Silesian School of Thermodynamics.
Another area of Szargut’s scientiﬁc interests was mathematical modelling and
experimental investigations on heat transfer in metallurgical processes. He worked,
e.g., on the mathematical modelling of radiative heat transfer in industrial furnace
chambers and on heat transfer in recuperators and regenerators. These works were
summarized inNumerical Methods in Thermal Calculations of Industrial Furnaces
Dedicated to the memory of Professor Jan Szargutvii

(1974, in Polish) andNumerical Modelling of Temperature Fields(1995, in Polish;
co-authored).
In 1993, Professor Szargut ofﬁcially retired, but he did not give up his scientiﬁc
activities. In addition to the books already listed, he was subsequently author,
co-author or editor of several other books:Industrial Waste Energy(1993, in Polish,
co-author),Reducing the Energy Consumption in Industrial Plants(1994, in
Polish, co-author),Fundamentals of Energy Management(1995, in Polish, co-
author),Combined Heat and Power
ProductioneCogeneration Plants
(2007, in Polish, co-author) and
ExergyeHandbook of Calculation
and Application(2007, in Polish).
In total, Professor Szargut pub-
lished 327 articles, 24 books and
12 handbooks, and he presented
over 130 conference papers.
Twenty-eight PhD theses were
prepared under his guidance, and
15 of his former PhD students
became full professors. Jan Szargut
was a member of the editorial board
ofEnergyethe International Jour-
nal, and an honorary editor of the
International Journal of Thermodynamics.Healso
was a member of scientiﬁc committees of numerous
scientiﬁc conferences.
During many years, Professor Szargut cooper-
ated closely with industry, particularly metallurgy.
He initiated the construction of recuperators and
convection chambers for charge material preheat-
ing in several Polish ironworks. About half of the
PhD theses prepared under his guidance dealt
with applied problems of metallurgy.
Many of his former PhD students became
recognized scientists, i.e.: Ryszard Petela, Zygmunt
Kolenda, Edward Kostowski, Andrzej Zie˛bik,
Joachim Kozio1and others.
Professor Szargut is an honoris causa doctor of
three Polish universities: the Silesian University of
Technology, Cze˛stochowa University of Technol-
ogy and AGH Krakow University of Science and
Technology. He was awarded numerous honorary
state distinctions and rewards as well.
Professor Jan Szargut speaks during the third
Conference on Contemporary Problems of
Thermal Engineering, Gliwice, September 2012.
Ceremony of honorary doctorate at the AGH Krakow University of Science and Technology.
viiiDedicated to the memory of Professor Jan Szargut

Professor Szargut was an active scientist until the very end of his life, which is
conﬁrmed, e.g., by publications: “Energy or exergy?” (2010, in Polish), “Fuel part
and mineral part of thermoecological cost” (2012, co-author), “Pro-ecological tax
of electricity” (2016, co-author), “Application of the Stirling engine driven with
cryogenic exergy of LNG (liqueﬁed natural gas) for the production of electricity”
(2016, co-author), “Exergo-ecological and economic evaluation of a nuclear
power plant within the whole life cycle” (2016, co-author), as well as two chapters
in the bookThermodynamics for Sustainable Management of Natural Resources
(Springer 2017).
Closing this introduction we all would like to thank Professor Szargut for being
an example of highest reliability, honesty and scientiﬁc quality, for all his inspiring
life as a Great Scientist. We would like to dedicate this book, devoted to thermo-
ecology, to the memory of Professor Jan Szargut.
Professor, rest in peace!
Dedicated to the memory of Professor Jan Szargutix

Biographies
Wojciech Stanek, Full Professor, Institute of Thermal Technology, Silesian
University of Technology, Poland.
Professor Wojciech Stanek, PhD, DSc, is full professor at the Institute of Ther-
mal Technology, Faculty of Energy and Environmental Engineering, Silesian
University of Technology. He gained his professional experience at the same univer-
sity where he successively developed his scientiﬁc career as a research assistant, as-
sistant professor and associate professor. Currently, he is the Director of the Institute
of Thermal Technology. He is one of the world’s leading experts in the ﬁeld of
exergy. His main areas of interests are energy systems as well as energy and
resources conversion technologies. He has worked on mathematical modelling of
energy conversion and management in industrial processes, cumulated energy and
exergy consumption, thermo-ecological cost methods, thermo-economic issues of
environmental protection, life cycle analysis and control systems for power and
cogeneration plants using advanced measurement data validation. He has published
more than 130 papers in national and international journals and conference proceed-
ings. He has served as a subject editor inEnergyeThe International Journalsince
2010. He has been a member of the Commission of Energy of the Polish Academy of
Sciences since 1999.
Pawe1G1adysz, Assistant Professor, Faculty of Energy and Fuels, AGH
University of Science and Technology, Poland.
Pawe1G1adysz has been an assistant professor at the Faculty of Energy and Fuels
(AGH University of Science and Technology, Krako´w, Poland) since October 2017.
Before that he worked as an assistant professor at the Institute of Thermal Technol-
ogy (Silesian University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland) where he is still involved
in industrial research projects. His current research activities cover mathematical
modelling and optimization of energy systems (mainly clean coal and cogeneration
technologies) and environmental analysis (including thermo-ecological cost and life
cycle assessment). At the moment he is coordinating a research project regarding the
determination of the structure of an integrated energy system (a biomass-ﬁred com-
bined heat and power plant with CO
2capture and utilization). Previously, he has
been involved in two research projects focused on oxy-fuel combustion technology,
one devoted to highly efﬁcient cogeneration technologies and one on Stirling en-
gines optimization. Since April 2016 he has been a member of the Polish Member
Committee of the World Energy Council. Moreover, for the last 7 years he has con-
ducted seminars and lectures at the Silesian University of Technology (Faculty of
Energy and Environmental Engineering) focusing on process modelling of energy
systems, environmental and economic analysis and energy management.
Lucyna Czarnowska, Assistant Professor, Institute of Thermal Technology,
Silesian University of Technology, Poland.
Dr Lucyna Czarnowska has been an assistant professor at the Silesian University
of Technology since 2014. She has extensive experience in thermo-ecological cost,
xv

cumulative energy and exergy, dispersion of pollutants in the air and external envi-
ronmental cost. She completed her PhD (2014) in energy engineering in the ﬁeld of
thermal energy and environmental impact assessment, obtaining the “European
Doctorate” label. The work was prepared at both the Institute of Thermal Technol-
ogy at the Silesian University of Technology and the National Technical University
of Athens, as the part of the INSPIRE project. The INSPIRE project mainly concerns
optimization of systems, energy management and environmental impact in process
engineering, which was a Marie Curie Research Training Network supported by the
European Community’s Sixth Framework Programme. Currently, she is involved in
a project titled “Economically efﬁcient and socially accepted CCS/EOR processes”,
which is funded from Norwegian grants in the PolisheNorwegian Research Pro-
gramme operated by the National Centre for Research and Development. In this
project, she focuses on CO
2emission from the reﬁnery and cement industries. Addi-
tionally, she is involved in a national project titled “Development of an expert system
for assessing environmental, economic and social effectiveness of Polish coal
mines”. She also teaches subjects such as environmental impact and thermo-
economic evaluation in the energy sector.
Tomasz Simla, PhD student, Institute of Thermal Technology, Silesian
University of Technology, Poland.
Tomasz Simla is a PhD student at the Institute of Thermal Technology (Silesian
University of Technology, Gliwice, Poland). He defended his MSc thesis “Exploiting
the cryogenic exergy of liqueﬁed natural gas in production of electricity” in 2016. His
PhD thesis focuses on the evaluation of interrelations between renewable energy
sources, energy storage and fossil fuel-based energy systems using the concept of
thermo-ecological cost. His research activities cover modelling of energy systems
and exergy analysis. He was the main developer of the industrial project “Developing
an application for calculation of energetic and ecological effectiveness of heat and
electricity sources for individual consumers”. Additionally, he is involved in teaching
subjects such as energy management, modelling of energy installations, thermo-
economic evaluation in the energy sector and heat transfer.
xviBiographies

Introduction
1
The existence and further development of our civilization are possible due to the use
of natural resources. Natural resources represent the primary raw materials that are
transformed into the goods within the chains of interconnected manufacturing
processes. Thus the value of natural resources results from the ability to transform
them into useful products that are necessary for human beings. From the perspective
of resource management rationalization, the efﬁciency of production processes is
important. This efﬁciency should be assessed using methods based on the laws of
physics that assess the actual losses in the entire process chain. These losses have
fundamental meaning for the economy of resource management. The usefulness
and quality of mineral raw materials and energy carriers is the greater, the more their
parameters differ from those commonly found in the natural environment. For
example, primary non-energy carriers obtained from nature (e.g., metal ores) are
more valuable when the concentration of a given substance is higher. Therefore a
proper measure of the quality of resources has to be applied when the efﬁciency
of their usage is examined.
In general, natural resources are divided into renewable and non-renewable.
Renewable natural resources include all solar energy and other forms of energy
derived from it e.g., wind energy, sea waves, the ﬂow of rivers and biomass. The
usage of renewable resources is not connected to the threat of their exhaustion.
The only exception here is biomass. For example, in the case of wood biomass, if
the degree of regeneration is less than one, then it should not be treated as a source
of renewable energy. Non-renewable primary energy resources created over the past
million years (e.g., hard coal and oil) also originate from solar energy. Their use is
related to a number of limitations, mainly: limited availability, the possibility of
depletion in a relatively short time horizon and the fact that some of these resources
are located in unstable regions of the world. Despite signiﬁcant advances in energy
technologies based on renewable sources, industrial production processes are still
mainly based on the usage of non-renewable primary energy sources. Industrial
activities are also related to the processing of non-energy natural resources, e.g., metal
ores in metallurgical processes. Non-renewable resources are depleted more rapidly
when the level of civilization development is higher. There is a strong relationship
between indicators characterizing the level of social development and energy
consumption per capita. This trend can be illustrated, for example, by dependence
of the Human Development Index indicator on electricity consumption per capita
(Fig. 1.1).
CHAPTER
1
Thermo-Ecology.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813142-8.00001-3
Copyright©2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Based on energy statistics[2]the lifetime of the main fuels is: coal about 150 years
and natural gas and oil about 50 years. The exhaustion of non-renewable resources
can be a serious threat to further development and even the existence of humanity.
Rationalization of resource management, taking into account its availability using
an appropriate quality measure, should constitute an important economic criterion[3].
Besides the threat of depletion of resources, transformation and usage of primary
energy are connected with various unfavourable environmental effects linked to the
emission of harmful wastes and greenhouse gases to the environment. To investigate
all of these effects, a variety of methods have been developed, life cycle assessment
(LCA) being one of them. LCA has emerged as a valuable decision-support tool
for both policy makers and industry in assessing the cradle-to-grave impacts of a prod-
uct or process. Despite the many advantages of LCA, it is unfortunately characterized
by the lack of inclusion of thermodynamic laws, especially the second law, which is
the basic physical law that decides on the resource economy in any production
process. To connect thermodynamics and ecology, a thermo-ecological cost (TEC)
analysis, applying exergy as a quality measure, has been proposed by Professor Jan
Szargut[3].
One of the milestones achieved by Professor Szargut within exergy analysis is
the concept of reference states in the calculation of the chemical exergy of elements
[4e6]. The proposed theory of reference states is still used by the world’s scientists
dealing with exergy analysis. The algorithms for calculation of chemical exergy of
elements are essential for assessing the quality of non-renewable natural resources.
FIGURE 1.1
Human development index and electricity consumption (data from[1])
2 CHAPTER 1Introduction

Such a possibility is the basis for ecological application of exergy analysis, which
was carried out from the beginning of Professor Szargut’s activity. Moreover,
Professor Szargut proposed the ecological and economical use of exergy[3].Anaddi-
tional key concept brought into exergy analysis by Professor Szargut was cumulative
exergy consumption (CExC)[7]; this was another milestone that Professor Szargut
achieved during the development of exergy analysis. This concept, with exergy
assumed as the measure of resources quality, was the basis of modern branches of
advanced exergy analysis: thermo-economic analysis (TEA) and TEC analysis.
To emphasise the importance of Professor Szargut’s work within system exergy
analysis, one can quote from E. Sciubba[8]: “Szargut (1978, 1987) must be credited
as the originator of this method: actually, there is a long history of his previous
little-known publications in Polish journals starting already in the early 70’es that
build up to the ﬁnal concept.” The main idea of system exergy analysis (TEA and
TEC) is to take into account the comprehensive system of connected processes
with the interactions between them. System analysis, which is also known as
comprehensive global analysis, determines the impact of individual components
on the operation of the whole system, which gives it a signiﬁcant advantage over
analyses of individual processes. There are many practical examples that lead to
quite opposite results and conclusions when evaluated by local and system exergy
analyses, e.g., Ref.[9]. The system exergy approach is especially important in the
ecological application of exergy, where the balance boundary should reach the level
of extraction of natural resources. It shows the connection with nature since all
processes and products are linked directly or indirectly with natural resources. One
of the important applications of CExC is thermo-ecology that uses exergy to assess
ecological effects; in particular; it is used to analyse the impact of human activities
on the depletion of non-renewable natural resources, including the additional demand
for the exergy of raw materials necessary to compensate for environmental losses
caused by the rejection of harmful substances. Professor Jan Szargut proposed his
own concept of ecological implementation of exergy, TEC, which applies exergy as
a measure of natural resources quality and takes into account the whole life cycle
of the product.
TEC takes into account the cumulative consumption of non-renewable natural
resources by means of cumulative exergy consumption and the additional exergy
consumption necessary to compensate for harmful emissions to the environment
(environmental losses). LCA methodology can also be used within TEA to assess
the cradle-to-grave impacts.
The main idea of this book is to present the proposal of Professor Jan Szargut,
TEC, which represents a system approach applying thermodynamic laws to the
evaluation of ecological effects. The book presents integration of exergy-based
methods for the evaluation of sustainability and presents to readers in a systematic
way the strength of exergy analysis in resources management.
Within Chapter 2 the fundamentals of exergy and exergy analysis are discussed.
Then, the fundamentals of TEC as a measure of sustainability, as well as various
Introduction3

extensions of this concept, are explained. Several calculation examples are provided
to clarify the presented ideas.
Chapter 3 contains nine various examples of TEC analysis in practice. Among
the examples are: determination of the TEC of electricity produced by renewable
energy sources, nuclear power plants and from hard coal; assessment of industrial
processes such as iron metallurgy or production of biofuels; and an analysis of a pro-
duction process incorporating both renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
Chapter 4 focuses on a proposal of a new pro-ecological tax based on exergy and
TEC analysis. The tax would be a practical implementation of the developed TEC
concept, promoting sustainable development and conservation of natural resources.
An example shows the possible beneﬁts of the new taxation system.
References
[1] Human development reports.http://hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-development-index-hdi.
[2] British Petroleum, Energy statistics. February 2019.www.bp.com.
[3] Szargut J. Exergy methodetechnical and ecological applications. WIT-Press; 2005.
[4] Szargut J, Morris DR. Calculation of the standard chemical exergy of some elements and
their compounds based upon sea water as the datum level substance. Bull Pol Acad Sci
Techn 1985;(5e6):293e305.
[5] Szargut J. Standard chemical exergy of some elements and their compounds based upon
the concentration in Earth’s crust. Bull Pol Acad Sci Techn 1987;(1e2):53e60.
[6] Szargut J. Chemical exergies of the elements. Appl Energy 1989;(4):269e86.
[7] Szargut J. Analysis of cumulative exergy consumption. Energy Res 1987;(4).
[8] Sciubba E, Wall G. A brief commented history of exergy from the beginnings to 2004.
Int J Thermodyn 10(1):1e26.
[9] Stanek W, Gazda W, Kostowski W. Thermo-ecological assessment of CCHP (Combined
Cold-Heat-and-Power) plant supported with renewable energy. Energy 2015;92:279e89.
4 CHAPTER 1Introduction

Thermo-ecological cost
2
Fundamentals of exergy analysis
This book discusses the idea of thermo-ecological cost (TEC), which relies on the
concept of exergy as a measure of sustainability. In the literature, exergy has been
deﬁned in several ways. Two deﬁnitions, most useful for the purpose of this book,
are presented here[1e4]:
The amount of work obtainable when some matter is brought to a state of thermo-
dynamic equilibrium with the common components of its surrounding nature by
means of reversible processes, involving interaction only with the aforementioned
components of nature. The surrounding environment (or reference environment)
must be characterized by a set of intensive properties such as temperature (T
0),
pressure (p
0), molar fraction of substance components in the reference environ-
ment as well as height (z
0) and velocity (w 0).
and
The minimal amount of work necessary to produce the investigated material with
required parameters from commonly appearing components of the surrounding
nature, in reversible processes using the environment as a single source of heat.
The general form of the exergy balance can be formulated as:
B
dþ
X
B q;d¼DB sþ
X
B q;wþWþB uþdB LþdB D (2.1)
whereB
dis exergy delivered to the system, MJ;B q,dis exergy delivered to the system
from a heat source withT>T
0, MJ;DB sis increase in exergy of the system, MJ;
B
q,wis exergy transferred from the system to the heat source withT>T 0, MJ;W
is useful work generated in the system, MJ;B
uis exergy of useful products generated
in the system, MJ;dB
Lis exergy of waste products taken from the system, so-called
external exergy loss (e.g. wastewater from the water treatment plant), MJ;dB
Dis
internal exergy loss resulting from irreversibility within the system, MJ.
The exergy balance for all real processes will always be closed by the internal
exergy losses that represent an unrecoverable loss resulting from irreversibility of
processes. The internal exergy losses are proportional to entropy generation[2,5]
CHAPTER
5
Thermo-Ecology.https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-813142-8.00002-5
Copyright©2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

and can be determined from exergy balanceEq. (2.1)or calculated using the
GouyeStodola law[3,6,7]:
dB
D¼T0
X
DS (2.2)
whereT
0is reference temperature, K;DSis entropy generation, e.g. MJ/K.
The external exergy losses (exergy of waste products or unused parts of a useful
product) can be partially recovered depending on their type and further processes.
For example, the exergy of ﬂue gases is the external exergy loss in the exergy
balance of a combustion chamber, but in the following processes it can be usefully
utilized (applied for water and air preheating).
Both internal and external exergy loss leads to the increase in resources consump-
tion with the same level of production (outputs). Thus the exergy loss ought to be
minimized. However, the minimization of exergy loss must not be the only criterion
in system design and operation, because economic factors should also be included
(e.g. investment expenditures)[3,8].
Components of general exergy balanceEq. (2.1)comprise different kinds of
exergy (Fig. 2.1) and in general can be described as:
B¼B
knþBptþBfþBchþBnu (2.3)
whereBis total exergy, e.g. MJ;B
knis kinetic exergy, e.g. MJ;B ptis potential
exergy, e.g. MJ;B
fis physical exergy, e.g. MJ;B chis chemical exergy, e.g. MJ;
B
nuis nuclear exergy, e.g. MJ.
Kinetic and potential exergy result from the velocity of the system and the height
measured in relation to the reference environment, respectively. Physical exergy
results from the difference in temperature and pressure of a thermodynamic medium
(or considered system) from ambient (reference) temperature and pressure. Thus
physical exergy can be divided into pressure (B
f,p) and temperature (B f,T)parts.
Chemical exergy results from the difference in chemical composition of a considered
thermodynamic medium (or system) from common composition found in the refer-
ence environment. Chemical exergy can also be divided into two groupsereactive
(B
ch,G) and non-reactive (B ch,x) chemical exergy. For the determination of reactive
chemical exergy, the chemical reactions taking place in the thermodynamic system
are taken into account, and the non-reactive one is dependent on the concentration
FIGURE 2.1
Components of exergy.
6 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

of the thermodynamic medium with respect to the concentration in the reference
environment, since processes such as compression, expansion, mixing and separation
are taken into account. Nuclear exergy results from the energy of ﬁssions decreased by
the energy of emitted neutrinos that do not interact with matter[9].
Details concerning the calculation of total exergy components, as well as exergy
balance for different processes, have already been widely described in the literature
[1e8]and thus will not be repeated in this book. However, it should be noted that the
application of TEC requires basic knowledge in terms of exergy, exergy balance and
exergy efﬁciency.
Fundamental concept of thermo-ecological cost
The work of Szargut showed a broader concept of environmental protection based
not only on economy but also on thermodynamics. For the ﬁrst time, Szargut
proposed the term “ecological cost” in 1978[10]and it was connected with a series
of publications on:
• consumption and depletion of natural resources[10,11],
• harmful pollutants and their inﬂuence on the environment[12],
• exergy[12e20],
• system analysis[21,22],
• ecological cost[10,23e26],
• cumulative energy indicators[22,27,28],
• cumulative exergy indicators[29e32],
from which TEC methodology[33,34]is derived. The TEC index can be considered
a measure of depletion of non-renewable natural resources[35,36], resulting from
the use of raw materials and semi-ﬁnished products in all steps of the manufacturing
process of a given product. This cost should therefore be expressed through
cumulative consumption of exergy of non-renewable resources[37e39]. The exergy
cost expressed in this way can be a measure of ecological effects. The chapter
presents the theory of TEC with examples illustrating its application. The proposed
methodology extends the application potential of exergy analysis to the area of
ecological effects assessment. The TEC indicator is a measure of these effects
because it covers the entire life cycle of the considered product.
Manufacturing processes are interrelated, e.g. by the need for semi-ﬁnished
products manufactured in other industries or transport services. The whole intercon-
nected network of processes relies on acquisition of resources from nature.Fig. 2.2
shows a schematic of the chain of manufacturing processes. This chain can be
divided into three characteristic stages[40e44]:
1.Mining;
2.Intermediate stages of production (e.g. preparation of semi-ﬁnished products);
3.Manufacturing of the ﬁnal product.
Fundamental concept of thermo-ecological cost7

In each link in the production process network, harmful substances may be dis-
charged into the environment (Fig. 2.2). This discharge has negative consequences
in the form of losses in various ﬁelds[45e50]: human healtheadditional demand
for medicines and medical supplies; industry and construction (buildings, machinery
and equipment, means of transport)edemand for products replacing damaged
objects or additional demand for corrosion protection measures; reduction of agricul-
tural and forestry production; water pollution; and destruction of natural ecosystems.
In production processes, by-products may be created (e.g. coke oven gas is
generated during coke production). Use of by-products leads to beneﬁcial ecological
effects. For example, using coke oven gas results in savings of resources of the
replaced natural gas. In manufacturing processes, there is also a demand for trans-
port services, which is related to consumption of energy carriers, and consequently
leads to adverse ecological effects. On the other hand, beneﬁcial ecological effects
may be achieved by using recycled resources.
To sum up, adverse ecological effects accompanying human activities result
from two groups of impacts:
1.Depletion of non-renewable natural resources consumed for production
processes;
2.Discharging harmful substances into the natural environment.
For various types of non-renewable resources, it is necessary to adopt a standard
measure of their quality. The quality of natural resources can be estimated using
different criteria. Probably the most commonly used[51e54]is the economic
criterion. However, the standard economy takes into account only goods that are
directly useful to humans, are subject to trade and have a measurable economic
value. It assumes that the economic value of natural resources in the place where
they occur is equal to zero[13](economic value is given to them only by extraction,
processing and transport processes). For this reason, many natural resources are not
FIGURE 2.2
Scheme of production processes chain.E, energy;M, materials;B, by-products;T,
transportation;R, rejected substances.
8 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

considered in the analysis of economic systems. Mechanisms for determining
monetary values of goods rarely take into account speciﬁc physical properties that
determine their value and distinguish them from substances commonly found in the
environment.
Non-renewable natural resources have two features that determine their value.
These features are: speciﬁc composition that distinguishes them from the commonly
occurring surrounding environment and speciﬁc distribution (concentration in the
environment) that determines their availability in the surrounding environment and
the amount of work required to obtain them. These speciﬁc features of non-
renewable natural resources can be qualitatively determined using the concept of
exergy. The greater the rarity (scarcity) of occurrence of a given natural resource,
and the more its parameters deviate from the adopted reference state imposed by
the surrounding enviroment, the greater is its exergy. However, when comparing
chemical exergies of elements, an erroneous conclusion that exergy is not a valid
criterion for assessing the quality of particular riches may be reached. For example
[47,55e57], the chemical exergy of gold (rarely found in nature and having a high
economic value) isb
ch Au¼0:256
MJ
kg Au
, while the chemical exergies of elements
much more widespread and cheaper, for example iron or aluminium, are, respectively:
b
ch Fe¼6:7
MJ
kg Fe
andb ch Al¼32:92
MJ
kg Al
. Considering the composition of the ore
from which gold can be obtained and in which, for example[23], the mass fraction
of pure gold is 0.00024%, and its exergyb
ch Au ore¼8:3
MJ
kg of gold ore
, the amount of
ore necessary to obtain 1 kg of metallic gold equalsm
Au ore¼416;667
kg
kg of gold
,
which gives the ore exergy value necessary to obtain 1 kg of gold at the level
b
Au ore¼mAu ore$bch Au ore¼3;583;000
MJ
kg Au
. The corresponding value for iron
and aluminium is, respectively,b
ch Fe ore¼0:88
MJ
kg Fe
andb ch Al ore¼4:1
MJ
kg Al
.
The quoted ﬁguresethe TEC of 1 kg of the analyzed element in the depositeresult
from the concentration of this element in the ore. A large dispersion of Au in compar-
ison with Fe or Al causes the TEC to be disproportionately larger. The quoted example
justiﬁes adoption of exergy as a measure of the quality of resourceseboth energy and
mineral.
In the method of determining the TEC developed by Szargut[35,55,58e60],
exergy was adopted as a measure of the thermodynamic quality of non-renewable
resources. The use of exergy to estimate the quality of natural resources can also
be found in the works of other authors[33,43,52,62e67].
The economy of resource management depends on the cumulation of exergy los-
ses in the chain of manufacturing processes. This cumulation can be quantiﬁed using
the exergy cost. To apply the idea of exergy cost to ecological assessment, the
balance boundary of the system cannot be arbitrarily adopted. In this case, the analysis
should reach the level of obtaining resources from nature, as illustrated inFig. 2.3.
Fig. 2.4schematically presents the idea of TEC. The computational algorithm
compatible with this idea will be discussed in detail with the calculation examples
later in this chapter.
According to the deﬁnition of Szargut[35,36,55,58e60,68], TEC is the cumula-
tive consumption of exergy of non-renewable riches that burdens all stages of
Fundamental concept of thermo-ecological cost9

FIGURE 2.3
The idea of cumulative exergy consumption of non-renewable resources.
FIGURE 2.4 The idea of ecological cost calculation.
10 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

manufacturing processes, leading from extracting raw materials from nature to the
ﬁnal product. At each of the considered stages of the chain of production processes,
consumption of energy carriers, materials, expenditures related to transport, produc-
tion of by-products and losses associated with the discharge of pollutants into the
natural environment should be taken into account.
The main research areas of TEC analysis include the following research topics
[14,15,35,47,55,69]:
1.Assessment of the impact of operational parameters of energy and manufacturing
systems on depletion of non-renewable natural resources;
2.Selection of production technology ensuring minimal depletion of non-
renewable natural resources;
3.Optimization of construction and operational parameters, in a production process
of a given useful product, ensuring minimal depletion of non-renewable riches;
4.Estimation of the impact of discharging harmful substances to the environment
on the depletion of non-renewable resources;
5.Analysis of the impact of interregional exchange on the depletion of national
non-renewable resources;
6.Determining the impact of particular useful goods on the depletion of non-
renewable resources during their full life cycle (thermo-ecological life cycle
analysis (LCA));
7.Estimation of the degree of sustainable development;
8.Determining the value of the pro-ecology tax replacing existing taxes (mainly
VAT).
TEC is deﬁned as the cumulative exergy consumption of non-renewable natural
resources associated with any product, taking into account the necessity to prevent
and compensate losses caused by the release of harmful substances into the envi-
ronment[10]. This technical cost, which is based on physical laws, is expressed in
MJ of non-renewable exergy per physical unit of considered product, e.g., kg of
product, kmol of product or MJ of the exergy of product.
The term product in the TEC deﬁnition can refer to any raw material (coal at the
mine, iron at the mine, etc.), semi-ﬁnished and ﬁnished goods (electricity, hot-rolled
steel, rails, paper, windows, bricks, etc.) in various stages of the production chain; in
other words, every single thing that is produced and used by humans. Many things
that are used on a daily basis are manufactured in many interrelated production
processes with different uses of materials and goods. To sum up, the set of TEC
equations applies to the interconnected production chain of any product. The cost
of a product at the beginning of the chain of processes, in other words the cost of
natural resources, is equal to their exergyb
sj[10]. The idea of the TEC balance is
formulated as a set of equationsEq. (2.2)and presented inFig. 2.5.
TEC is provided for thej
th
considered product, the production of which consumes
i
th
domestic products,r
th
imported products, direct exergy ofs
th
non-renewable
resources and releasesk
th
harmful substances to the environment. From the set
Fundamental concept of thermo-ecological cost11

of equations, indicatorsr j,riandr rare calculated; however, depending on the
approach, additional equations are needed in case of imported goods.
r
j¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
iþ
X
r
arjr
rþ
X
k
pkjz
kþ
X
s
bsj (2.4)
wherer
jis TEC of thej
th
considered product in MJ of exergy per unit of thej
th
considered product, e.g. MJ/kg;r iis TEC of thei
th
domestic product in MJ of exergy
per unit of thei
th
domestic product, e.g. MJ/kg;r ris TEC of ther
th
imported
product in MJ of exergy per unit of ther
th
imported product, e.g. MJ/kg;z kis
TEC of thek
th
harmful substance rejected to the environment in MJ of exergy per
unit of thek
th
harmful substance, e.g. MJ/kg;a ijis coefﬁcient of consumption of
thei
th
domestic product consumed in thej
th
considered branch in unit of thei
th
domestic product per unit of thej
th
product, e.g. kg/kg;a rjis coefﬁcient of consump-
tion of ther
th
imported product consumed in thej
th
considered branch in unit of
ther
th
imported product per unit of thej
th
product, e.g. kg/kg;f ijis coefﬁcient of
the by-production of thei
th
domestic product perj
th
product in unit of thei
th
by-product per unit of thej
th
product, e.g. kg/kg;b sjis direct exergy consumption
of thes
th
non-renewable natural resource in thej
th
considered branch in MJ of
exergy of thes
th
non-renewable natural resource per unit of thej
th
product, e.g.
MJ/kg;p
kjis amount of thek
th
waste substance releasedto the surrounding envi-
ronment from thej
th
considered branch in unit of thek
th
harmful substance per
unit of thej
th
product, e.g. kg/kg.
FIGURE 2.5
Basic scheme of the thermo-ecological cost balance.
12 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

The TEC indicates negative impacts of fuels and minerals mining; for this
reason, the natural resource part of thermo-ecological balances could be split into
two parts, namely fuel and mineral parts[70], to distinguish their contribution.
Furthermore, the sustainability indexr
jexpresses the ratio of TEC of thej
th
product
calculated byEq. (2.5)to its exergy, which is in inverse relation to the cumulative
degree of thermodynamic perfection[32]:
r
j¼
r
j
bj
(2.5)
Lower value of the index of sustainability means lower cumulative consumption of
exergy of natural resources per unit of exergy of a particular product; consequently,
lower index of sustainability is better from an ecological point of view and future
lifetime of non-renewable resources. However, this index cannot be lower than 1
when non-renewable natural resources are used, because the production process of
a considered product requires more cumulative exergy than the exergy of the consid-
ered product. The index of sustainability can be lower than 1 only in the case of renew-
able energy. However, the availability and conversion efﬁciency of this type of energy
is not sufﬁcient to completely replace energy from non-renewable natural resources.
Application of harmfulness coefﬁcients to
thermo-ecological cost
Thermo-ecological evaluation of waste products
In TEC, the emission part was developed through various approaches, whereas the
ﬁnal concept is described in Refs.[25,26]and takes into account three destruction
coefﬁcientsx
ik,yik,zikand thep kjamount of thek
th
waste products rejected to the
environment:
r
j¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
iþ
X
r
arjr
rþ
X
i
h
r
i
X
k
ðxikþyikþzikÞpkj
i
þ
X
s
bsj(2.6)
Destruction coefﬁcientx
ikis related to compensation or prevention of damage
caused by thek
th
waste product to thei
th
useful industrial or other manufactured
product. These require additional consumptiondX
iof thei
th
product:
x
ik¼aik
dXi
Pk
(2.7)
Destruction coefﬁcienty
ikis related to compensation or prevention of damage
caused by thek
th
waste product to thei
th
agricultural or forestry product. These
require additional consumptiondY
iof thei
th
product:
y
ik¼b
ik
dYi
Pk
(2.8)
Application of harmfulness coefﬁcients to thermo-ecological cost13

Destruction coefﬁcientz ikis related to prevention of loss of life or health as well
as to the need to treat people caused by thek
th
waste product. These require an
additional consumptiondZ
iof thei
th
product:
z
ik¼g
ik
dZi
Pk
(2.9)
whereP
kis annual production of thek
th
waste product rejected to the environment in
the region under consideration;a
ik,bik,gikis fraction of quantity resulting from the
impact of thek
th
waste product.
Moreover, the coefﬁcients should fulﬁl the following conditions:
X
k
aik¼1 (2.10)
X
k
b
ik¼1 (2.11)
X
k
g
ik¼1 (2.12)
Attempts to calculate thex
ik,yik,zikcoefﬁcients were made in Ref.[64].
To simplify considerations on the emission part inEq. (2.6)the following
formula is considered:
X
k
ðxikþyikþzikÞpkj¼
X
k
likpkj¼j
ij (2.13)
wherej
ijis additional total consumption of thei
th
product in thej
th
branch arising
from the harmful effects of waste products generated in this branch;l
ikis additional
speciﬁc consumption of thei
th
useful good related to unit emission of thek
th
pollutant (l ik¼xikþyikþzik).
Thel
ikfactor of total additional requirement of thei
th
product for the compen-
sation ofk
th
waste can be transformed into the following form:
l
ik¼
DXik
Pk
þ
DYik
Pk
þ
DZik
Pk
¼
Dmik
Pk
(2.14)
whereDm
ikis the absolute increase in the demand for thei
th
useful product as a
result of the total annual emissionsP
kof thek
th
pollutant, covering all kinds of
damage related to indicatorsx
ik,yik,zik.
Eq. (2.14)leads to the formula:
DXik
Dmik
þ
DYik
Dmik
þ
DZik
Dmik
¼1 (2.15)
Determination of individual components ofEq. (2.15)can be called indication of
division of the various types of damages. The dimensionless form ofEq. (2.15)is as
follows:
k
XkþkYkþkZk¼1 (2.16)
14 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

The division of damages usingEq. (2.15)orEq. (2.16)is very difﬁcult due to
lack of knowledge of the exact values ofa
ik,bik,gik. The total rate of losses in
the environmentw
kburdening thek
th
substance discharged into the environment
(expressed in monetary units per unit ofk
th
substance) can be separated into compo-
nents similarly to indicesx
ik,yik,zikwherew Xkis construction material losses;w Ykis
crop losses and biodiversity losses due to acidiﬁcation and eutrophication;w
Zkis hu-
man health losses.
Additionally, monetary allocation indicators comply with the formula:
wXk
wk
þ
wYk
wk
þ
wZk
wk
¼1 (2.17)
or in dimensionless form:
k
0
Xk
þk
0
Yk
þk
0
Zk
¼1 (2.18)
Determination of indicesk
Xk,kYk,kZkby means of increased demand for useful
productsDm
ikinEq. (2.15)is practically impossible. Because the values of monetary
coefﬁcientsw
Xk,wYk,wZkare dependent on mentioned indices of increased consump-
tion,Eq. (2.15)can be approximately exchanged byEq. (2.17)and the mentioned
condition should be also fulﬁlled. Assuming that the proportions between the rates
contained inEq. (2.16)and the indicators contained inEq. (2.18)are similar,
indicatorsx
ik,yik,zikcanbedeﬁnedas:
x
ik¼
k
0
Xk
Dmik
Pk
¼
DXik
Pk
¼
aikDXi
Pk
(2.19)
Eq. (2.16)refers to the losses in the area of industry. Using the developed algo-
rithm, the indicesa
ik,bik,gikcan be calculated from the formulas:
a
ik¼
k
0
Xk
Dmik
DXik
(2.20)
b
ik¼
k
0
Yk
Dmik
DYik
(2.21)
g
ik¼
k
0
Zk
Dmik
DZik
(2.22)
Presented assumptions take into account the TEC of harmful substances in its
complete formEq. (2.6)with:
• Monetary indicators of harmfulnessw
Xk,wYk,wZkwith allocation between types
of harmful effects (x,y,z);
•Dm
ikuse ofi
th
material or semi-ﬁnished product necessary for abatement to zero
level of thek
th
waste product.
Simpliﬁed thermo-ecological evaluation of waste products
Considering the difﬁculties of determining the destruction coefﬁcients in practice, a
simpliﬁed method of evaluating waste products is applied. It takes into account the
Application of harmfulness coefﬁcients to thermo-ecological cost15

cumulative exergy consumption of non-renewable natural resources (z k) due to the
rejection of thek
th
waste product to the environment (p kj).
The simpliﬁed TEC of waste products was deﬁned in Ref.[10]:
z
k¼
B
E
wk
GDP
P
k
Pkwk
(2.23)
whereB
E
is total annual exergy extraction (production) of non-renewable natural
resources;GDPis gross domestic product.
The non-renewable natural resources considered here are mainly hard coal,
brown coal, domestic natural gas, oil, copper ore and sulphur, because these non-
renewable resources are the main mined ones in Poland. So far, TEC analysis was
performed for Poland and this division of non-renewable natural resources results
from the fact that the analysis was done for Polish conditions[33].
The cumulative exergy consumption of non-renewable natural resources (z
k) due
to the emission of SO
2,NO2and particulate matters has been calculated for each
country in Europe. While performing the calculation, it was noted that the equation
ofz
kshould be modiﬁed. Detailed analysis of the results obtained byEq. (2.23)
indicates that the following relationships occur:
1.The higher the exergy of non-renewable natural resourcesB
E
, the higher the TEC
of thek
th
waste substancez k.
2.The higher theGDP, the lower the TEC of thek
th
waste substancez k.
3.The higher the
P
k
Pkwkproduct, the lower the TEC of thek
th
waste substancez k.
However, the last dependence should be the opposite, because the higher is the TEC,
the higher is the inﬂuence of the product on the environment. For this reason, a
modiﬁcation ofEq. (2.23)is proposed in the form ofEq. (2.24)to increase the TEC
when further emissions burden the production processes. Additionally, the subscript
cindicates different countries, which is one of the new approaches developed by
Czarnowska[71]:
z
k;c¼
B
C
c
wk;c
GDPc
P
k
Pk;cwk;c
(2.24)
Global thermo-ecological cost
Components of the national income are generated through the consumption of
materials and energy derived from nature; in other words, due to natural resources.
TEC of national income is deﬁned as domestic exergy consumption of non-
renewable resources, and it shows the ecological rationality of different countries’
economies. Calculation of the TEC of individual products is quite complicated;
however, calculation of the TEC of national income is more accessible and requires
16 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

knowledge of annual domestic consumption of non-renewable resources and their
exergy. Reduction of this indicator couldbe obtained primarilythrough increased
use of renewable energy resources and by increasing the use of recycled materials
such as scrap and waste products. The considered indicator also depends on the
technical level of the manufactured products, because an increase in the technolog-
ical level usually leads to a rise in the market price, while reducing environmental
impact.
The exergy of extracted fuels in 2006e10[71]in various countries is presented
inFig. 2.6. Initially, the calculations were performed based on extraction of exergy
(B
E
) of non-renewable natural resources in Poland. However, it does not cover all
harmful effects caused in the environment. Moreover, these countries, which do
not extract fuels, seem to cause no fuel depletion; however, this is not true. All
countries where fuels are used cause depletion of these natural resources. The extrac-
tion and consumption of fuels differ between years and the general tendency is slightly
decreasing. Germany extracts only around 2500 PJ/year of exergy but consumption is
at the level of 12,000 PJ/year of exergy, this implies that in Germany the burden to the
environment due to consumption of non-renewable natural resources is more than four
times higher than that due to the extraction of non-renewable natural resources.
Consumption of non-renewable natural resources in Germany causes depletion of
deposits in other countries, and additionally, emissions associated with this extraction
are released in those countries where the extraction occurs. In contrast, in Norway
extraction is much higher than consumption. So, extraction in Norway is enforced
FIGURE 2.6
Exergy of extracted fuels in selected European countries in 2006e10.
Global thermo-ecological cost17

by the demand for fuel in other countries. Despite the fact that extraction occurs in
Norway, the country that uses this fuel should be burdened with the consequences
of extraction. This is why the inclusion of import and export is one of the crucial issues
when the TEC of national management is analyzed.
Similarly, the TEC of harmful substances, which previously was a function of
exergy of extracted natural resources and the emission released to the environment,
does not occur for those countries where natural extraction does not exist. Such
interpretation implies that these countries do not cause adverse effects due to
emissions in the environment. For this reason, the function is changed and takes
into account the exergy of consumed natural resources and the emission released
to the environment. The TEC of SO
2emissions based on exergy of extracted natural
resources is presented inFig. 2.7.
Emissions released to the environment are progressively reduced over the years.
The TEC of SO
2,NOxand particulate matters in selected regions based on consump-
tion in 2010 is presented inFig. 2.8.
Monetary coefﬁcients and their division shown inTable 2.1are determined based
on the EcoSense results presented in Ref.[71].
Table 2.1shows the TEC of emissions associated with (1) compensation or
prevention of damage caused by waste products to useful industrial or other manu-
factured products, (2) compensation or prevention of damage caused by waste
products to agricultural or forestry products, and (3) prevention of life loss or health
as well as the treatment of people caused by waste products.
FIGURE 2.7
Thermo-ecological cost of SO
2in thecth region based on non-renewable natural
production.
18 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

Thermo-ecological cost of abatement installation
Issues related to modifying an ecologicalcost based on harmfulness coefﬁcients
were developed in Ref.[64]. The coefﬁcients
k, which means the cumulative
exergy consumption of natural resourcesrequired to compensate or avoid the
environmental losses resulting from the operation of thej
th
production process,
is added toEq. (2.5), which represents the fundamental TEC balance, as is shown
inEq. (2.25). It should be noted that the part relating to emissions is split into two
FIGURE 2.8
Thermo-ecological cost of emissions in thecth region based on consumption in 2010.
PM, Particulate matter.
Table 2.1Rate of losses in the environment (in monetary units)w
k
burdening thekth substance discharged into the environment and the monetary
division ofkth harmful substances in Poland,V
2008/kg.
Group of impacts
Monetary
indices
Harmful substancek
SO
2 NO
x
Particulate
matter
Total w
k 12.81 9.10 7.00
Buildings material w
Xk 11.70 8.31 6.40
Crops and biodiversity losses due to
acidiﬁcation and eutrophication
w
Yk 0.66 0.47 0.36
Human health w
Zk 0.44 0.31 0.24
Thermo-ecological cost of abatement installation19

components: one connected to abatementand one connected directly to emission.
Moreover, the balance of harmful substances fulﬁlsEq. (2.26):
r
j¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
iþ
X
r
arjr
rþ
X
s
bsjþ
X
k
p
0
kj
skþ
X
k
pkjz
k (2.25)
p
kj¼p
00
kj
p
0
kj
(2.26)
wheres
kis cumulative exergy consumption of non-renewable resources caused by
removing thek
th
aggressive product in abatement in MJ of exergy per kg of thek
th
aggressive product;P
00
kj
is amount of thek
th
waste product released from the main
installation in kg of thek
th
aggressive product per unit of thej
th
main product;
P
0
kj
is amount of thek
th
waste product abated from the totalk
th
waste product in
kg of thek
th
aggressive product per unit of thej
th
main product;p kjis amount of
thek
th
waste product released from abatement to the environment in kg of thek
th
aggressive product per unit of thej
th
main product.
In other words, the additional expenses of cumulative exergy of non-renewable
resources arising from the formation of waste products within thej
th
production pro-
cess are indicated.Fig. 2.9presents the extension of TEC balance by splitting the
main installation and the abatement installation, and hence expenses of cumulative
exergy of non-renewable resources caused by the neutralization of some pollution
are isolated.
In general, the cumulative exergy consumption resulting from the abatement
installation is contained in ther
j, since the installations of thej
th
production process
FIGURE 2.9
The scheme of thermo-ecological cost balance with particular reference to waste harmful
substances.
20 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

are not distinguished. However, in the case where the abatement installations are
separated from the main installation, the emission part of TEC is split into two.
The ﬁrst part corresponds to thek
th
harmful product, which is neutralized in abate-
ment installation (Fig. 2.9eelement 2); this step requires consumption of additional
quantities of cumulative exergys
k. However, the second part corresponds to the
residual amount of thek
th
harmful substance, which is released from abatement to
the environment and causes damage and losses there.
Abatement of harmful substances should require less cumulative exergy of
non-renewable resources than is necessary to compensate for the losses caused by
rejection of this harmful efﬂuent directly to the environment without puriﬁcation.
The higher is the difference between the exergy cost of environmental losses and
the exergy cost of the life cycle of the abatement installation, the more justiﬁed is
such abatement. From the perspective of sustainability, the ratio of the exergy
cost resulting from the life cycle of the removal installation to the exergy cost of
environmental losses should be much lower than 1 as far it is justiﬁed from an
economical point of view. Based on the foregoing argument, the index of sustain-
ability of abatement ofk
th
waste, which is the ratio of (s k) exergetic abatement
cost of thek
th
substance to (z
k)E TEC of thek
th
waste substance, is proposed in
the following form:
r
k¼
sk
z
k
(2.27)
The indexr
kcould be called “environmental sustainability index” for the instal-
lation of puriﬁcation and its meaning is as follows:
“Puriﬁcation of thek
th
substance is justiﬁed ifr k<1; otherwise, the expenditure
of non-renewable exergy necessary to compensate environmental losses would be
lower than the required expenditure of non-renewable exergy for abatement of waste
substances and in this case the abatement makes no sense.
If various techniques of removing thek
th
pollutant are analyzed, then the one for
which the indexr
khas the lowest value should be chosen.”
Table 2.2shows the comparison ofz
k,skandr sindices for the main waste
substances from power plants.
In each case the value ofr
sis smaller than unity. In relation to the chosen crite-
rion, dust extraction is particularly advantageous. For this technology, ther
sindex
reaches a value of 0.01. This is reﬂected in the widespread use of dust extraction.
Table 2.2Thermo-ecological indicators for waste substances.
Indicator Unit
Substance
SO
2 NOx Dust CO 2
z
k MJ
ex/kg 97.8 71.9 53.4 e
s
k MJ
ex/kg 17.5 26.0 0.5 4.4
r
s e 0.18 0.36 0.01 e
Thermo-ecological cost of abatement installation21

The methodology for determining the TEC associated with the discharge of
harmful waste products into the environment is based on monetary indicesw
k.In
the case where the harmfulness of a waste is not determinable in both exergy and
monetary units, this methodology cannot be applied. One of such emissions is
CO
2, which is responsible for the so-called greenhouse effect. At present, it is not
possible to determine the direct damage caused by this effect. It is therefore impos-
sible to identify additional effects resulting from the need to compensate for poten-
tial losses, and thus the harmful monetary indices. There are known techniques for
removing CO
2from gaseous waste products. It is therefore possible to determine the
inputs necessary for the construction and operation of CO
2removal installations.
This gives an approximate estimate of the cost of thermo-ecological disposal of
harmful substances.
Example: thermo-ecological cost of CO2removal
A power plant ﬁred by hard coal with a power output of 600 MW and a net efﬁciency
of 41% was considered[19]. The installation of a CO
2removal and capture system
in underground storage tanks is associated with the following exploitation
expenditures:
1.Reduction of net electrical power due to increased steam demand for the CO
2
removal system:DN 1¼108 MW;
2.Demand for auxiliary electrical power to compress the exhaust gasses and pump
the solvent through the CO
2removal system:DN 2¼6MW;
3.Compression of CO
2before injection into underground tanks:DN 3¼39 MW;
4.Power saving due to partial elimination of feed water heating due to the use of
waste heat from leachate installations:DN
4?10 MW;
5.Power demand resulting from CO
2transportation (assuming a transport distance
of 600 km):N
t¼3.8 MW.
Total power connected with capture and transportation:
P
DNþN
t¼146:8 MW.
The share of power demand for CO
2transportation is relatively small despite a
signiﬁcant transport distance; it amounts to approximately 2.6% of total demand.
The speciﬁc energy consumption per unit of CO
2removal can be estimated as the
ratio of the electrical power demand deﬁned in points one to ﬁve to the CO
2stream
removed from the exhaust gases:
b¼
P
DNþN
t
_mCO2;r
¼
P
DNþN
t
Nel;0
h
E;elLHV
c
M
C
MCO2h
CO2
(2.28)
Additional assumptions: total power without carbon capture and transportations
N
el,0¼600 MW;LHV¼24.4 MJ/kg; gram-share of carbon in fuelc¼0.615;
efﬁciency of CO
2removalh CO2¼0.90. The result of this calculation is
b
el,CO2¼1.21 MJ/kg. Finally, the TEC of abatement is equal tos CO2¼
b
el,CO2rel¼4.4 MJ/kg.
22 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

Lifetime application to thermo-ecological cost
Lifetime in thermo-ecological cost methodology
In TEC methodology, the coefﬁcienta ijexpresses either the total consumption of
raw materials and semi-ﬁnished products per unit of the product in the discussed
process or the usage of machines and other devices. The coefﬁcient of the partial
usage of machines and other devices is expressed byEq. (2.29)and results from
the time of exploitation per year, from the time of life and from the yearly output
of the process investigated[10,22].This indicates that from the very beginning
the TEC is a generalization of the currently most applied LCA methodology:
a
ij¼
mij
siGj
qn (2.29)
wherem
ijis number of machines, devices, installation or buildings ofi
th
type applied
at the plant (dimensionless);s
iis nominal lifetime of thei
th
machine, device, instal-
lation or building in hours;q
nis average time of exploitation of thei
th
machine or
device applied at a plant manufacturing thej
th
product during a year; in other words,
annual operation time with nominal capacity in h/year;G
jis yearly production of the
j
th
product in kg/year.
The general form of the objective function, based on thermo-ecological life cycle
concept minimisation, takes into account the lifetime of the product[19,72].
An objective function proposed in Ref.[19]expresses the yearly TEC of a given
product with consideration of its complete lifetime:
r
j¼qn
X
i
_G
ir
i
X
u
_G
ur
jsjuþ
X
k
_P
kz
k

þ
1
s
j
X
l
Glr
lð1u lÞþ
X
r
Grr
r

(2.30)
wheres
jis nominal lifetime of thej
th
machine, device, installation or building in
years;_G
iis nominal stream of thei
th
product used in thej
th
production process in
kg/h;_G
uis nominal stream of theu
th
by-product manufactured simultaneously
with thej
th
product within the production process in kg/h;s juis replacement index
(explained in section By-products in thermo-ecological cost methodology);_P
kis
nominal stream of thek
th
waste product released to the environment from thej
th
production process in kg/h;G lis amount of thel
th
product used for the construction
of thej
th
considered machine, device, installation or building in kg;G ris amount
of ther
th
product used for the maintenance of thej
th
considered machine, device,
installation or building in kg;u
lare expected recovery rates of thel
th
material after
the end of the operation phase of thej
th
considered machine, device, installation or
building in kg/kg.
This objective function can be used to optimize the operational and construction
parameters. In general, the objective of the optimization is to minimize the con-
sumption of non-renewable natural resources.
Lifetime application to thermo-ecological cost23

Life cycle thermo-ecological cost evaluation
Changes in the TEC notation after the introduction the LCA databases
[35e37,39,41e56,58,60,67e69,73,74], which both specify the stages of the life
cycle and distinguish products manufactured in various countries, are as follows:
• The construction and disposal coefﬁcienta
ljis separated from thea ijcoefﬁcient
to indicate the additional stages of the whole life cycle of a product such as
investment phase or utilization phase;
• The domestica
ijand importeda ircoefﬁcients are combined together; hence now
thea
ijcoefﬁcient consists of both domestic and imported products and concerns
thec
th
country in Europe (described in the next section).
These changes, called thermo-ecological cost-life cycle (TEC-LC), are presented
inFigs 2.10 and 2.11and expressed by:
r
j;c¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
i;cþ
X
l
aljr
l;cþ
X
k
pkjz
k;cþ
X
s
bsj (2.31)
wherer
l,cis TEC connected to thel
th
investment and dismantling phase of the prod-
uct in thec
th
region, e.g. MJ/kg.
The application of the EcoInvent database to TEC inﬂuenced thea
ilcoefﬁcient,
which consists of a lifetime of each building in which the process occurs, each
machine which is used in the process as well as the dismantling process; this is a
new application in thermo-ecological analysis[71].
FIGURE 2.10
Thermo-ecological life cycle.
24 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

Import and export in thermo-ecological cost methodology
Thermo-ecological simpliﬁed evaluation of imported and exported
products
TEC includes the relationship between imported and exported goods. Initially, a
solution that is presented in this subsection was proposed in Ref.[28]and continued
in other publications. However, it is just a simpliﬁcation that does not fully comply
with the principles of economics. Because in a regional economy a fund for imports
is acquired by exports, the following assumption was made: the indices related to the
monetary value are the same for imported and exported goods[28].
The TECr
mo, which characterizes the monetary value of exported goods
(expressed in units of exergy per units of money), results from:
r
mo¼
P
e
Ser
e
P
e
SeDe
(2.32)
The TEC per unit of ther
th
imported product is:
r
r¼r
moDr¼
B
GDP
D
r (2.33)
whereD
eis monetary value of thee
th
exported product in EUR per kg of exported
product;D
ris monetary value of ther
th
imported product in EUR per kg of
FIGURE 2.11
The scheme of thermo-ecological cost balance with particular reference to the EcoInvent
contribution.
Import and export in thermo-ecological cost methodology25

imported product;S eis annual export of thee
th
product in kg of exported product
per year;GDPis gross domestic product in EUR per year;Bis exergy of national
non-renewable resources in MJ of exergy per year.
Using this approach for imported and exported goods, sometimes unphysical
results were obtained; in other words, the TEC of imported fuels was lower than
the exergy of these fuels, which is wrong in principle. Such results indicate that it
is better to import natural resources than to extract them. This way of thinking is
somewhat better from a political point of view; however, it does not indicate the
real losses in the environment. The sustainability index shows the relation between
the TEC and exergy and the results are presented in Refs.[33,63].
Because of imported products, it is necessary to use an iterative procedure. In
iterative step “0
00
of the procedure, it was assumed that the TEC of the monetary
unit of imported products is the same as the national consumption of the exergy
of non-renewable resources, which burdens gross domestic product. This assump-
tion is not entirely correct because the structure of domestic exports does not neces-
sarily coincide with the structure of production of useful products inside the balance,
which covers the global economy. The speciﬁcity of external consumption does
not need to correspond to the structure of internal consumption.Table 2.3contains
lower heating value (LHV), chemical exergy of fuel (b
ch), the results of the TEC
Table 2.3Operating thermo-ecological cost of energy carriers.
Type of energy carrier Unit
LHV
(MJ/
unit)
b
ch
(MJ/
unit)
r
(MJ/
unit)
g(MJ/
unit)
r(MJ/
unit)
Coal of special stone kg 27.8 30.2 31.2 1.12 1.03
Charcoal for energy kg 24.0 26.2 27.1 1.13 1.04
Lignite kg 7.8 9.1 9.46 1.21 1.04
Coke kg 29.2 31.8 46.1 1.58 1.45
Natural gas
(countryþimport)
kmol 790.0 821.6 710.3 0.90 0.87
Natural gas (domestic) kmol 790.0 821.6 835.7 1.06 1.02
Natural gas (imported) kmol 790.0 821.6 619.9 0.78 0.76
Coking gas
(countryþimport)
kmol 380.0 380.0 356.5 0.94 0.94
Coke oven gas (domestic) kmol 380.0 380.0 417.8 1.10 1.10
Coke oven gas (replacing
imported natural gas)
kmol 380.0 380.0 312.1 0.82 0.82
Electricity MJ 3.60 3.60 3.60
Crude oil (import) kg 42.6 45.6 31.4 0.74 0.69
Petrol kg 44.8 48.0 49.3 1.10 1.027
Diesel kg 43.3 46.3 47.4 1.10 1.025
LHV, Lower heating value.
26 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

calculations (r), the TEC-to-chemical energy ratio (g) and the sustainable develop-
ment index (r) (TEC related to product exergy) for selected energy carriers.
The data presented inTable 2.3show that in the case of imported natural gas and
crude oil, the ratios of TEC to chemical energy and chemical exergy are less than
unity. This indicates that the structure of national exports taken into account for
calculation is beneﬁcial in relation to TEC (in other words, to the depletion of
non-renewable natural resources) providing a favourable value for the TEC of a
unit of import currency. The result ofr
modepends on the current prices of imported
and exported products, and therefore its value should be updated on an ongoing
basis. At the same time, all results of the TEC calculation should be recalculated.
The results presented inTable 2.3conﬁrm that the use of coke as a fuel is unfav-
ourable from an ecological point of view. It is characterized by a sustainable develop-
ment index equal to 1.45, which is signiﬁcantly higher than for other fuels. The use of
coke as fuel should be limited to those processes where it is necessary (e.g., in
metallurgy for technological reasons). Coke combustion for heating purpose causes
similar ecological effects to those caused by coal combustion, but its production
results in much higher consumption of natural resources than for coal production.
For this reason, the use of coke for heating purposes should be eliminated.
Electricity is characterized by a particularly high sustainable development index.
This is mainly due to the structure of energy generation and low value of reachable
efﬁciency of production. For this reason, it is desirable to improve the efﬁciency of
electricity generation and to consider rational and efﬁcient management of this
energy carrier. Widespread use of heating and electricity has already resulted in
numerous legal regulations, such as equipment labels or building-efﬁciency cards.
Table 2.4presents the results of the calculation of operation of TEC for selected
products of the Polish economy.
The average values of TEC indicators given inTables 2.3 and 2.4may be the
basis for calculating the TEC burdening other manufacturing branches. For this
purpose, the sequential method can be used, as is the case for cumulative energy
consumption or exergy indexing[13,47]. The condition for the correctness of
such calculations is the lack of coupling actions between the manufacturing
branches and weak interconnections.
Results presented inTable 2.4imply that it is unfavorable (from an ecological
point of view) to produce acids, especially nitric acid, for which the sustainable
development index is above 25. Also, cement production is highly detrimental to
the depletion of non-renewable resources; the index is on average 15. In cases of pro-
cesses with high values of the indicator, particular care should be taken to ﬁnd ways
of rationalizing them. At the same time, one should aim to maintain the sustainable
management of such products.
The TEC shows the losses in the environment that are caused by extracting
natural resources, manufacturing products and releasing emissions into the environ-
ment; for this reason the extended thermo-ecological evaluation of imported and
exported products was proposed by Czarnowska[71]. The extended TEC-LC shows
the global issues connected with consumer goods.
Import and export in thermo-ecological cost methodology27

Table 2.4Thermo-ecological cost (TEC) of selected products.
Product Unit of TEC r
Iron ore MJ/kg 0.4
Blast furnace sinter (r¼9.3) MJ/kg 6.8
Pig iron (r¼3.28 for liquid) MJ/kg 28.7
Technical oxygen (r¼45.0) MJ/kmol 153.0
Lime roasted (r¼4.17) MJ/kg 8.2
Blooms (r¼3.37) MJ/kg 26.3
Electric steel (r¼1.57) MJ/kg 12.6
Metallurgical blanksecrusher MJ/kg 27.9
Steelworksecontinuous casting MJ/kg 24.1
Polish sulphur MJ/kg 24.6
Copper ore MJ/kg 1.0
Electrolytic mite (r¼74.4) MJ/kg 144.9
Aluminium electrolysis (r¼5.85) MJ/kg 187.3
Aluminium ingots (r¼5.77) MJ/kg 190.6
Wood MJ/kg 5.2 O12.8
Paper MJ/kg 32.4
Fertilizers MJ/kg 49.1
Sandedry MJ/kg 1.5
Flat glass MJ/kg 22.0
Packaging glass MJ/kg 20.8
Zinc MJ/kg 127.2
Lead MJ/kg 101.0
Rolled products MJ/kg 35.7
Portland cement CEM I 32.5 R (r¼17.0) MJ/kg 10.79
Portland cement CEM I 42.5 (r¼17.2) MJ/kg 10.93
Portland cement slag CEM II AS 32.5 (r¼16.0) MJ/kg 10.15
CEM III A 32.5 R metallurgical cement (r¼10.2) MJ/kg 6.48
CEM II slag cement BS 32.5 R (r¼14.4) MJ/kg 9.15
Ammonia I (r¼2.04) MJ/kg 40.5
Ammonia II (r¼1.78) MJ/kg 35.41
Hydrogen (cryogenic) (r¼1.64) MJ/m
3
17.79
Nitric acid (r¼27.0) MJ/kg 18.62
Granulated urea MJ/kg 40.02
Sulphuric acid (r¼8.72) MJ/kg 14.53
NPK fertilizer MJ/kg 49.15
Demineralized water MJ/m
3
34.03
Industrial water MJ/m
3
12.55
Potable water MJ/m
3
22.79
28 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

Extended thermo-ecological evaluation of imported and exported
products
Considering the environmental analysis that applies to all European countries, it is
possible to replace a simpliﬁed method on imports and exports by launching TEC
equations for the considered countries. With the extension of the cost matrix for
all countries, the aspect of monetary equality of imported and exported goods is
omitted. The analysis, which includes a greater number of considered regions, takes
into account a more detailed use of the environment. According to Ref.[71], a new
approach of calculating the TEC of linked countries is described by the following
formula:
r
j;c¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
i;cþ
X
k
pkjz
k;cþ
X
f
bfj;cþ
X
m
bmj;c (2.34)
Subscriptcmeans that thej
th
product can be manufactured in differentc
th
countries
or regions and thus affect the environment with various intensities. It should be
noted that the intensity of effect caused by production processes depends on the
availability of resources and the level of emissions in the atmosphere in considered
regions. The part
P
r
arjr
rconnected to the simpliﬁed evaluation of import and export
is omitted, because from now on the part
P
i
ðaijfijÞr
i;cconcerns all domestic,
imported and exported products.
By-products in thermo-ecological cost methodology
The issue of cost allocation in multipurpose processes, in which the main product
and by-products are simultaneously manufactured, is not a new concept but has
been described and evolved since the 1960s. Associated processes are used because
they generally cause lower investment and operation costs, e.g. combined heat and
power (CHP) plant. However, it is difﬁcult to clearly determine which part of the
cost burdens either the main product or the by-product of the associated process
[72]. Preparation of the main product causes the construction of the whole plant
but the demand for the main product determines the expenditures in an avoided
process in which the by-products could be produced. InTable 2.5, the main product
and the by-product manufactured in selected associated processes are shown; more-
over, the same or similar main products obtained from other processes, which could
be replaced with the by-product of the associated process, are identiﬁed[72].
The number of by-products, which is simultaneously manufactured with the
main product in the same process, appears in the TEC balance as thef
ijfactor.
According to Ref.[10], the by-product of thej
th
process in TEC should be replaced,
if possible, with anotheri
th
main product that corresponds to the by-product in thej
th
selected process to omit additional weighting factors in TEC balances.
If the properties of the by-product are identical to the properties of thei
th
main product, which is taken as the replacement of the by-product of thej
th
By-products in thermo-ecological cost methodology29

considered process, the coefﬁcientf ijresults immediately from the indices of the
j
th
considered process. However, in another case, which means if the properties of
the by-product are different, the coefﬁcientf
ijresults from Ref.[26]:
f
ijsiu¼fuj (2.35)
wheres
iuis replacement ratio of thei
th
main product by theu
th
by-product in kg of
thei
th
main product per kg of theu
th
by-product or in MJ of thei
th
main product
per MJ of theu
th
by-product;f ujis coefﬁcient of production of theu
th
by-product
per unit of thej
th
main product in units of theu
th
by-product per unit of thej
th
product, e.g. kg/kg.
The basic balance equation, which considers the by-products according to
principles of avoiding expenditure, changes into[75]:
r
jþ
X
u
fujr
u¼
X
i
aijr
iþ
X
r
arjr
rþ
X
k
pkjz
kþ
X
s
bsj (2.36)
wherer
uis TEC of theu
th
considered by-product in MJ of exergy per unit of theu
th
considered by-product, e.g. MJ/kg.
For example, a CHP plant is built to replace separate processes of a heat
generation plant (HP) and power generation plant (PP). If the CHP unit replaces
the HP, then its main objective is to generate heat; consequently, electricity is the
by-product, which does not have to be generated in other PPs. The electricity gener-
ated from CHP decreases the TEC of heat generation. Therefore it does not have to
be produced in another PP since it is the by-product of CHP; this means that the
part of the CHP TEC that refers to electricity generated is saved. In this case, only
one equation of TEC balance of CHP appears with two unknowns. For this reason
the replacement index is speciﬁed; in other words, the avoided cost is deﬁned. The
electricity generated in CHP replaces the same amount of electricity generated in
PP. Therefore the total cost of the CHP should be reduced by the avoided cost of
fuel consumption in PP. So, only reduced fuel cost burdens the main product in
CHP, which in this case is heat generation. Otherwise, if the purpose of the CHP is
electricity generation, the avoided cost should be adopted from HP; consequently,
the electricity should be burdened with reduced fuel cost.
Table 2.5Main product and by-product of selected associated processes,
and product that can be replaced with by-product.
Production
process/Plant
Main
product By-product Replaced product
Heat and power plant Steam
heating
Electricity Electricity generated in
condensing power plants
Coking, the coking
process
Coke Coke oven
gas
Flammable gas
Steelworks, the blast
furnace process
Pig iron Blast furnace
gas
Flammable gas
30 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

Human labour in environmental analysis
Various approaches that consider human labour are proposed by different exergy
teams. One of them, extended exergy, which is based on[59e62,76], does not
take into account whole human life, but only work-hours. Moreover, the explanation
of Szargut[26], which excludes human activity from TEC, applies also only to
human labour. However, if the analysis takes into account the entire human life,
and human life is treated as a natural resource, then the condition of TEC is also
fulﬁlled. To determine the TEC of a speciﬁed group of people, the analysis should
take into account the age of the people, their education and profession, and many
other factors. However, in this book, human labour is not taken into account. In
the section “Human labour in extended exergy accounting” the methodology of
human labour in extended exergy accounting is presented. In the section “Human
labour in thermo-ecological cost methodology” a proof with justiﬁcation conﬁrming
the chosen assumptions about not taking human labour into account in TEC is
provided.
Human labour in extended exergy accounting
In extended exergy accounting (EEA) methodology, which is also based on the
cumulative consumption calculus[22], proposed and developed by a team led by
Sciubba, human work is taken into account[59e62,76]. It is classiﬁed as
“non-energetic externalities costs”, alternatively referred to as “added exergy”,
and is provided as exergetic equivalent. The labour cost calculation concerns the
general human service in each portion of a society and is computed on the basis
of industrial monetary estimates[59]. The extended exergy is deﬁned as the sum
of cumulative exergy consumption of the equivalent exergy of labour, capital and
environment. Moreover, the exergetic equivalent of capital is also connected with
human labour.
The exergetic equivalent of human labouree
L(MJ/h) is the ratio of the total
exergy input of society during a year in selected sectorE
in,Sector(MJ) to the cumu-
lative number of work-hours in a year in selected sectorn
workhours(h)[59,61]:
ee
L¼
aEin;Society
nworkhours
(2.37)
The numerical factora, which has been developed since 2010[62,76], depends
on the type of societal organization, the historical period, the technological level and
the geographic location of society:
a¼
EL
Ein;Society
(2.38)
The exergy of labourE
L(MJ) depends on the number of inhabitantsn h(persons),
human development indexHDI, human development index of a primitive society
HDI
0and exergy use for mere survivale fs,0equal to 1.05$10
7
J per person per day.
Human labour in environmental analysis31

EL¼
365n hHDI efs;0
HDI0
(2.39)
According to Ref.[60], EEA considers:
• All activities, including non-anthropic ones, are aggregated production processes
that transformﬂows of a certain number of “inputs” with respect to space, time
and properties by means of additional “inputs” consisting of other materials,
energy, labour and capital.
• Each activity can be represented by its transfer function, i.e. a relation between
output and inputﬂows, which depends on the physical state of the production
system.
• Cumulative exergy consumption of any product is equal to the sum of the raw
exergy of the original constituents plus a properly weighted sum of all the
additional exergetic inputs into the process.
Despite the fact that in some exergy analyses, human labour is taken into consid-
eration, the next subsection shows the derivation proposed by Szargut about the
omission of human labour in TEC to avoid double counting.
Human labour in thermo-ecological cost methodology
The necessity to introduce the ecological cost of human labour4into calculations
of the TEC of particular products is one of the most controversial questions.
AccordingtoSzargut[26], the simpliﬁed system, presented inFig. 2.12,isused
to show the connections between production processes and human labour within
the TEC boundary conditions. This generalized system contains coal mines,
society and industry producing ﬁnal products for consumption. The consumption
FIGURE 2.12
Connections of the simpliﬁed system of thermo-ecological cost analysis with emphasis on
society.
32 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

of industrial products in coal mines and the inﬂuence of aggressive waste products
have been omitted.
The TEC balances containing human labour based on the simpliﬁed system are:
• TEC balance of a coal mine:
r
C¼bCþlC4 (2.40)
• TEC balance of industry:
r
I¼
CI
I
r
CþlI4 (2.41)
• TEC of industry; in other words, the cumulative exergy consumption in industry:
r
I¼
CI
I
ðb
CþlC4Þþl I4¼CI
I
b
Cþ4

l CCI
I
þl
I

(2.42)
Total consumption of the primary exergy is:
Ir
IþCr
C¼CbCþðCl CþIlIÞ4 (2.43)
whereIis total amount of industrial products in kg of product;Cis total production
of coal in MJ of coal;r
Iis TEC of industrial product in MJ of exergy per kg of
product;r
Cis TEC of coal extracting in MJ of exergy per kg of coal;b Cis cumula-
tive exergy, which burdens a unit of coal, in MJ of exergy per MJ of coal;l
Cis
speciﬁc consumption of human labour in the coal mine in man-hours per MJ of
coal;l
Iis speciﬁc consumption of human labour in industry in man-hours per kg
of product;4is cumulative exergy, which burdens human labour, in MJ of exergy
per man-hour.
On the other hand, it is evident that the total consumption of primary exergy is
Cb
C. So, the balance of TEC is fulﬁlled if the quantity4does not appear in
Eq. (2.43). Hence, the mentioned statement is correct.
Fuel part and mineral part of the thermo-ecological cost
TEC, expressing the cumulative consumption of non-renewable exergy per unit of
the considered useful product, may be divided into the fuel part and the mineral
part. The fuel part may be eliminated by the utilization of renewable exergy carriers.
The mineral part cannot be eliminated. Partition of TEC into a fuel part and mineral
part is purposeful because the depletion of mineral resources is more dangerous for
the future economy of humankind. Renewable mineral resources do not exist.
Destroyed rich mineral resources may be replaced only by leaner ones requiring a
higher consumption of exergy in their utilization process. Fortunately, the fraction
of the mineral part of TEC is usually very small; it is remarkable only in the case
of immediate products of mineral mines. It is worth stressing that the chemical
Fuel part and mineral part of the thermo-ecological cost33

exergy of natural fuels can be calculated with sufﬁcient accuracy, whereas the
chemical exergy of minerals can only be approximately estimated.
The calculation of fuel TEC and mineral TEC can be made in two steps. In the
ﬁrst step the general form of the balance equations determining total TEC has to be
formulated in the form presented in Refs.[23,33]. In the second step, balance
equations containing the unknown fractionsz
j,ziof fuel TEC in the total value of
TEC may be formulated. The second equation system is independent of the ﬁrst one.
The ﬁrst system of the mentioned balance equations determining the total is
slightly modiﬁed from formulaEq. (2.4):
r
j¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞr
iþ
X
r
arjr
rþ
X
k
pkjz
kþ
X
f
bfjþ
X
m
bmj (2.44)
whereb
fj,bmjare exergy of the fuel and mineral raw material immediately extracted
from nature per unit of thej
th
major product.
The values ofr
j,riare unknown in the ﬁrst equation system. The second system
of balance equations, independent of the ﬁrst one, determines the fuel part of the
TEC:
z
jr
j¼
X
i
ðaijfijÞzir
iþ
X
r
arjzrr
rþ
X
k
pkjzkz
kþ
X
f
bfj (2.45)
wherez
j,zi,zr,zkare the fraction of the fuel part of the considered quantity.
The values ofz
j,ziare unknown in the second equation system. InEqs (2.44) and
(2.45)the components withb
f,bmappear only when considering the mines extract-
ing raw materials from nature.
The values of TEC of imported materials determined by means ofEqs (2.32) and
(2.33)should be divided into fuel and mineral parts using the proportions appearing
in domestic production:
r
rzr¼Dr
P
e
Sezer
e
P
e
SeDe
¼Drr
mzr (2.46)
wherez
eis the fraction of the fuel part of TEC of exported products.
The values ofz
e,recan be determined by means of a difﬁcult iterative method.
When considering electricity produced from renewable resources, the fuel part
and mineral part of TEC of the used operational and investment means should be
taken into account.
Fuel and mineral thermo-ecological cost: example[70]
For the scheme shown inFig. 2.13, balance equations should be deﬁned, and the
values of the fuel and mineral parts of the TEC should be determined. The following
values of TEC indices for harmful substances have been assumed in the calculations:
z
SO2¼108.0;z NOx¼79.0;z d¼59.0 (MJ/kg). For the sake of simplicity, it was also
assumed that the emission of harmful substances mostly concerns the fuel part, and
thereforez
kinEq.s(2.45)is equal to 1.
34 CHAPTER 2Thermo-ecological cost

The ﬁrst group of equations covering the total TEC:
r
1
¼a3;1r
3
þa4;1r
4
þ
X
k
pk1z
kþbf;1
r
2
¼a1;2r
1
þa3;2r
3
þ
X
k
pk2z
kþbm;2
r
3
¼a1;3r
1
þ
X
k
pk4z
k
r
4
¼a1;4r
1
þa2;4r
2
þa3;4r
3
þa5;4r
5
þ
X
k
pk4z
k
r
5
¼a3;5r
3
þ
X
k
pk5z
kþbf;5
(2.47)
The second group of equations concerning the fuel part:
z
1r
1
¼z3a3;1r
3
þz4a4;1r
4
þ
X
k
pk1z
kþbf;1∞
z
2r
2
¼z1a1;2r
1
þz3a3;2r
3
þ
X
k
pk2z
k
z3r
3
¼z1a1;3r
1
þ
X
k
pk3z
k
z4r
4
¼z1a1;4r
1
þz2a2;4r
2
þz3a3;4r
3
þz5a5;4r
5
þ
X
k
pk4z
k
z5r
5
¼z3a3;5r
3
þ
X
k
pk5z
kþbf;5
(2.48)
Table 2.6lists the input data and results for the current example. Using the
presented algorithm, calculations for selected national products were carried out.
The results of the calculation of the TEC and share of the fuel part are given in
Table 2.7.
FIGURE 2.13
Diagram of interbranch connections.
Fuel part and mineral part of the thermo-ecological cost35

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THE Cleveland Medical Gazette
VOL. I. JANUARY, 1886. No. 3.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

A HISTORY OF MEDICINE.
BY JOHN BENNITT, M. D.,
Professor of Principles and Practice of Medicine in the Medical
Department of the Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio.
It may not be inappropriate to give in your journal a brief sketch of
the history of medicine, by the consideration of which we may come
to a better appreciation of our present standpoint as medical men.
We may also the better understand how much we, as medical men,
and the world at large, are indebted to the methodical, plodding
workers of the past in the field of inquiry pertaining to the nature
and cure of disease. Such review may have the effect of stimulating
medical men to more careful observation and the recording the
results of observations that they may be given to others for mutual
benefit.
Science may be defined as “classified knowledge.” But all our
knowledge is based on experience and observation. Medical science,
like other sciences, taking the definition of Sir John Herschel, is “the
knowledge of many, orderly and methodically digested and arranged
so as to become attainable by one.”
In all cases art and observation precede and beget science, and give
origin to its gradual construction. But soon science, so built up,
begins to reflect new light upon its parents—observation and art—
helps them onward, expands the range of vision, corrects their
errors, improves their methods and suggests new ones. The stars
were mapped out and counted by the shepherds watching their
flocks by night, long before astronomy assumed any scientific form.

From the earliest ages the pains and disorders of the human body
must have arrested men's anxious attention and claimed their
succor. The facts observed, both as to hurts and diseases, and as to
their attempted remedying, were handed down by tradition or by
record from generation to generation in continually increasing
abundance, and out of the repeated survey and comparison of these
has grown the recognition of certain laws of events and rules of
action, which together constitute “medical science.”
There is good reason for the belief that Egypt was the country in
which the art of medicine, as well as the other arts of civilized life,
was first cultivated with any degree of success, the offices of the
priest and the physician being probably combined in the same
person. In the writings of Moses there are various allusions to the
practice of medicine amongst the Jews, especially with reference to
the diagnosis and treatment of leprosy. The priests were the
physicians, and their treatment mainly aimed at promoting
cleanliness and preventing contagion. The same practice is approved
by the light of latest science.
Chiron, the Centaur, is said to have introduced the art of medicine
amongst the Greeks, but the early history of the art is entirely
legendary. Æsculapius appears in Homer as an excellent physician of
human origin; in the later legends he becomes the god of the
healing art. His genealogy is obscure and altogether fabulous. He,
however, soon surpassed his teacher, Chiron, and succeeded so far
as to restore the dead to life (as the story goes). This offended
Hades, who began to fear that his realm would not be sufficiently
peopled; complained to Zeus (Jove) of the innovation, and Jove slew
Æsculapius by a flash of lightning. After this he was deified by the
gratitude of mankind, and was especially worshiped at Epidaurus,
where a temple and a grove were consecrated to him. His statue in
this temple was formed of gold and ivory, and represents him as a
god seated on a throne, and holding in one hand a staff with a
snake coiled around it, the other hand resting on the head of a
snake; a dog, as an emblem of watchfulness, at his feet (an
intimation very appropriate for the medical profession). The

Asclepiades, the followers of Æsculapius, inherited and kept the
secrets of the healing art; or, assuming that Æsculapius was merely
a divine symbol, the Asclepiades must be regarded as a medical,
priestly caste, who preserved as mysteries the doctrine of medicine.
The members of the caste were bound by an oath—the Hippocratis
jusjurandum—not to divulge the secrets of their profession.
In Rome, in the year 292 B. C., a pestilence (probably malarial fever)
prevailed. The Sibyline books directed that Æsculapius (statue!)
must be brought from Epidaurus. Accordingly, an embassy was sent
to this place, and when they had made their request, a snake crept
out of the temple into the ship. Regarding this as the god
Æsculapius, they sailed to Italy, and as they entered the Tiber the
snake sprang out upon an island, where afterwards a temple was
erected to Æsculapius and a company of priests appointed to take
charge of the service and practice the art of medicine. The name
Æsculapius, then, is only an impersonation of medicine in the
remote ages, or early ages of Grecian history.
Hippocrates is the first writer of medicine whose works have come
down to us with anything like authority other than fable. Indeed, he
was the most celebrated physician of antiquity. He was the son of
Heracleides, also a physician, and belonged to the family of the
Asclepiades, said to be about eighteen generations from Æsculapius.
His mother was said to be descended from Hercules.
Hippocrates was born in the island of Cos (more anciently Meropis),
an island of the Grecian archipelago of about one hundred square
miles, probably about the year 460 B. C. Instructed in medicine by
his father and other contemporary medical men, he traveled in
various parts of Greece and Asia minor. He finally settled and
practiced his profession at Cos, but died in Thessaly at the age of
one hundred and four years (B. C. 357). Little is known of his
personal history, other than that he was highly esteemed as a
physician and an author, and that he raised the reputation of the
medical school of Cos to a high degree. His works were studied and
quoted by Plato. He was famous in his own time, and his works,

some sixty in number, have in them many things that are not
unworthy of consideration even after the lapse of twenty-two
hundred years. Many of the works ascribed to Hippocrates are not
well authenticated.
He divided the causes of diseases into two principal classes—the first
consisting of the influence of seasons, climates, water, situations,
etc.; the second of more personal causes, such as the food and
exercise of the individual patient. His belief in the influence which
different climates exert on the human constitution is very strongly
expressed. He ascribes to this influence both the conformation of the
body and the disposition of the mind, and hence accounts for the
difference between the hardy Greek and the Asiatic.
The four humors of the body (blood, phlegm, yellow bile and black
bile) were regarded by him as the primary seats of disease; health
was the result of the due combination (or crasis) of these humors,
and illness was the consequence of a disturbance of this crasis.
When a disease was progressing favorably these humors underwent
a certain change (coction), which was the sign of returning health,
as preparing the way for the expulsion of morbid matters, or crisis,
these crises having a tendency to occur at definite periods, which
were hence called critical days.
His treatment of disease was cautious and what we now term
expectant, i. e., it consisted chiefly, often solely, in attention to diet
and regimen; and he was sometimes reproached with letting his
patients die by doing nothing to keep them alive.
His works written in Greek were at an early period translated into
Arabic. They were first printed in Latin in 1525, at Rome. A complete
edition in Greek bears a date a year later.
Several editions in Latin and other languages have appeared from
time to time. An English translation of 'The Genuine Works of
Hippocrates,' was published by the Sydenham society in 1848, in 2
vols., by Dr. Adams. The advance which Hippocrates made in the
practice of medicine was so great that no attempts were made for

some centuries to improve upon his views and precepts. His sons,
Thessalus and Draco, and his son-in-law, Polybius, are regarded as
the founders of the medical sect which was called the Hippocratean
or Dogmatic school, because it professed to set out with certain
theoretical principles, which were derived from the generalization of
facts and observations, and to make these principles the basis of
practice. The next epoch in the history of medicine is the
establishment of the school at Alexandria, which was effected by the
munificence of the Ptolemies, about B. C. 300. Indeed the whole
race of Ptolemies (from Ptolemy I. to Ptolemy VII. B. C. 323 to 117)
seem to have been patrons of learning and learned men. (Less so
Ptolemy VIII. to XIII., B. C. 117 to 43. Ptolemy II., Philadelphius,
was born in Cos about 150 years after Hippocrates.) It was by the
patronage of these kings of Egypt that learning flourished in
Alexandria during their reign.
In some of them this seems to have been the only redeeming
feature of their character. Otherwise vicious, cruel, bloodthirsty in an
extreme degree, they uniformly encouraged learning and learned
men. (It seems to have been a hereditary trait.) Amongst the most
famous of the medical professors of the School of Alexandria are
Erasistratus and Herophilus.
The former of these was a pupil of Chrysippus, and probably
imbibed from his master his prejudice against bleeding and against
the use of active remedies, preferring to trust mainly to diet and to
the vis medicatrix naturae.
Herophilus, born in Chalcedon, in Bythinia, flourished in the latter
part of the fourth and the beginning of the third century B. C., and
settled in Alexandria, especially was distinguished by his devotion to
the study of anatomy. He is said to have pursued this to such an
extent as to have dissected criminals alive. Several names which he
gave to different parts of the body are still in use, as the torcular
Herophili, calamus scriptorius, and duodenum. He located the seat of
the soul in the ventricles of the brain. Only a few fragments remain
of what he wrote.

About this time the Empirics formed themselves into a distinct sect
and became the declared opponents of the Dogmatists. The
controversy really consisted in the question, “How far we are to
suffer theory to influence over practice.” While the Dogmatists, or as
they were sometimes styled, the Rationalists, asserted that before
attempting to treat any disease we ought to make ourselves fully
acquainted with the structure and functions of the body generally,
with the operation of medicinal agents upon it, and with the changes
which it undergoes when under the operation of any morbid cause,
the Empirics, on the contrary, contended that this knowledge is
impossible to be obtained and if possible is not necessary; that our
sole guide must be experience and that if we step beyond this,
either as learned from our own observations or that of others on
whose testimony we can rely, we are always liable to fall into
dangerous and often fatal errors. According to Celsus, the founder of
the Empirics was Serapion, who was said to be a pupil of Herophilus.
At this period, and for some centuries later, all physicians were
included in one or the other of these rival sects, and from the
evidence of history the two sects or schools were about equal. From
Phiny, who wrote about the middle and sixth, seventh and eighth
decades of the first century, we learn that medicine was introduced
into Rome at a later period than the other arts and sciences.
The first person who seems to have made it a distinct profession,
separate from priestcraft, was Archagathus, a Peloponnesian, who
settled at Rome about B. C. 200. His treatment of his patients was
so severe and unsuccessful that he was finally banished, and no
other mention is made of a physician at Rome for about a century,
when Asclepiades of Bythinia, acquired a great reputation. His
popularity depended upon his allowing his patients a liberal use of
wine, and of their favorite dishes, and in all respects consulting their
inclinations and flattering their prejudices; and hence it is easy to
understand the eminence at which he arrived, for we see even in our
own time men building up great reputations by similar practices.
This man with a long name—Archagathus—was succeeded by his
pupil, Themison of Laodicea, the founder of a sect called Methodics,

who adopted a middle course between the Dogmatists and Empirics.
During the greater part of the first two centuries of our era the
Methodics were the preponderating medical sect, and they included
in their ranks C. Aurelianus, some of whose writings have come
down to us.
They soon broke into various sects of which the chief were the
Pneumatics, represented by Aretaeus of Cappadocia, whose works
are still extant; and the Eclectics, who claimed as do the Eclectics of
to-day, to select the best from all the other systems and to reject the
hurtful. The most remarkable writer of this age is Celsus (about A.
D.), whose work (De Medicina) gives a sketch of the history of
medicine up to that time and the state in which it then was. He is
remarkable in being the first native Roman physician whose name
has come down to us.
Dioscorides of Cilicia flourished about the end of the first century. He
accompanied the Roman army in their campaign through many
countries and gathered a great store of information and observations
on plants. In his great work 'De Materia Medica,' he treats of all the
then known medicinal substances and their properties, real or
reputed, on the principles of the so-called humoral pathology. Two
other works are ascribed to him but their genuineness is
questionable. For fifteen centuries the authority of Dioscorides, in
botany and materia medica, was undisputed, and still holds among
the Turks and Moors.
[To be Continued.]

REPORT OF A CASE OF EXTRA-UTERINE
PREGNANCY.
BY H. J. LEE, M. D., CLEVELAND, OHIO.
The following case came under my care during my term of service in
the wards of Charity Hospital in this city. Mrs. D., age thirty-five,
married, one child two years of age, was admitted to the hospital
July 14, 1885, with the following history: She had always enjoyed
good health, and there was no history of uterine disease. She
menstruated about the first of April, 1885, did not menstruate in
May, and supposed herself pregnant, as she had always been regular
before, and during the latter part of May she had considerable
nausea and other symptoms of pregnancy. About the first of June,
while in church, she was taken with a severe hemorrhage. She was
taken home and a physician called, who examined her and decided
from the symptoms and history that she had had a miscarriage.
There was very little hemorrhage after she arrived home, in fact very
little at any subsequent time, but she did not recover well, had some
pains in the abdomen, and she said had some fever all the time. Not
getting on well, as she and her friends thought, it was decided to
change physicians, which was done. The second physician concurred
in the diagnosis of the first, and treated her evidently on the
expectant plan, as any one would be compelled to do, owing to the
difficulty of making a correct diagnosis at such an early stage. After
a time, there being no improvement, she decided to go to the
hospital. On admission she was quite emaciated and had an anaemic
appearance; her temperature was about 99° to 100° in the morning
and 100° to 102° in the evening. There was considerable tenderness
in the right iliac region, extending into the hypogastric region. Uterus

was not felt to be at all enlarged, but the os was patulous. There
was an enlargement to the right of the uterus. This could be felt
both externally and through the vagina; was of an irregular outline,
and quite tense and tender upon pressure. A sound was introduced
into the uterus and passed in about three inches and was deflected
to the left quite perceptibly. It did not appear quite certain that there
was nothing in the uterus, and in view of the history of the case it
seemed justifiable to explore the cavity. Accordingly a good sized
sponge tent was introduced and allowed to remain twenty-four
hours, when it was removed and the uterine cavity explored with
purely negative results. The patient had now been under observation
over a week, and attempts made to improve her general condition
with tonics and nutritious diet, but without success. Her temperature
continued about 101° most of the time. A positive diagnosis had not
been made, though it seemed that about everything could be
excluded except extra-uterine pregnancy. At this juncture Dr. W. J.
Scott was asked to see the patient. He did so and made a very
careful examination, and gave it as his opinion the case was one of
extra-uterine pregnancy. The next day Dr. Dudley P. Allen was called
in consultation with Dr. Scott and myself. Dr. Allen's examination was
careful and exhaustive, and at its close he gave it as his opinion that
while there were some obscure points, the most probable conclusion
was that the case was one of extra-uterine fœtation.
Having all arrived at this conclusion, independently of each other, it
was agreed that as there was some obscurity in the case, and also
that in the event of there being a fœtus outside of the uterus it had
now advanced to about the fourth month of gestation; consequently
the most favorable time for the employment of the electric current
had passed. In view of these facts, and also of the fact that
exploratory incisions are attended with comparatively little danger, it
was decided to make an exploratory incision and determine what
was the condition of things. If a fœtus was found remove it if
possible. If the trouble was something that could not be removed,
the incision could be closed and the patient probably in no wise
injured. Dr. Allen was asked to operate, and on the sixth of August

the operation was performed. There were present, Dr. Allen, Dr.
Scott, Dr. Millikin and the house staff. The anæsthetic was
administered, and before commencing the operation an aspirator
needle of good size was introduced into the tumor through the
vagina. Upon exhausting the air no fluid was obtained, but upon
partially withdrawing the needle about a drachm of clear serum was
obtained, which was thought to be peritoneal fluid. It was then
decided to proceed with the operation. An incision was made about
an inch above and parallel to Poupart's ligament, commencing at the
anterior superior spinous process of the ilium, and terminating at the
outer margin of the rectus muscle.
On opening the abdomen an adherent mass was found closely
attached to the coecum. Strong bands also passed from the mass
toward the symphysis pubis. In order to reach the mass more fully,
and also the annexes of the uterus, the adhesions to the pubis were
divided between ligatures. This having been done, it was still found
to be impossible to detach the intestines which were closely
adherent to the coecum, and nothing abnormal could be found in
connection with the uterus. Failing to discover the cause of the
adhesions about the coecum from the abdominal cavity, it was
thought this might be accomplished by separating the peritoneum
from the iliac fossa, and reaching the coecum from the outer and
posterior side. This separation was continued until it could be carried
no further without great danger of wounding the external iliac
vessels, which were exposed for several inches. Although nothing
further than a closely adherent mass of intestines had been found,
an attempt to separate which had been carried to the limit of safety,
and the cause of the malady had not been demonstrated with entire
satisfaction, it was deemed best to close the abdominal incision,
which was accordingly done.
The subsequent history of the cure was as favorable as could be
desired. The wound united very readily. The temperature never rose
above 103°, and was only at that point for a few hours; most of the
time was 100° to 101.5°. Two weeks after the operation

temperature was normal, a point it had not reached since her
admission, and probably not for some time previous.
Patient was examined September 8; the tumor was found to be
considerably diminished in size, and tenderness almost entirely
disappeared. She had apparently gained in weight, and expressed
herself as feeling well. She was discharged from the hospital
September 9. On the tenth of October she again presented herself,
according to agreement, and was examined by Dr. Scott, Dr. Allen
and myself. The tumor had entirely disappeared, only a slight
thickening of the tissues remaining, the uterus had resumed its
normal position, and the patient, to all appearances, was as well as
ever.
I have reported this case as one of extra-uterine pregnancy, and yet
it will be seen by the report that the existence of that condition was
not demonstrated at the operation, but it seems to me that the
history of the case, both prior and subsequent to the operation,
demonstrates pretty conclusively that it could be nothing else. Both
the gentlemen who saw the case before operation were of the
opinion that everything could be excluded except a collection of
fluid, disease of the coecum and extra-uterine pregnancy, and to my
mind (and the gentlemen who were called in consultation have
expressed themselves in the same manner) the operation and the
result of it excludes everything except the last mentioned condition.
It may be said that in the treatment of the case less severe
measures should first have been tried; that the electric current
should have been employed before resorting to an operation. This
subject was fully discussed, and the decision against the
employment of electricity was unanimous, from the fact that the
most favorable time for its employment had passed and the time had
arrived when any further delay was dangerous. Then the danger
from an exploratory incision is so small that it seemed to be more
than counterbalanced by the knowledge that would be obtained by
it. If an exploratory incision was made we would then be better able
to tell what we had to deal with, and would also be in a position to
deal with whatever was found in the most effectual manner, and it

was thought that the most certain means of cure should be
employed first and the patient not be subjected to the danger of
delay in order that less certain methods might first be tried; also the
high temperature seemed to render any delay more dangerous. The
incision described was employed because it seemed that the tumor
could be more easily reached and removed by means of it than by
means of the central one. When, however, the mass was reached it
was found to be so firmly attached to the cœcum by strong
adhesions that it was absolutely immoveable. Under these
circumstances it was decided that it would be unwise to attempt its
removal, consequently the wound was closed and the operation
desisted from. The subsequent history was all that could be desired,
or could, under any circumstances, have been expected.
I think the most probable explanation of the disappearance of the
tumor is this: The case was one of extra-uterine pregnancy of the
abdominal variety, the ovum became attached to the peritoneum
and a connective tissue proliferation was set up which surrounded it
with a vascular sack, the walls of which kept pace with the growth of
the ovum, and as they extended into the abdominal cavity formed
adhesions to the cœcum, intestines, and other parts in the vicinity.
During the operation these adhesions were ligated and divided, and
in consequence the nutrition of the ovum was entirely cut off, and
death and absorption was the result.
Since writing the report of this case the patient has been seen and
examined. She seems to be in perfect health, and says she never felt
better. There is not a vestige of the tumor remaining, except two or
three small indurated spots that can be felt through the vagina.

STAMMERING, STUTTERING.
By Prof. G. Deäon, äate of Paris, France.
Here is an universal and very strange infirmity, impeding speech, the
origin of which must be anterior to the formation of languages.
Hippocrates, the “Père de la Médecine,” Galen and Aristotle
attributed it to an abnormal moisture of the brain and tongue and to
a defective construction of the tongue, and their theories have been
revived by modern writers. We find in Aristotle a double definition
that stammering is an inability of articulating a certain letter, and
stuttering an inability of joining one syllable to another.
Notwithstanding the difference between the causes, the
characteristics and the effects of both defects, several languages
have but one word to express it; in French, for instance,
“Bégaiement” means either stammering or stuttering. American
dictionaries give the same definition for both; and in common talk no
distinction is made, all stoppages in speech being called
indiscriminately stammering or stuttering.
Speech being a combination of separate sounds produced by the
expired air, it is certain that the first condition required for natural
and correct speech is an undisturbed and normal action of the
breathing apparatus.
The movements performed by the respiratory organs for the
modification of the currents of air being produced by muscles owing
their activity to nerves—motor and sensory—and the vocal organs
being, like all parts of the organism, provided with nerves, it
becomes evident that a general excitation of the nervous system, or
any unusual excitement of the motor-nerves in action, will affect the

muscles, cause irritation and create disturbances in inspiration,
expiration and speech.
Normal inspiration is produced by a regular contraction of the
diaphragm, and expiration is due to the elasticity of the tissue of the
lungs. A spasmodic inspiration, during which a prolonged contracted
spasm of the diaphragm takes place, produces stammering; such a
convulsive contraction of the diaphragm can take place without
attempting to speak, but any attempt to utter sounds during the
spasm will result in stammering. At the end of the spasm, the air is
then quickly expelled from the lungs. I have noticed stammering
children that I have treated subject to frequent attacks of hiccough;
in hiccough the expiration is quiet: an irritation of the nerves of the
diaphragm brings about, with a violent inspiration, an attenuated
convulsive contraction of the diaphragm, as in stammering.
In stuttering which is characterized by the presence of some spasm,
in all articulations, labial, lingual, dental and guttural, although
respiration is irregular and the respiratory organs do not work well,
the inability to form and join the sounds comes from other sources
than a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm.
Stammering proper, when organic, might be called stammering of
the diaphragm, and that distinction would be quite logical, as other
organs wholly unconnected with speech show that peculiarity of
being affected with stammering.
The influence exercised on the voice and speech by the respiratory
mechanism is so considerable that a variety of theories on
respiration have been advanced and discussed by physicians and
specialists, not only with reference to speech impediments but
specially for singing, elocution, acting and public speaking, and also
in reference to general health. Writers and professors advocating
exclusively so-called diaphragmatic, or costal, or abdominal
respiration, are incorrect and perfectly deceived. The diaphragm, the
ribs, and the muscles of the abdomen must all do more or less their
special work, in order to carry on a normal and healthy respiratory
act. An eminent physician, Dr. Ed. Fournié of Paris, says: “He who

respires exclusively by one or the other of these alone (diaphragm,
ribs or abdomen) must be indeed a sick man.” Costal or side-
breathing is due to the elevation and depression of the ribs
simultaneously with the contraction of the diaphragm. Abdominal
breathing, the method taught to singers, is performed by the
pressure of the abdominal muscles upon the anterior and lateral
walls of the abdomen, forcing up the diaphragm, and thus expiring
almost completely the air in the lungs.
Medical and scientific investigations concerning speech defects have
been as considerable as it is contradictory. The observations of
prominent doctors and specialists, some of them being afflicted
themselves, have in the most argumentative thesis attributed
stammering-stuttering to numerous and varied causes, the
enumeration of which has a real historical and pathological interest:
Faulty action of the tongue, disorders of tongue-muscles, spasms of
the glottis and epiglottis, troubles located in the larynx and in the
hyoid-bone, abnormal depth of the palate, affections of the muscles
of the lower jaw, spasm of the lips, abnormal dryness or moisture,
or lesion of brain, nerves, muscles or tongue, nervous affection,
intermittent necrosis, general debility or weakness, chorea,
incomplete cerebral action, imperfect will-power, want of harmony
between thought and speech, imitation and habit.—Such is the
nomenclature of the principal ingenious theories exposed and upheld
by those who have made a study or a business of the cure of speech
defects. But some mistaken innovators, not satisfied with theories
and investigations, gave to their ideas an experimental form. Forty
and forty-five years ago a surgical craze, originating in Germany as a
pretended cure of speech defects, was raging all over Europe.
Stammerers and stutterers suffered a variety of operations, the
horizontal section of the tongue, the division of the lingual muscles,
the division of the genio-hyo-glossi muscles, the cutting of the
tonsils and uvula, etc. Such suppression and mutilation of the vocal
organs could not bring any cure, as it was proved, and some
patients having died, the operating craze was put to an end forever.
Since that it is by more gentle means that all attempts have been

made to cure impediments of speech. The unfortunate stutterer has
no longer to dread the misemployed zeal of surgical operators, and
now it is even his own fault when he allows himself to fall into the
hands of ignorant charlatans.
Without lessening the value of former discoveries, I will say that the
specialist of to-day must disagree with the most eminent authors
and the most prominent works on that question, including Velpeau,
Amussat, Becquerel, Lenbuscher, Bèclard, Bristowe, etc., and arrive
at the conclusion that their testimony was one-sided, being confined
to their own or few cases, and limited to mere theory and
speculation. For the treatment of vices of speech, with the
indispensable knowledge, long and practical experience alone will
instruct what is the right method to pursue. The various theories on
the nature and causes of that infirmity, and the enumeration of the
different responsible organs may be, at the same time, partly false
and partially true; but they have proved powerless to cure or relieve.
In all varieties and forms of stammering-stuttering all the vocal
organs can be blamed, and have, in each case, to be reformed and
improved. In the majority of cases we find some traces of the
organic peculiarities aimed at by authors, even if their influence is
doubtful. Respiratory trouble is at the bottom of every case. The
internal organs, and the tongue, the lips and jaws are to some
extent in an abnormal condition, and suffer a convulsive spasm; they
have to be treated, strengthened and made flexible. The nerve-
function of the organs of speech is also disturbed. We notice in the
majority of cases, to a certain degree, organic weakness,
nervousness, lack of will-power, and above all, disregard of all
natural rules and ignorance of the use and natural functions of the
organs of speech.
As to prognosis, I will say that all stoppages in speech, accompanied
by spasms, sometimes hardly perceptible, and which are not the
result of paralysis or lesion, may be classified as stammering-
stuttering, and can always be cured, whatever may be their origin or

cause, or their intensity, and that it is only a question of time and
perseverance even for the most stubborn cases.
The treatment of stammering-stuttering, which does not comport
any operation nor drugs, is purely educational. It consists in
remedying the defect and teaching properly the science of speech.
Still, I think, that in many cases a strict attention ought to be paid to
hygienic measures; some medical care and prescription would help
the patient and the instructor. In the actual condition of things no
regular practicing physician can afford to devote his ability and time
to the treatment of speech defects. But doctors have to study the
infirmity, to know that it can be cured, that it is an interesting and
complex disease, in the treatment of which the progress of medical
science can bring a revolution. Physicians the world over having
wholly neglected to consider that question, the result has been to
leave it in the hands of incompetent persons. In principle the
question of speech impediments cannot be separated from medicine.
Physicians cannot ignore an infirmity in which the organism itself is
undoubtedly involved, at times in a very intricate manner and to a
considerable extent. Every true physician feels that he has a sacred
mission—to alleviate suffering; the tortures of a large class of people
partially deprived of the faculty of speech are well worth his care
and attention. Medical students ought to be provided with the means
of becoming versed in an affection offering such a large field for
study and work, where so much light is needed, and where the
prospects of discovery and improvement from a scientific and
medical standpoint are so legitimate. The family physician, often
consulted, will do good work in advising his clients to try and get rid
of such a terrible affliction, to be cured without delay, and in
preventing them from falling into the hands of quacks.

HOMELY FACTS.
BY F. STEWART, CLEVELAND, O.
Not long ago as a bottle was placed upon the counter of a
pharmacist to be refilled, its inner walls were observed to be richly
decorated with the active principles of the compound. A witch-hazel
doctor standing by declared the decorated walls to be the secret of
the patient's recovery, but upon inquiry it was found that the patient
was no better. Still they had decided to try another bottle, and the
apothecary was not the one to object. The investigation was carried
no farther, but if it had been the same old story of incompatibles
would have been retold. To the aqueous solutions containing
oleoresinous tinctures or extracts (such as cannabis indica, guaiac,
benzoin, lupulin, ginger, myrrh, cubeb, eucalyptus, sumbul, and
many others) a sufficient quantity of carbonate or calcined magnesia
should be added. A few grains (say three to twenty) to the
prescribed dose will suffice for a good suspension, and will be found
in most cases unobjectionable of course in an acid mixture.
There are many conflicting reports of this class of medicines, owing
to unscientific prescribing as well as unreliable preparations. The
activity of this class of medicines demands nothing short of strong
alcohol for their extraction. Yet many weak and worthless
preparations may be found in the market. If the unscientific
observers would look more to the quality of their goods, these
conflicting reports would begin to subside.
A physician once told an apothecary that he prescribed fluid extracts
because he found them more reliable than the tinctures. This was
not true, and could not be proven. Upon investigation it was found

that his prescribed dose of fluid extract of digitalis was equivalent to
fifty-five drops of the tincture, a dose larger than he intended to
prescribe. With such science the witch-hazel doctor will ride a high
horse, and come in on the home stretch with flying colors. No singer
can sing well who sings too many songs, and no beginner will
prescribe well who prescribes too many medicines. This song has
been sung much but not half enough, for it is not borne in mind.
Many fail with a remedy simply because they have failed to master
it.
Mastering the few is said to be the key to success, and the writer
believes it, for he has seen it proven. An eminent physician from
New York was once called in consultation to a western city. His
prescription was mercury iodide, potassium iodide, and infus.
gentian. He stated (and the other physician said, “I see”) that the
only object of the potassium was to dissolve the mercury iodide. But
potassium's great affinity for iodide accepted it, at once dropped the
free mercury to the bottom, likely to be taken all at the last dose,
equal to fifteen or twenty grains of blue pill. He had failed to master
this remedy.
The witch-hazel doctor could not declare this time that the untaken
medicine saved the patient's life, for he died before taking it. But he
could smile at the prescription appropriately, were none of his own
to be found on file.
Another phase of fashion reminds one of the old saying “distance
lends enchantment;” for there is just as good sense in going to New
Brunswick to have a boil lanced as there is in bringing syrup
hypophosphates from that place.
The present pharmacopœia contains a splendid formula for this
syrup—one, too, with which phosphoric acid, quinine and strychnine
are perfectly compatible. A pharmacist that will not exert himself to
furnish the very best article for a physician's prescription is not
entitled to the physician's respect. But for a physician to expect a
pharmacist to send all over town for some foreign preparation that
might, in almost all cases, be better made at home, affords a

weapon to retard medical science and advance the nostrum
manufacturer. The more scientific physicians well know and admit
that a good pharmacist can better judge of a compound than a
physician, who seldom stops to test it, but prescribes it a few times
and, in many cases, never thinks of it again, or, perhaps, not until he
presents his bill and finds the patient's money all gone for semi-
proprietary medicines that cost from fifty to one hundred per cent.
more than would have paid for better compounds. Physicians will
only have to examine these medicines after they have stood a year
or two, and in many cases a much less time, to see the force of this
argument.
Among these nostrums are found numerous preparations we could
mention, including many emulsions, elixirs, etc. It is comforting to
see the better class of physicians giving these nostrums a “wide
berth.” Others will follow their example if they investigate and
master their remedies.
Having no time to continue this rehearsal, I close with a plea for
more science, more investigation, that we may not have to send to
Buffalo for syrups of Dover powder or farther east, west or south for
nostrums, but master the remedies we have, saving to the physician
and patient from fifty to one hundred per cent., thus mitigating the
popular cry of the high price of medicine. There should be a table of
incompatibles in every medical college as prominent as the
multiplication table in the schools, or pharmacists should be allowed
more freedom to prepare medicines properly, instead of being held
to the letter.
The writer should not complain, for he has been liberally treated by
the profession in this respect; but he does not feel at liberty to add
magnesia to a mixture unless so ordered. A pharmacist did this at
one time in a tar-and-water mixture, gaining great praise from the
physician. (Making the tar quite thin with a little alcohol, then
absorbing the whole with magnesia, and emulsifying by adding the
water gradually.)

Thermo ecology Exergy as a Measure of Sustainability 1st Edition Wojciech Stanek

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