Transport-mwanamisi.POWER POINT PRESENTATION

TRANSPORT

1. TRANSPORT PLASMA Blood plasma is the liquid part of blood, a straw- colored fluid that makes up about 55% of your blood volume. It's primarily water, but also contains various proteins, salts, sugars, fats, and hormones, among other substances. Plasma's main job is to transport blood cells (red, white, and platelets) throughout the body, as well as nutrients, waste products, and other essential substances

2. PLASMA

3. PLASMA Composition: Water: The largest component, making up about 92% of plasma. Plasma Proteins: Include albumin, globulins, fibrinogen, and clotting factors, which play vital roles in maintaining fluid balance, transporting substances, and facilitating blood clotting. Electrolytes: Salts like sodium, potassium, and calcium, which are essential for nerve function, muscle contraction, and maintaining proper blood pH. Nutrients: Sugars, fats, amino acids, and vitamins, derived from food, are transported in plasma to be used by the body

4. PLASMA Waste Products: Urea, carbon dioxide, and other metabolic byproducts are carried in plasma to be eliminated by the kidneys and lungs. Hormones and Enzymes: Chemical messengers that regulate various bodily functions are also transported in plasma

5. PLASMA Functions: Transportation: Plasma carries blood cells, nutrients, waste products, hormones, and other essential substances throughout the body. Maintaining Fluid Balance: Plasma helps regulate blood volume and osmotic pressure, preventing dehydration or fluid overload. Immune Response: Plasma contains antibodies, which are proteins that help the body fight off infections. Blood Clotting: Plasma contains clotting factors, which are essential for stopping bleeding and repairing damaged blood vessels. pH Regulation: Plasma helps maintain the proper pH balance in the body, which is crucial for cell function

6. BLOOD CELLS Blood cells are the fundamental components of blood, classified into three main types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells carry oxygen, white blood cells help fight infections, and platelets aid in blood clotting

7. BLOOD CELLS

8. BLOOD CELLS Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes): These are the most abundant type of blood cell, responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide back to the lungs. They contain a protein called hemoglobin , which binds to oxygen. White Blood Cells (Leukocytes): These cells are crucial for the immune system, helping to defend the body against infections and diseases. There are several types of white blood cells, including lymphocytes, monocytes, and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils , and basophils). Platelets (Thrombocytes): These small, irregularly shaped cell fragments play a vital role in blood clotting, helping to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is damaged

9. BLOOD CELLS Blood Cell Production: All blood cells originate from stem cells in the bone marrow through a process called hematopoiesis . These stem cells can differentiate into red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets as needed. Plasma: Blood also contains a liquid component called plasma, which is composed of water, proteins, and other substances. Plasma acts as a transport medium for blood cells and other substances

10. HAEMOSTASIS Haemostasis, or hemostasis , is the body's natural process to stop bleeding and prevent blood loss after an injury to a blood vessel. It's a complex, multi-step process involving interactions between blood cells, platelets, coagulation factors, and the vascular endothelium. The goal is to form a stable clot that seals the damaged vessel, preventing further blood loss

11. HAEMOSTASIS Key Components and Stages: Vascular Response: The initial response to injury is a constriction of the blood vessel, which helps to reduce blood flow to the area. Primary Haemostasis: This stage involves platelets adhering to the exposed collagen in the injured vessel wall and forming a temporary platelet plug . Secondary Haemostasis: In this stage, coagulation factors are activated, leading to the formation of a fibrin mesh that reinforces the platelet plug, creating a more stable and permanent clot. Fibrinolysis: This is the process of clot dissolution, which helps to remove the clot after the vessel has healed and blood flow is restored.

12. HAEMOSTASIS Why is Haemostasis Important? Prevents blood loss: Haemostasis is essential for maintaining blood volume and preventing life-threatening haemorrhage. Protects against infection: The clot acts as a barrier against pathogens, preventing infection at the wound site. Facilitates wound healing: Haemostasis prepares the wound for subsequent stages of healing, such as inflammation and tissue repai

13. HAEMOSTASIS Disorders of Haemostasis: Thrombotic disorders: These involve excessive clot formation, which can lead to blood clots in arteries or veins, potentially causing heart attacks, strokes, or deep vein thrombosis. Bleeding disorders: These involve impaired clot formation, which can lead to excessive bleeding after injury or surgery

14. BLOOD GROUPING Blood grouping, also known as blood typing, is the process of classifying blood into different groups based on the presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of red blood cells. The two most important systems for blood grouping are the ABO and Rh systems. The ABO system classifies blood into types A, B, AB, and O, while the Rh system determines if the blood contains the RhD antigen, resulting in Rh-positive or Rh-negative blood

15. BLOOD GROUPING ABO Blood Group System: Antigens: The ABO system is based on the presence or absence of A and B antigens on red blood cells. Blood Types: Type A: Contains A antigens. Type B: Contains B antigens. Type AB: Contains both A and B antigens. Type O: Contains neither A nor B antigen

16. BLOOD GROUPING Antibodies: The body produces antibodies against the antigens it lacks. For example, type A blood produces anti-B antibodies, and type B blood produces anti-A antibodies. Blood Typing: Blood typing involves testing a sample of blood to determine the presence or absence of A and B antigens, as well as identifying the corresponding antibodies. Importance: ABO blood typing is crucial for safe blood transfusions and to prevent complications

17. BLOOD GROUPING Rh System: RhD Antigen: The Rh system is based on the presence or absence of the RhD antigen (also known as the D antigen) on red blood cells. Rh-positive: If the RhD antigen is present, the blood is Rh-positive (Rh+). Rh-negative: If the RhD antigen is absent, the blood is Rh-negative (Rh-). Rh-negative individuals: Rh-negative individuals can develop antibodies against the RhD antigen if exposed to Rh-positive blood, which can cause complications in subsequent pregnancies or transfusions

18. BLOOD GROUPING Eight Common Blood Types: By combining the ABO and Rh systems, the eight most common blood types are: A+ (A positive) A- (A negative) B+ (B positive) B- (B negative) AB+ (AB positive) AB- (AB negative) O+ (O positive) O- (O negative

19. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Heart The heart is the central organ of the cardiovascular system, acting as a pump to circulate blood throughout the body. It's a muscular organ with four chambers that work together to move blood into the arteries, which then distribute it to the body's tissues and organs. The heart also receives deoxygenated blood from the body and sends it to the lungs to be oxygenated, completing the circulation cycle

20. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

21. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Pumping Action: The heart's rhythmic contractions (beats) generate the force needed to pump blood through the network of blood vessels, according to KidsHealth . Blood Circulation: Blood, containing oxygen and nutrients, is pumped from the heart through arteries to the body's tissues, where it releases these vital substances and picks up waste products. Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation: The cardiovascular system consists of two main loops: systemic circulation (blood flow to the body) and pulmonary circulation (blood flow to the lungs

22. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Chambers and Valves: The heart has four chambers (two atria and two ventricles) and four valves that ensure blood flows in the correct direction, preventing backflow. Electrical System: The heart's electrical system regulates the rate and rhythm of heartbeats, ensuring proper blood flow. Vessels: The heart is connected to a network of blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries) that transport blood throughout the body.

23. HEART DYNAMICS Cardiac Dynamics is the name of a relatively young field of study, born from the fruitful interaction between branches of two different disciplines: medicine and physics . "Dynamics" is the branch of physics which deals with the action of forces on bodies or particles in motion or at rest. " Cardiac" relates to the clinical field of cardiology but also to cardiophysiology , both of which are specialized branches of medicine.

24. HEART DYNAMICS Narrower than the well­ established field of Hemodynamics , Cardiac Dynamics is restricted to dynamic phenomena occurring in and around the heart. the mechanical study of the heart requires additional con­ siderations such as: active elastic components representing the contractile mechanism of cardiac muscle, complex geometry and fiber structure in the myocardial wall, autoregulatory mechanisms, and intricate flow patterns associated with valve motion.

25. HEART REGULATION Heart rate is regulated by a complex interplay of the nervous system, hormones, and the heart's own intrinsic mechanisms. The nervous system, particularly the autonomic nervous system (ANS), plays a key role in adjusting heart rate to meet the body's changing needs. Hormones like epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) can also influence heart rate

26. HEART REGULATION 1 . Nervous System Control: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): The ANS, which includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems, has a major impact on heart rate. Sympathetic Nervous System: This system releases hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine, which increase heart rate and contractility. Parasympathetic Nervous System: This system releases acetylcholine, which slows heart rate. Reciprocal Action: Changes in heart rate usually involve a balance between sympathetic and parasympathetic activity. Baroreceptors and Chemoreceptors: The nervous system also uses baroreceptors (pressure sensors) and chemoreceptors (chemical sensors) in the carotid and aortic arches to monitor blood pressure and oxygen levels

27. HEART REGULATION Nervous System Signals: The nervous system sends signals to the heart's pacemaker (SA node) to regulate the rate and rhythm of heartbeats. Intrinsic Heart Rate: In the absence of nervous system influences, the SA node would beat at a rate of about 100 beats per minute. 2 . Hormonal Influences: Epinephrine and Norepinephrine: These hormones, released by the adrenal glands, increase heart rate and contractility. Thyroid Hormones: These hormones can enhance the sympathetic response, also increasing heart rate.

28. HEART REGULATION 3 . Intrinsic Cardiac Mechanisms: SA Node: The SA node ( sinoatrial node) is the heart's natural pacemaker, generating electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat. Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle, which includes contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers, is regulated by the SA node and AV node ( atrioventricular node). Staircase or Treppe Phenomenon: This phenomenon refers to the increased force of cardiac muscle contractions with repeated stimulation. Frank-Starling Mechanism: This mechanism describes how an increased volume of blood entering the heart results in a more forceful contraction

29. HEART REGULATION Factors Affecting Heart Rate: Stress and Excitement: These can temporarily increase heart rate. Caffeine : Caffeine can also stimulate the heart, leading to an increased heart rate. Exercise: Exercise increases heart rate, with the sympathetic nervous system playing a key role in this increase. Age: Maximum heart rate tends to decrease with age. Meditation and Slow Breathing: These techniques can help slow heart rate

30. HISTOLOGY Histology is the study of the microscopic structure of tissues and organs. It involves examining tissue sections under a microscope, often after staining, to visualize cellular and tissue details. This branch of biology, also known as microanatomy, helps in understanding the relationship between tissue structure and function

31. HISTOLOGY What Histology Involves: Sectioning: Tissue samples are cut into thin slices to allow light to pass through for microscopic examination. Staining : Dyes or stains are used to highlight different parts of the tissue, making structures visible and easier to identify. Microscopy: The tissue sections are examined under a microscope to observe the details of cells, tissues, and organs

32. HISTOLOGY Key Aspects of Histology: Microscopic Anatomy: Histology focuses on the microscopic structures of tissues, complementing gross anatomy, which studies larger structures. Structure-Function Relationship: Histology explores how tissue structure relates to its function. For example, the striations in skeletal muscle tissue are related to its ability to contract. Histopathology: A related field, histopathology, focuses on the study of diseased tissues, helping in diagnosis. Histopathologists examine tissue samples under a microscope to identify changes caused by disease. Medical Diagnosis: Histology is crucial in medical diagnosis, helping to identify diseases like cancer, infections, and other conditions

33. ARTERY AND ARTERIOLES Arteries are large blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, while arterioles are smaller branches that extend from arteries and carry blood to the tissues and organs . Arterioles have a higher level of smooth muscle compared to larger arteries, allowing them to regulate blood flow into capillaries

34. ARTERY AND ARTERIOLES

35. ARTERY AND ARTERIOLES Arteries: These are the main blood vessels responsible for delivering oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body. They have thick, elastic walls that help them withstand the pressure of the blood pumped from the heart. Arterioles: These are smaller branches of arteries that lead to capillaries. They are also known as "resistance vessels" because they have a high degree of smooth muscle that allows them to contract and dilate, thus regulating blood flow into the capillaries. Function of Arterioles: Arterioles play a crucial role in directing blood flow to specific tissues and organs based on the body's needs. They also help to regulate blood pressure by adjusting their diameter, according to Cleveland Clinic. Microcirculation: Arterioles are part of the microcirculation, along with capillaries, which is where exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products occurs between the blood and tissues.

36. VEINS AND VENULES Veins and venules are both blood vessels involved in returning blood to the heart. Veins are larger, more muscular vessels that collect blood from venules and larger veins . Venules are smaller, thinner-walled vessels that act as the starting point for the venous system, receiving blood from capillaries

37. VEINS AND VENULES Venules : Definition : The smallest veins, connecting capillaries to larger veins. Structure : Thin-walled, with minimal muscle tissue and elastic fibers . Function: Collect blood from capillaries and deliver it to larger veins. Location: Found throughout the body, connecting capillary beds to veins. Importance: Play a crucial role in the exchange of oxygen and nutrients for waste products at the tissue level

38. VEINS AND VENULES Veins : Definition : Larger blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart. Structure : Thicker-walled than venules , with a muscular layer to help propel blood against gravity. Function: Transport blood from the tissues, including blood from venules , back to the heart. Location: Found throughout the body, often near the surface, but also deep within muscles. Importance: Essential for returning deoxygenated blood to the heart for oxygenation

39. VEINS AND VENULES Feature Venule Vein Size Smallest veins, connect to capillaries Larger vessels, collect blood from venules and larger veins Walls Thin-walled, minimal muscle tissue Thicker-walled, with more muscle tissue to help propel blood Function Collects blood from capillaries, delivers it to larger veins Transports blood from tissues back to the heart Location Connects capillary beds to veins Found throughout the body, near surface and deep in muscles Importance Plays a role in exchange at the tissue level Essential for returning blood to the heart for oxygenation Key Differences:

40. CAPILARIES Capillaries are delicate blood vessels that deliver nutrients and oxygen to cells throughout your body. They also remove carbon dioxide and other waste from your cells. With their thin walls, capillaries allow fluids and gases to pass through easily. Capillaries connect arteries and veins and help your organs function.

41. CAPILARIES

42. CAPILARIES Types of capillaries Capillaries have three different shapes that help them carry out various functions. Types of capillaries include: Continuous fenestrated capillaries. These have small openings (fenestrae) that enable them to exchange substances quickly. These are in your kidneys, small intestine and endocrine glands. Continuous nonfenestrated capillaries. These have a lining that only small molecules can pass through. This type of capillary exists in your nervous system as well as fat and muscle tissue. Sinusoidal capillaries. These have small fenestrae that allow certain substances to pass through. This type of capillary is in your liver and spleen

43. CAPILARIES What do capillaries do? Capillary beds complete the circulatory system by connecting your arteries to your veins. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from your heart to your organs. Veins help your body remove low-oxygen blood and waste from your organs. The role of the capillaries is to function as a place to exchange what arteries and veins carry. While arteries and veins carry gases and nutrients through your body, it’s the capillaries that get them to their destinations

44. CAPILARIES Capillaries serve a variety of organs and systems. They support The: Bone marrow by allowing new blood cells to enter your bloodstream Brain by forming the blood-brain barrier. This structure delivers nutrients to the brain while preventing toxins from passing through. Endocrine system by delivering hormones to specific organs Kidneys , where peritubular capillaries filter blood, produce pee (urine) and absorb water and sodium Liver by removing defective red blood cells and bacteria Lungs by releasing carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen Lymphatic system by collecting fluid from tissues and directing it to lymph nodes Small intestine by transporting digested nutrients so they can nourish your cells

45. BLOOD PRESSURE Blood pressure is the force of your blood pushing against the walls of your arteries as it's pumped by your heart. It's measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg) and typically reported as two numbers, systolic and diastolic. Systolic pressure is the pressure when your heart beats, while diastolic pressure is the pressure when your heart rests between beats

46. BLOOD PRESSURE

47. BLOOD PRESSURE Normal Blood Pressure: Systolic: Less than 120 mm Hg Diastolic : Less than 80 mm Hg High Blood Pressure (Hypertension): Systolic: 130 mm Hg or higher Diastolic : 80 mm Hg or highe

48. BLOOD PRESSURE Factors that can affect blood pressure: Age : Blood pressure tends to increase with age. Genetics : Family history of high blood pressure can increase your risk. Ethnicity: Some ethnic groups, like Black Africans and South Asians, have a higher risk. Lifestyle: Diet, exercise, smoking, alcohol consumption, and stress levels can all impact blood pressure. Other Medical Conditions: Conditions like chronic kidney disease, metabolic syndrome, and sleep apnea can also contribute to high blood pressure.

49. BLOOD PRESSURE Managing Blood Pressure: Lifestyle Changes: Maintaining a healthy weight, eating a balanced diet, exercising regularly, reducing salt intake, managing stress, and quitting smoking can help lower blood pressure. Medications : If lifestyle changes are not enough, your doctor may prescribe medication to manage high blood pressure

50. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM BRIEF INTRODUCTION OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM LYMPHNODES LYMPHORGANS LYMPH MOVEMENTS