Types of fruiting bodies in fungi

• The fruiting body is a specialized structure formed by the aggregation and differentiation of the vegetative mycelium, the assimilative phase in fungi.
• These are the structures in which or within which meiospores or mitospores or even some vegetative perennating structures like stromata and sclerotia are produced in fungi i.e., the site of reproduction.
• Fruiting body shows morphogenetic plasticity. All the cells of a fruiting body except for the meiocytes are totipotent.
• Morphogenesis is compartmentalised into different subroutines.. These separate subroutines can be recognised at the levels of organs (e.g., cap, stem, veil), tissues (e.g., hymenophore, pileipellis), cells (e.g., basidium, paraphysis, cystidium) and cellular components (e.g. uniform wall growth, growth in girth, growth in length, growth in wall thickness). They are distinct genetically and physiologically and may run in parallel or in sequence.
• Fruit body morphogenesis is effected by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.
• Positive autotropism is essential to cause hyphae to grow together for hyphal branches to cooperate and coordinate their activities, to create a multicellular fruit body.
• Fruiting bodies exhibit great diversity in morphological shapes, colors and sizes.

1. TYPES OF  FRUITING BODIES IN FUNGI Prepared by, Anakha Mariya Jacob 21PBOT2476

2. What is a Fungal Fruiting body? (https:teara.govt.nz/en/interactive/11546/fungal-fruiting-body)

3. Diversity of fruiting body

4. Fruiting bodies- an overview SPOROCARPS & SOROCARPS SORUS SPORANGIA, AETHALIA, PSEUDOAETHALIUM & PLASMODIOCARP CYSTOSORUS CLASS HEMIASCOMYCETES CLASS LOCULOASCOMYCETES CLASS PLECTOMYCETES CLASS LABOULBENIOMYCETES CLASS PYRENOMYCETES CLASS DISCOMYCETES ASCOSTROMA CLEISTOTHECIUM PERITHECIUM PERITHECIUM APOTHECIUM BASIDIOCARP SPORANGIUM, CONIDIA SPORANGIUM

5. FRUITING BODIES IN MYXOMYCOTA

6. 1. Class Acrasiomycetes 1.1  Protostelidae   Slender, tubular  stalk with single spherical spore- sporocarp 1.2  Acrasidae Branched chains of spores- sorocarp (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a7070f1b7f8354e5ff2b3df2cb749b7?rik=xbL%2bCrdypxjhKw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fupload.wikimedia.org%2fwikipedia%2fcommons%2fthumb%2f8%2f86%2fAcrasis_rosea_31095.jpg%2f440px-Acrasis_rosea_31095.jpg&ehk=1gKIF8WakxiMqooQwU8qLx2gisf%2fyXc7vOMgKw%2bXCm8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

7. Protostelidae A]   Proteostelium   mycophaga   B]   Nematostelium   ovatum   C]  Ceratiomyxella   tahitiensis   D]   Soliformovum   expulsum   E)   Soliformovum   irregularis F)   Cavostelium   apophysatum   G)   Schizoplasmodiopsis   amoeboidea   H)   Tychosporium   acutostipes I)   Clastostelium  recurvatum   J)   Protosporangium   articulatum   K)   Protosteliopsis   fimicola M)  Endostelium   zonatum .​​ (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Matthew-Brown-19/publication/26767597/figure/fig5/AS:669588517814294@1536653751757/Protosteloid-Fruiting-Bodies-Brightfield-light-micrographs-of-standing-protosteloid.ppm)

8. Dictyostelidae Dictyostelium discoideum D. purpureum D. mucoroides D. rosarium D . minutum

9. Polysphondylium  pallidum P.    violaceum Actyostelium sp. P .  tenuissimum D. aureo -stipes D . polycephalum (http://cosmos-kyoto.net/csm/photos2/DmL2s.jpeg)

10. Non- dictyostelid Sorocarps 5 types-  Amoebozoa Excavata Opisthokonta Rhizaria   Stramenopiles

11. Amoebozoa: Copromyxidae  A-E] Copromyxa protea. A] Complex branching sorocarp growing off of cow dung. B] Simple columnar sorocarp fruiting on an agar culture dish. C] Sorocysts (spores), with one empty sorocyst wall. D] Limax -type monopodial amoeba. E] Thick-walled sphaerocyst . F-G]  Copromyxella spicata , redrawn from Raper et al. (1977). f Delicate interlaced sorocarps . g Limax -type amoeba.

12. Excavata:Acrasidae   Complex sorocarp  A] Acrasis kona B] Acrasis rosea  C] Acrasis takarsan   D] Simple sorocarp of Acrasis helenhemmesae E] Sorocarp with globose sorus of '' Pocheina '' rosea F] Simple sorocarp of Allovahlkampfia spelaea G] Spore of Acrasis sp. with characteristic areolate structures (hila) H] Limax -type amoeba of Acrasis sp.  I] Cysts of Acrasis sp.  J] Spores of Allovahlkampfia spelaea with out the characteristic hila seen in Acrasis and Pocheina .  K] Limax -type amoeba of Allovahlkampfia spelaea

13. Opisthokonta : Fonticulaceae & Rhizaria : Guttulinopsidae A]  Sorocarp  of  Fonticula  alba. B-C] Amoebae of  Fonticula  alba with filose pseudopodia, amoebae are near a fungal hypha. D]Two  sorocarps  of  Guttulinopsis  vulgaris fruiting near each other off of cow dung.  E] Single sorocarp fruiting on cow dung. F] Spore of Guttulinopsis with a characteristic collapsed morphology.  G] Flabellate amoeba of Guttulinopsis vulgaris . H]  Sorocarp of Sorodiplophrys stercorea with a globose deep golden sorus.  I] Spores of Sorodiplophrys stercorea .   J]  Amoeba of Sorodiplophrys stercorea with two filose pesudopodial extensions extending from either pole. 

14. Stramenopiles : Sordiplophrys (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/296194815_Sorodiplophrys_stercorea_Another_Novel_Lineage_of_Sorocarpic_Multicellularity) Photomicrograhs of Sorodiplophrys stercorea   (A) Sorocarp   (B) Sorocysts (C and D) Amoeba (E) Amoebae showing anastomosing pseudopodia

15. Hydromyxomycetes Labryinthulales - sporangia containing numerous round cysts. Thraustochytridae - globose,  colourless sporangium without a basal bud.

16. Myxomycetes

17. Sporangium In heterothalic myxomycetes, 7 parts. Hypothallus : Membranous, transparent, composed of Calcium carbonate. May not be prominent in all species. Didymium squamulosum ( https://granadanatural.com/imagenes/mixomicetes_fichas/didymium_scuamulosum--tizna-wl1-dsc_0241.jpg) Arcyria denudata (https://img.fotocommunity.com/arcyria-denudata-60534c31-b535-41d8-a34e-fb7753af79eb.jpg?height=1080)

18. Stalk/ Stipe : Support & elevate the spores above the substratum. Hollow or filled with some material. Badhamia dubia (https://www.mycodb.fr/photos/Badhamia_dubia_2012_iegm_1.jpg) Comatricha tenerrima (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.627a8d1ad5f8c4095c3a45dad3861c2c?rik=%2bTWMRD276PS%2fzw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwaarnemingen.paddestoelenkartering.nl%2fsubpages%2ffotomap%2fComten15_1.jpg&ehk=Rh%2bgopMoDfi45DJ0f66aZT2znLpRXIZclQmB%2bdRviCw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

19. Comatricha nigra (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.763afb840d9ba34ca4998081cb38b2ca?rik=JgT8qPDfOZOBKQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmecklenburg-vorpommern.pilze-deutschland.de%2fmedia%2fCACHE%2fimages%2f48c37f7f03a79fa40e5d1e7c82e8304b.jpg&ehk=vvxwXEU33bAU8D59v2%2f1mo5egF1bw29UKA2jfdpb5Fo%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://myxomycetes.net/content/Species%20galleries-M-T/Section-3/Stemonitis%20flavogenita/Stemonitis%20flavogenita_03.jpg) S. flavogenita (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.9c82ce46de6a6407acdf5af708b2ef5d?rik=oHSryerNj1k2Dg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmyxomycetes.net%2fcontent%2fSpecies+galleries-M-T%2fSection-3%2fStemonitis+herbatica%2fStemonitis+herbatica_02.jpg&ehk=o8)Vc7%2b5FOBWy%2b9%2bHwH%2fkrb0glCRLbS9wLAUKwJD1T2c%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0 Stemonitis   herbatica Columella : Extension of stalk into the sporangium. May serve as a supporting structure for the capillitium.

20. Pseudocolumella : Ressemble  columella but do not attach to the stalk. Found only in the Order Physarales .. (https://live.staticflickr.com/713/22709487042_1234a969f6.jpg) Craterium leucocephalum

21. Capillitium : System of threadlike elements found within the spore mass of fruiting body.        Badhamioid capillitium & Physaroid capillitium. (https://medcraveonline.com/JBMOA/images/JBMOA-07-00260-g008.png) Hemitrichia   montana (https://i.ytimg.com/vi/p3goJl_grFU/maxresdefault.jpg) Fuligo septica Click to add text Willkommlangea reticulata

22. Lycogala epidendrum Pseudocapillitium : Ocuur in pseudoaethalia and aethalia of produced by some Liceales . Individual structures are uniform.       Highly variable in size & shape. (https://ultimate-mushroom.com/uploads/posts/2020-10/1602918879_lycogala-epidendrum-2.jpg) Amaurochaete atra (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.9aba7b6e7186a58fa13e90798dcc15fe?rik=Knwcp%2faJHjnl4g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmyxomycetes.net%2fcontent%2fSpecies-galleries-A-C%2fsection-1%2fAmaurochaete+atra%2fAmaurochaete+atra_101.jpg&ehk=lb7trj3qd8QMajBs7%2bxZlQS8hJYGw71TGcy4A41TAa8%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

23. Spores: microscopic, haploid       Mostly spherical       Size and colour varying      Free or aggregated into clusters     Asperulate , verrucose, echinate and reticulate     In Badhamia  sp. and Dianema corticatum spore balls are present. Dianema depressum (https://www.naturamediterraneo.com/Public/data9/Zissis%20Antonopoulos/201621420554_2.jpg) Physarum   pusillum (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6363d13f7b19d80d070f27b0349c19d5?rik=Igb3Lcw%2bO8mg2g&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.hiddenforest.co.nz%2fslime%2ffamily%2fphysaraceae%2fimages%2fphysa17s.jpg&ehk=4iEP%2bjjLTPVIX1prvUXP3j4EOPdngt1dmWIreNVlWD4%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.e11e9b321df5d4b3d1777ca1c2860354?rik=Y%2fsz8IhgbqpqiQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmycologie.gmv.pagesperso-orange.fr%2fPHOTOS%2fMyxomycetes%2fMyxomycetes_tableau%2fimages_Myxomycetes%2fimages%2fstemonitis-axifera-spores.jpg&ehk=gBscxBcogjLNchV9ViCyaIpLKs86f057w1u6UiQScIc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Stemonitis sp.

24. Peridium : Encloses the spores in the endosporous myxomycetes. Sometimes brilliantly coloured   Some irridescent or infused with Calcium carbonate Peridium Species Single layered & persistent Perichaena microspora Double layered & persistent P. depressa Triple layered & persistent Physarum   bogoriense Membranous & evanescent Macbrideola , Stemonitis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4ac2047cd5213fee75f35fef97d48e00?rik=weV%2bmhdLsp3%2bqw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.discoverlife.org%2fIM%2fI_UARK%2f0004%2f320%2fPerichaena_microspora%2cI_UARK403.jpg&ehk=Iww4UfuTRKZdcZtTWDLUGpz19aRnAW2nDKhfYEygnWg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Perichaena microspora Perichaena   depress a (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.e3f385ffd3c063745edb8ef7fcaa6d5a?rik=nlKax9PVnMYqCA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.natur.vulkanland.at%2fdb%2fuploads%2f_thumbnails%2f700%2f16052013094836_420_art_521_per+depressa+5427+4+-+kopie.jpg&ehk=jev0muar%2fewCuJ%2bN%2b1YxA08vdc%2bzK1w0lKU8HYvqeks%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://myxomycetes.net/content/Species%20galleries-D-L/section-1/Diderma%20radiatum%20(kalkrosett)/Diderma%20radiatum_06.jpg) Diderma radiatum

25. Cortex: Thick covering surrounding the mass of spores in aethalia.       May be calcareous Arcyria minuta (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.8b55f1ceb588040469fd22a650a03814?rik=NyubgM5PMxdvPw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.argazkik.com%2fGaleriak%2fMixoak%2fArgazkiak%2fArcyria+minuta1.jpg&ehk=2BrUv0MIboDEV1mZbPYh%2bRBw9HnJksi0c9bFexCkkXg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Cribraria  piriformis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a0b171d1d0a0fc7efbc5daea032fb362?rik=9AeywzkAoXUfZg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmyxomycetes.net%2fcontent%2fSpecies-galleries-A-C%2fSection-4%2fCribraria+piriformis%2fCribraria+piriformis_03.jpg&ehk=Atvociy5qUBNMFne14Xyj9ylb8fSqNCY8s%2bisvW0MJw%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

26. 2. Plasmodiocarp Forms a network over the substratum Sessile Retains the shape of plasmodium at the time of fruiting. Hypothallus, peridium and capillitia present. Hemitrichia serpula (https://img.fotocommunity.com/hemitrichia-serpula-9f138958-d71c-4e36-b89e-e8deebf78a6b.jpg?height=1080)

27. Click to add text 3. Aethalia Mass of fused sporangia. Massive, generally cushion     shaped. Entire body is enclosed in    peridium. Shows no traces of internal     Sporangial walls. Hypothallus, peridial cortex, capillita & pseudocapillitia present Lycogala epidendrum Reticularia lycoperdon (https://live.staticflickr.com/2942/33367012764_19fc187916_b.jpg) (https://www.naturephoto-cz.com/photos/maly/lycogala-epidendrum-xxx376.jpg)

28. 4. Pseudoaethalia Sporangia crowded together but not fuses. Individual sporangia are  clearaly visible. Formed on common hypothallus. Tubifera   corymbosa T. vanderheuliae (https://sarahlloydmyxos.files.wordpress.com/2019/08/tubifera-vanderheuliae-0423.jpg)

29. 5. Exosporous Produces spores on the surface of sporophores. In sporophores amorphous vacuolated material form pillar like to coralloid structures on which spores are borne.  (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7069b19dbb99ed3bc6e9a809be26ec9a?rik=q9epz93b%2fnlcbg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fmushroomobserver.org%2fimages%2forig%2f409591.jpg&ehk=lVuORV9D%2bJFjufVb0YO2pgyzN4kLARSRzEF1zaJZUy8%3d&risl=1&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Ceratiomyxa fruiticulosa

30. 3  Subclasses of Myxomycetes Ceratiomyxomycetidae Myxogastromycetidae Stemonitomycetidae Spores borne singly at the tips of sporophores Sporophore development  subhypothallic Peridium continuous with the stalk and hypothallus. Spores pallid, bright-  coloured , ferruginous Sporophore development  epihypothallic  Spores violet-brown, lilac, ferruginous or pallid Lime if present absent on capillitium

31. PLASMODIOPHOROMYCETES Sporosorous / cystosorus Contain resting spores Remain dormant for 8 years. Resting spores are haploid. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Hanna_Friberg/publication/30072729/figure/download/fig1/AS:309953911902208@1450910179105/SEM-photo-of-Plasmodiophora-brassicae-resting-spores-in-infected-roots-of-Brassica-rapa.png)

32. FRUITING BODIES IN DIVISION EUMYCOTA

33. SUBDIVISION MASTIGOMYCOTINA Divided into 3 classes- Chytridiomycetes , Hyphochytridiomycetes , oomycetes CHYTRIDIOMYCETES Two types of sporangia- mitosporangia & meiosporangia Mitosporangia / Zoosporangia              Thin walled, colourless , multinucleate              Contain diploid nuclei             Produce opisthocont zoospore/ mitozoospore                (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.xO_gqy7GI-7FIkHt8eSf2AHaJm?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

34. Meiosporangium Thick walled and pitted Reddish brown in colour Multinucleate, diploid contents Resting/ resistant sporangia Uniflagellate, uninucleate, haploid,  opisthocont zoospores, slightly smaller than the mitozoospores - meiozoospores / gonozoospores . (https://live.staticflickr.com/7420/10680489734_7386039b9c_b.jpg) (https://gd.eppo.int/media/data/taxon/S/SYNCEN/pics/1024x0/1585.jpg)

35. 2. OOMYCETES Classified into 4 orders:  Saprolegniales - sporangia producing zoospores Peronosporales- Sporangia under wet conditions produce zoospores        Under dry conditions,

36. Morphotaxonomic and phylogenetic analysis of Saprolegnia ferax from India - Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Saprolegnia-ferax-NFCCI-4174-A-Colonies-on-incubated-natural-substrate-showing_fig1_326347352 [accessed 9 Jan, 2022] Saprolengia sp.   A) A branched zoosporangium. B) Encysted zoospores within sporangium producing germ tubes, E) Numerous zoosporangia. F) Branched, cylindrical and clavate, hyaline zoosporangia. G) Cylindrical, solitary zoosporangium. H) Simple filamentous zoosporangium with dispersed encysted zoospores. . Pythium sp. (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.9f3efa0623c321dab1675427dc765667?rik=jgldt%2fikCplCZQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.zor.zut.edu.pl%2fSkrypt-web%2fimages%2fPythium-sporangia-r_jpg.jpg&ehk=oJL87ByjTbe9vioscC9cVCi9he14RIDu25BErNJZ9es%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1) Sclerospora sp. (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336747917/figure/fig4/AS:817222696054786@1571852482998/Confocal-laser-scanning-microscopy-of-sporulation-of-Sclerospora-graminicola-showing.jpg)

37. (https://www.sciencesource.com/Doc/TR1_WATERMARKED/8/2/7/6/SS2820252.jpg?d63644868212) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6c8dbe2862e4f32256060499d92a74f1?rik=5kaFNw4m2K50FQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.discoverlife.org%2fmp%2f20p%3fimg%3dI_MWS76147%26res%3dmx&ehk=x11LVqZ5OywsKnsZRYOgjUYDOADwF3o%2b%2f5LK3kv78gg%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://gd.eppo.int/media/data/taxon/P/PLASHA/pics/1024x0/3834.jpg) Albugo sp. Pernospora sp. Plasmopara halstedii (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kurt_Mendgen/publication/7415711/figure/fig1/AS:930242285805568@1598798452061/3-Sporangia-of-Pythium-phragmitis-consisting-of-irregularly-lobulate-inflated.ppm) Pythium phragmitis

38. SUBDIVISION ZYGOMYCOTINA Divided into 2 classes- Zygomycetes, Trichomycetes Zygomycetes: Sporangiola , conidia & merosporangia https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338242269/figure/fig2/AS:841982318493696@1577755636264/Morphology-of-Mucor-abundans-NNIBRFG6649-A-Colony-on-potato-dextrose-agar-B-D.jpg Mucor heterogamus Mucor mucedo (https://www.123pilzsuche.de/daten/details/Murcor_mucedo.jpg)

39. (https://www.123pilzsuche.de/daten/details/Murcor_mucedo.jpg Rhizopus microsporus (https://www.natur.cuni.cz/biologie/botanika/veda-a-vyzkum/atlas-zygomycetu/seznam/absidia-glauca-hagem/absidia-glauca-ccf-2842-vetveni/@@images/51f4392d-2c45-446f-9baa-6d0e9a96576c.jpeg) Absidia glauca Syzygites sp. (https://zygomycetes.org/images/224.jpg) Pilobolus klienni (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.1be03d4f5d7e4313a0ce54939b57a3b0?rik=Sz%2bp0alQZa1zrg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.mykologie.net%2fimages%2fhouby2%2fPilobulus+kleinii2.jpg&ehk=UckbzjDERmqHTs%2fGro9pcINlzAFZLO4T%2b2s0e0HxA3k%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

40. Pilaria anomala (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.1873c2223436f0b998411c4c0c8b1a33?rik=6NCAsMxmA7dCCw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.smnf.fr%2fwp-content%2fPhotos_SMNF%2fPhotos_SMNF_P%2fPhotos_P3%2fPilaira_anomala_PA1.jpg&ehk=nHoasaWy%2bKR%2bH1hS6ADe1tk2vk3Za82K8EJ06QyTIwE%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Thamnidium elegans (https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10214/5594/Thamnidium_elegans_lateral_sporangioles.jpg?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (https://www.natur.cuni.cz/biologie/botanika/veda-a-vyzkum/atlas-zygomycetu/seznam/chaetocladium-brefeldii-tiegh.-g.-le-monn/chaetocladium-brefeldii-ccf-3856-celkovy-pohled/image) Chaetocladium brefeldii Syncephalastrum racemosum (https://images.fineartamerica.com/images-medium-large-5/3-syncephalastrum-racemosum-fungal-pathogen-dennis-kunkel-microscopyscience-photo-library.jpg)

41. Choanephora cucurbitarium (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.6fe31dd5ca2a32d5b43f55cba5cfebb0?rik=kALpmBIHXfQQtQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fzygomycetes.org%2fimages%2f29.jpg&ehk=gGc9smJ6gyulThHM3EnEjST5O4%2bLvS5i5avXorGvrZM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Cunninghamella   bertholletiae (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4c345d6b0e035595a7f50f7e4f89418b?rik=x%2bcTzVTBAUuPpg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f3.bp.blogspot.com%2f-FrHUUYXlFoQ%2fVH9raspwVOI%2fAAAAAAAAESo%2fRdfOMLYLNLE%2fs1600%2fPA130040.JPG&ehk=%2fgoUE0UQkJjPTHfFIbwN3wVH5)XTyDWHaSazd3zkMh9M%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0 Mortierella sp. (https://www.bcrc.firdi.org.tw/fungi/showImage.jsp?id=IM201505260356) (https://drfungus.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/basi1_l1.jpg) Endomophthora coronata (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ba028d6a6c3937de83997ee210d8a22f?rik=w4QRvAW2oKpNOQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fc1.staticflickr.com%2f5%2f4093%2f4879522298_4a4f737738_n.jpg&ehk=NZF6N3NqWPLKb3PwZxGXsuyzwQWNdaOYwSDtYIl9LoM%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

42. SUBDIVISION ASCOMYCOTINA Ascocarps except in Hemiascomycetes . Divided into 6 classes Class Ascocarp Hemiascomycetes No ascocarp Loculoascomycetes ascostroma Plectomycetes cleistothecium Laboulbeniomycetes perithecium Pyrenomycetes perithecium Discomycetes Apothecium (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.31c81fdd6dcf03e42c58977526448f4e?rik=l7w0saXlVXrDpA&riu=http%3a%2f%2f1.bp.blogspot.com%2f-A4w209ljL5M%2fTutErYmcU-I%2fAAAAAAAAARs%2fGaEmLvwjdsc%2fs1600%2fAscomycetes.jpg&ehk=hL5JaJvXqnU%2bGXeHm3GVndKv6kw%2bAbA1WRmMHD6Gnrk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

43. 1. Plectomycetes Cleistothecium Ascocarps are rudimentary Erysiphales -One to several club shaped asci disharge ascospores violently Eurotiales - Ascocarps variable in form. Asci are small & globose. Ascospores not discharged violently (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a826bf1fd746ff6aa0de54f3c91175e?rik=gG123WZr0Nofyg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fbotit.botany.wisc.edu%2fResources%2fToms+Fungi%2fAscomycota%2fPlectomycetes%2fErysiphe_cleistothecium_I_tjv.jpg&ehk=X19Oke%2f9%2fmdlJzhtB42oLee4SkqyEykHWekbKOz%2fMvk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1)

44. Erysiphales Cleistothecia are brown, globose without ostiole Contain one to several asci Discharge spores explosively Peridium- 4-6 layered, darkly pigmented Immmature ascocarp, centrum pseudoparenchymatous Receptive hyphae,  thickwalled appendages present.

45. Erysiphae graminis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4a826bf1fd746ff6aa0de54f3c91175e?rik=gG123WZr0Nofyg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fbotit.botany.wisc.edu%2fResources%2fToms+Fungi%2fAscomycota%2fPlectomycetes%2fErysiphe_cleistothecium_I_tjv.jpg&ehk=X19Oke%2f9%2fmdlJzhtB42oLee4SkqyEykHWekbKOz%2fMvk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1) (https://svampe.databasen.org/uploads/2018-9321620_HktK0NT8X.JPG) E. polygonii E. flexuso (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.7K-bJlOvrmyS37gD9f-kYgAAAA?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) Shaerotheca sp. (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.c3accfac003678b7749161a7b88342bf?rik=e%2bCC7LN2H33EFw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fweb2.mendelu.cz%2faf_291_projekty2%2fvseo%2ffiles%2f9%2f2297.jpg&ehk=bguMP5V2CfK2vvWEO%2fFCEFnh4IqQqqIX3DnOj1w4CNU%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

46. Podoshaera clandestina (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.282e88c32d39a613d3ffe8895dae0646?rik=yMvsVxzeQhq5JQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.outerhebridesfungi.co.uk%2fimages%2fspecies%2fPodosphaera+clandestina+17.jpg&ehk=Gch9pIeKnpcRgiIS5zSPGtKqiHX21gNEkhLIxH%2bSlbk%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Phyllactinia guttata (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.UvuMxuhG3g0_Rt9lo6dVUgHaE8?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

47. Eurotiales Gymnoascaceae  & Eurotiaceae Gymnoascaceae : Partially enclosed by peridium. Lack ostioles and paraphyses. Asci sessile, thin-walled, quickly     evanescent. Gymnothecium in Gymnoascus sp. (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7b5bff6c799f3663841c85a12cf6242d?rik=Q3%2fAPlcZfq8bxw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fistudy.pk%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f11%2fgymnothecium.jpg&ehk=sMmhVE%2bG%2b997QRmHnFCRhzRjioufWlgmatWU0foUw3c%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

48. Eurotiaceae Perfect state and imperfect state fruiting bodies are seen. Byssochlamys fulva . a. Conidiophores; b. conidia; c. asci and ascospores. — Byssochlamys nivea . d. Conidiophores; e. conidia; f. ascospores. — Byssochlamys verrucosa . g, h. Conidiophores and conidia; i . asci and ascospores (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jos-Houbraken/publication/41669957/figure/fig8/AS:202806708445196@1425364295560/Byssochlamys-fulva-a-Conidiophores-b-conidia-c-asci-and-ascospores-Byssochlamys.png) (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Joao-Siqueira-2/publication/320988664/figure/fig2/AS:716475170054149@1547832400597/Morphological-features-of-Aspergillus-microperforatus-sp-nov-UTHSCSA-DI16-407.jpg) Aspergillus microperforatus - k, l, ascoma; m, n, asci; o, p, ascospores; q, r, s, conidial heads; t, u, conidia. 

49. Eurotium repens ( Aspergillus repens anamorfo ) and Eurotium rubrum (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Antonio_Santos42/publication/275406642/figure/fig4/AS:391987644649478@1470468545943/Figura-6-Eurotium-repens-Aspergillus-repens-anamorfo-y-de-Eurotium-rubrum.png) (http://www.ambmuggia.it/forum/uploads/post-3-1095168015.jpg) E. repens (http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-PwmMNoFI7tY/UnJ8cCil2rI/AAAAAAAAI7k/D1_cAqJSaSk/s400/08-+E_herbariorum+400X.jpg) Eurotium herbariorum (https://d3i71xaburhd42.cloudfront.net/4fdd6fd61421e3cb877060577a944cecd3cd1b28/9-Figure2-1.png) Emericella nidulans

50. Penicillium purpurogenum (https://irp-cdn.multiscreensite.com/e37bab9d/dms3rep/multi/tablet/Penicillium_purpurogenum-640x440.dm.crop_0_0_640_440_EjdM.jpg) Asexual form ( Penicillium dangeardii ), sexual form ( Talaromyces flavus ): ascocarp and asci containing ascospores (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ali-Reza-Niazmand/publication/274374450/figure/fig4/AS:294840823762954@1447306938229/Asexual-form-Penicillium-dangeardii-sexual-form-Talaromyces-flavus-ascocarp-and.png)

51. 2.  Pyrenomycetes Perfect state fruiting body- Perithecium & imperfect state fruiting body- conidia Ostiole, lined by periphyses Occur singly or in clustered on or within stroma. Have unitunicate asci. (https://live.staticflickr.com/3261/2404297009_4a5b021010_b.jpg)

52. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Thomas-Harrington/publication/7182802/figure/fig5/AS:394501769187334@1471067959765/25-Ceratocystis-populicola-17-Perithecium-18-Ostiolar-hyphae-19-Ascospores-20.png) Ceratocystis populicola . 17. Perithecium. 18. Ostiolar hyphae. 19. Ascospores. 20. Flask-shaped endoconidiophore and cylindrical endoconidia . 21. Cylindrical and doliiform endoconidia . 22. Wide-mouth endoconidiophore with emerging doliiform endoconidia . 23. melanized doliiform endoconidia , most mature conidium at right. 24. Melanized doliiform endoconidia attached to wide-mouth endoconidiophore . 25. Aleurioconidium https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Douglas-Mcnew/publication/318833506/figure/fig5/AS:670383753682957@1536843350565/e-Perithecia-ascospores-and-conidia-of-Ceratocystis-uchidae-ex-holotype-C1714-CBS.png Ceratocystis uchidae (ex-holotype, C1714, CBS 115164). A: Perithecium. B: Pyriform base of perithecium with swelling at perithecial neck. C: Divergent ostiolar hyphae with ascospores emerging through the mouth of the neck. D: Hat-shaped ascospores in side and top view. E: Deep-seated phialide on a short conidiophore producing cylindrical conidia. F: Chain of cylindrical conidia. G: Chain of thick-walled, pigmented conidia ( aleurioconidia ) produced basipetally from a conidiogenous cell. 

53. Podospora appendiculata . (A) Perithecium (bar = 150 μm ), (B) rigid, hyaline-tipped perithecial hairs (bar = 10 μm ). Podospora australis. (C) Ascus with four mature ascospores (bar = 25 μm ). Podospora communis . (D) Perithecium (bar = 100 μm ), (E) mature ascus (bar = 10 μm ), (F) ascospore (bar = 12.5 μm ). Podospora curvicolla . (G) Ascospore (bar = 7.5 μm ), (H) perithecium (bar = 100 μm ), (I) immature ascus (bar = 35 μm ), (J) mature ascus (bar = 35 μm ).  (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Roger-Melo/publication/282505555/figure/fig1/AS:280872990330882@1443976747438/Podospora-appendiculata-A-Perithecium-bar-150-mm-B-rigid-hyaline-tipped.png) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.64a77c9bde9a6e329d8124ffe2b736f4?rik=3abg8%2fjmsp9DGA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fclassconnection.s3.amazonaws.com%2f485%2fflashcards%2f1275485%2fjpg%2fsordaria_(lab01359497220240.jpg&ehk=0XU9ciOov08qjShjwGUh%2bW8desgNdaPfKIGxuYpaw58%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=00 Neurospora sp. Chaetomium globosum  A. Colony on CMA after seven days, B. Mature perithecium, C. Ascomatal hairs, D, E. Asci, F. Ascospores. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Shiva-Aaghdam/publication/319772371/figure/fig3/AS:538903040806912@1505495905896/Chaetomium-globosum-isolate-SA13-A-Colony-on-CMA-after-seven-days-B-Mature.png)

54. (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.1eb511241fa60f5bd1b16bea9a3271f9?rik=nTBt%2blkRcT8AlA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fbotit.botany.wisc.edu%2ftoms_fungi%2fimages%2fxypericl.jpg&ehk=nUaa43WndAmWNpAOjV3prxrc6fDVMHklTEScMlYCtXc%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Xylaria  polymorpha Daldinia pyrenaica : A. stromatal habit, B. Stroma in longitudinal section showing internal concentric zones and perithecial layer, C. Perithecial layer, D. Stromatal surface, with stromatal pigments in 10% KOH, E. Ascus with an amyloid apical ring, F. Ascospores in 10% KOH, showing dehiscing perispore, G. Ascospores in water with germ-slits (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mohammad-Javad-Pourmoghaddam/publication/303790622/figure/fig4/AS:369139836309507@1465021203817/Daldinia-pyrenaica-A-stromatal-habit-B-Stroma-in-longitudinal-section-showing.png)

55. (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Priscila-Chaverri/publication/225290850/figure/fig23/AS:268035143499776@1440915966386/Nectria-nigrescens-on-natural-substrata-A-teleomorph-and-anamorph-B-F-teleomorph-G-T.png) Nectria nigrescens A. Perithecia (black arrows) and astipitate sporodochia (white arrows) on natural substrata; B. Perithecia on natural substrata; C. Median section of perithecia; D. Median section of perithecial wall; E. Ascus; F. Ascospores; G–K. Long and short stipitate sporodochia; L. Median section of long stipitate sporodochium; M. Edge of long stipitate sporodochium; N. Median section of short stipitate sporodochium; O. Edge of short stipitate sporodochium; P–S. Acropleurogenous conidiophores and acropleurogenously developing phialides on natural substrata; T. Conidia on natural substrata.  (https://i.pinimg.com/736x/23/6d/7b/236d7b13ba01cabeedb9322949a7ddaa--wicked-plants.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.46d5783dde1bcafd281ced76f85dca14?rik=26JyGwapdpUNtA&riu=http%3a%2f%2fpflanzenkrankheiten.ch%2fimages%2ffuttergraeser%2fClaviceps_purpurea%2fHauptfruchtform%2fbecssg_images%2fC_Claviceps_purpurea_523_348_95.jpg&ehk=zrEd%2fo%2fwkbuGczcJ2okRkYFVRenNbVawqy3%2fj%2bZ4vp4%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0&sres=1&sresct=1) Claviceps purpurea

56. https://img.fotocommunity.com/cordyceps-militaris-4052ceec-f226-47a2-986e-1d576a938ede.jpg?height=1080 Cordyceps militaris (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.7654da9c8dc376440e798c0c08a66752?rik=Y%2bUVnotUXOLiwQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.amfb.eu%2fMyco%2fMicromycetes%2fPagesAscos%2fImagesAscos%2fEpichloe-typhinaPerithecesML.jpg&ehk=nGc0Bdn%2fDGqNj07WQOC9TOLgmHzdhK1eBaTzfIt2t8I%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Epichloe typhina (https://www.pharmanatur.com/Mycologie/Clavicipitaceae/Epichloe%20typhina%203.jpg)

57. 3. Discomycetes Apothecium Cup-shaped/ saucer-shaped Hymenium usually freely exposed, except in hypogaeous Discomycetes

58. Apothecium of Sclerotinia sulcata (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carmen-Puia/publication/268816084/figure/fig2/AS:392247901212674@1470530595253/The-Botrytis-cinerea-Pers-sporulation-conidiophores-and-conidia_Q640.jpg) (https://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/photos/large/Sclerotinia_sulcata_MGW1580a.jpg) Botrytis cinerea Cladonia pyxidata (https://live.staticflickr.com/2830/33509386894_7f172348fa_b.jpg) Ascobolus carbonarius (https://www.biolib.cz/IMG/GAL/138704.jpg)

59. Hypogaeous Discomycetes Form subterranean fruit bodies Fruit bodies have a strong     smell and  flavour . Outer peridium, gleba & veins Tuber rufum (https://www.trufamania.com/trufas/Tuber%20rufum04.jpg) Elaphomyces granulatus (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.cafc8d4db28bc5156cc3258734e410c6?rik=7WK9BYqOl%2fRWcg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fgribi.net.ua%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2016%2f12%2fElaphomyces-granulatus1.jpg&ehk=yZeVdbaXuGKkpaYXC9RsoWaEYQ7eLcEaJGeKNxMZJNA%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

60. 4. Loculoascomycetes Ascostroma / Pseudothecia Ascus bitunicate Ascomata on host substrate.  b . Close up of ascoma . c  . Section of ascoma.  d . Close up of the peridium.  e . Cellular, hyaline, septate, broad pseudoparaphyses .   f-h.  Asci with short, broad pedicel bearing 8 ascospores   i -l . Mature and immature ascospores with mucilaginous sheath.  Stemphylium   sp. m-p . Conidiophores with pale to mid dark or olivaceous brown, smooth conidia.  (https://www.facesoffungi.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Fig.-22-Pleospora-herbarum-.jpg) Pleospora sp. Sporormia   fimetaria (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.d9IcamCV1aLH6dLXxbGeMAHaFj?pid=ImgDet&rs=1)

61. SUBDIVISION BASIDIOMYCOTINA Basidiocarp Spores exogenous on sterigmata Typically 4 spores in a basidium Holobasidium , tuning fork type of basidium & Heterobasidium / Phragmobasidium Basidiocarps absent in Teliomycetes .

62. 1. Teliomycetes Thick walled teliospore and metabasidium give rise to 4 or more sporidia Uredinales- 4 sporidia formed on metabasidium     Ustilaginales - indefinite sporidia Ustilago sp. (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/fb/47/21/fb47213cfa2b50f0ed4929a4e71a0357.jpg) Tilletia   puccinelliae (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Xiaodong-Bao-3/publication/44650579/figure/fig3/AS:601760041295879@1520482182411/Tilletia-puccinelliae-WSP-71469-holotype-a-Teliospores-plane-view-b-Teliospores.png)

63. 2. Hymenomycetes Toadstools, bracket fungi, jelly clubs etc. Basidiocarp gymnocarpous or semiangiocarpous Holobasidiomycetidae  &  Phragmobasidiomycetidae (https://ultimate-mushroom.com/uploads/posts/2020-10/1601544907_agaricus-arvensis-3.jpg) (https://atrium.lib.uoguelph.ca/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10214/6837/Agaricus_micrograph_wedge_shaped_gill.jpg?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) (https://www.inds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/MSFU0226_tn.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.4e32ddec1fcce9d765303519a2521ae8?rik=5WqbXp1yzkIyNA&riu=http%3a%2f%2finstruct.uwo.ca%2fbiology%2fkim%2fImage35.gif&ehk=%2fk%2fsMQrAIQ%2fI1iDmd6GuRmRAPXLB90RA2czHNCFl1FE%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

64. Clavaria vermicularis Polyporus squamosus (https://www.biolib.cz/IMG/GAL/BIG/116183.jpg) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.baa3ba062e02e1fdfe7609caafbb5cf6?rik=9wZBNj8VnfABYw&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.mycofiel.nl%2fdetail%2fclavaria+vermicularis01.jpg&ehk=hwe03ljxhbDC0qKdSLSaZn1Ak%2b8iBUDreK8hQ0OI4wY%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Dacrymyces chrysopermus (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.ef29d1bd3f1c47ba5680aac4360c99ec?rik=f9SRAz5uaDvnRg&riu=http%3a%2f%2f10000thingsofthepnw.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2021%2f01%2f3B7A65D9-26FE-44BC-8257-A4AFA44D484A-scaled.jpeg&ehk=LVET%2fxny%2bB1tx4AJ%2furtrnWquqhDoGJBShoqKF99d0g%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Russula ochroleuca (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.acb8f7a84532ef946a04669d2a217ba2?rik=aLf1AR7ocvZDEg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwikigrib.ru%2fimg-gribs%2fsyroejka-ohristaya%2fRussula-ochroleuca_03.jpg&ehk=WlobuNnGNqDs%2fpw%2bvp%2fIi8PWHIviAxxq%2bkUX90gprf4%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

65. Phragmobasidiomycetidae (https://live.staticflickr.com/1314/1037749838_ddfffde602_b.jpg) Tremella frondosa Auricularia auricula (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.631d361b95ebe8710e57eb7ce76bfa7b?rik=o6kByclKJLJ0zg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.bio-foto.com%2falbums%2fhouby%2fAuricularia-auricula-judae-0040.jpg&ehk=9wt%2f%2bNHcukoJvM17tWeNEnIePQnhZPrnY7gX64PkA0Q%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0)

66. 3. Gasteromycetes Produce statismospores . Basidiocarp typically angiocarpous Holobasidia (https://live.staticflickr.com/5764/23755637259_607fd38f4a_b.jpg) Lycoperdon pyriforme Cyathus striatus (https://mushroomobserver.org/images/1280/1072106.jpg)

67. Calvatia cyathiformis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.a97ccf4dfd2e3792918a1fb398f3115a?rik=beQ2R%2fcEb3p0Fg&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.mushroomexpert.com%2fimages%2fkuo2%2fcalvatia_cyathiformis_02.jpg&ehk=iMlEZ%2feNy7kvxdcSJby3y8gaGcZvHofpB0lCzRSKHKA%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) Geastrum sp. Scleroderma verrucosum (https://wikigrib.ru/img-gribs/lozhnodozhdevik-borodavchatyj/Scleroderma-verrucosum-01.jpg) Phallus impudicus (https://i.pinimg.com/originals/02/fe/04/02fe04baea0f124b11494fca1c5f52a4.jpg)

68. SUBDIVISION DEUTEROMYCOTINA Imperfect state fruiting bodies- conidia Vary in complexity Macronematous, Micronematous,  mononematous & synnematous Colour of the conidiophore and conidia are important in classification Hyphomycetes- conidiophores bearing conidia Coelomycetes- spores in pycnidia or acervuli

69. Doratomyces stemonitis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.QkDqs7GhSADq3w1RxBMsHwHaE7?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) Tubercularia vulgaris (https://live.staticflickr.com/8239/8561987065_7e5514f7c0_c.jpg) Phoma betae (Https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Deanna_Sutton/publication/13302312/figure/fig6/AS:282000859648004@1444245652187/Phoma-species-showing-thin-walled-pycnidia-as-well-as-an-alternari-oid-intercalary.png) Colletotrichum deformis (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Abdul_Rehman29/publication/267800057/figure/download/fig4/AS:670484039491593@1536867260386/a-A-group-of-acervuli-of-Colletotrichum-dematium-isolated-from-statice-infected-plants.png)

70. Nectria cinnabaria Colletotrichum graminicola Conidia of Helicoon rhiconis (https://th.bing.com/th/id/OIP.XgJxnR1pH1osoX4_i0BrcAHaHX?pid=ImgDet&rs=1) (https://th.bing.com/th/id/R.dd9f7971f501994efe26f3626e7232fd?rik=sQX2RL4TvJSPWQ&riu=http%3a%2f%2fwww.mykoweb.com%2fCAF%2fphotos%2flarge%2fNectria_cinnabarina(mgw-01).jpg&ehk=TqOvIR4IYIiB2QXyIdisYuf1hxSY0tFnJM0oZxo3qz4%3d&risl=&pid=ImgRaw&r=0) (https://bugwoodcloud.org/images/768x512/1570307.jpg)

71. References Ursula Kües , Weeradej Khonsuntia , and Shanta Subba. "Complex Fungi." Fungal biology reviews , v. 32,.4 pp. 205-218. doi : 10.1016/j.fbr.2018.08.001 Halbwachs , Hans & Simmel, Josef & Bässler , Claus. (2016). Tales and mysteries of fungal fruiting: How morphological and physiological traits affect a pileate lifestyle. Fungal Biology Reviews. 30. 36-61. 10.1016/j.fbr.2016.04.002. "Fruiting bodies." American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. 2011. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company 2 Jan. 2022 https://www.thefreedictionary.com/Fruiting+bodies Alexopoulos, C. J, Mims, C. W & Blackwell, M. Introductory Mycology.fourth edition., Wiley, 2014. Mehrotra, R.S & Aneja, K. R. An Introduction to Mycology. Wiley Eastern Limited, 1990. Webster, John. Introduction to fungi. Second Edition.Cambridge University Press, 1999. Sharma, O.P. Textbook of Fungi. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 1989. Dube, H. C. An Introduction to Fungi. Second Revised Edition. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd, 1990. Vashishta, B.R & Sinha, A. K. Botany for Degree Students. S. Chand & Company Pvt Ltd, 2014. Moore, David & Gange, Alan & Gange, Edward & Boddy, Lynne. (2008). Chapter 5 Fruit bodies: Their production and development in relation to environment. British Mycological Society Symposia Series. 28. 79-103. 10.1016/S0275-0287(08)80007-0. Shadwick, Lora & Spiegel, Frederick & Shadwick, John & Brown, Matthew & Silberman, Jeffrey. (2009). Eumycetozoa = Amoebozoa? SSUrDNA Phylogeny of Protosteloid Slime Molds and Its Significance for the Amoebozoan Supergroup. PloS one. 4. e6754. 10.1371/journal.pone.0006754.

72. Thankyou