unit 2 Input Mangement and plant protection measures.pptx

In organic farming, input management and plant protection are centered around sustainability, the use of natural resources, and maintaining ecological balance. Here's an overview of how input management and plant protection are handled:

1. Input Management in Organic Farming:
Organic farming uses inputs that are sustainable and natural, focusing on building soil fertility and promoting plant health without relying on synthetic chemicals. The main inputs include:

A. Soil Fertility Management:
Organic Fertilizers: Compost, green manure, animal manure, bone meal, and other natural fertilizers are used to enrich the soil with nutrients.
Crop Rotation: Growing different crops in succession helps to maintain soil fertility and control pests and diseases by breaking pest life cycles.
Cover Cropping: Planting cover crops like legumes, clover, or rye during off-seasons helps prevent soil erosion, suppress weeds, and fix nitrogen in the soil.
Mulching: Using organic materials like straw, leaves, or grass clippings as mulch conserves soil moisture, reduces weed growth, and adds organic matter to the soil as it decomposes.
Composting: Organic waste materials are composted to create nutrient-rich organic matter that improves soil structure and fertility.
B. Water Management:
Drip Irrigation: Organic farmers often use efficient watering systems like drip irrigation to minimize water waste and reduce disease risks by avoiding water on plant leaves.
Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and using rainwater reduces reliance on other water sources and supports sustainable farming practices.
Moisture Conservation: Techniques like mulching and cover cropping help to conserve moisture in the soil, reducing the need for frequent irrigation.
C. Seed and Planting Materials:
Organic Seeds: Certified organic seeds are used, free from genetic modifications and chemical treatments.
Heirloom Varieties: Many organic farmers use heirloom or traditional seed varieties that are well-adapted to local conditions and have natural resistance to pests and diseases.
2. Plant Protection Measures in Organic Farming:
Organic farming focuses on preventing pests, diseases, and weeds through natural methods and fostering a balanced ecosystem. These measures include:

A. Preventive Strategies:
Crop Rotation and Intercropping: These practices reduce pest buildup by disrupting pest life cycles and can create beneficial interactions between different plants (e.g., companion planting where one plant protects another from pests).
Healthy Soil: Maintaining soil fertility ensures that plants are healthy and better able to resist pests and diseases naturally.
Choosing Resistant Varieties: Using plant varieties that are naturally resistant to common diseases and pests helps reduce the need for interventions.
B. Mechanical and Physical Control:
Hand Weeding: Manual removal of weeds is common in organic systems where chemical herbicides are not used.

1. KONGUNADU COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY (Autonomous) Department of Agriculture Engineering Course: ORGANIC FARMING FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION Unit 2 : Input management and plant protection measures By Mr. M.Sundharan , Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering, Kongunadu College of Engineering and Technology

2. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 11 : Principles of Compost Production

3. What is compost? Compost is organic matter that has been decomposed and recycled as a fertilizer and soil amendment Compost is a key ingredient in organic farming. End product of the decomposition of organic matter Compost is rich in nutrients. Acts as a soil conditioner, a fertilizer , addition of vital humus or humic acids , and as a natural pesticide for soil. In ecosystems , compost is useful for erosion control, land reclamation, wetland construction, and as landfill cover. Compost is called The Gardener’s Gold because it is an invaluable partner in keeping the soil healthy .

4. What is Humus? Humus is a complex mixture of dark-brown, amorphous and colloidal substances modified from the original plant tissue or synthesized by various soil organisms and is resistant to microbial decomposition. Properties of soil humus: Humus particles become bonded to clay and other silicate surface leading to formation of soil humus complex Humus stores and release soil N Humus possesses buffering capacity Humus possesses cation/anion exchange capacity Humus adsorbs pesticide and other agricultural chemical

5. WHAT IS COMPOSTING? Composting is a natural biological process, carried out under controlled aerobic conditions (requires oxygen). In this process, various microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi, break down organic matter into simpler substances. Composting is nature's way of recycling. Composting biodegrades organic waste. i.e. food waste, manure, leaves, grass trimmings, paper, wood, feathers, crop residue etc., and turns it into a valuable organic fertilizer. The effectiveness of the composting process is dependent upon the environmental conditions present within the composting system i.e. oxygen, temperature, moisture, material composition and the size and activity of microbial populations.

6. Types of Composting AEROBIC COMPOSTING ANAEROBIC COMPOSTING VERMICOMPOSTING Quick break down of organic waste Needs regular turning to maintain aeration in the system. Needs to maintain favorable moisture and temperature Takes long time for break down of organic wastes Needs less maintenance since made in closed pit Release of NH3 and CH4 Most effective composting Maintenance of oxygen and moisture for healthy compost. Earthworm are the workers

7. Principles of Composting C: N ratio of organic residues Mixing of organic materials Size of residue Moisture and temperature in the compost bed pH in the compost bed Microorganisms and microbial inoculants Amendment with rock minerals Shredding of waste materials

8. Principles of Composting 1. C: N ratio of input residues: Microorganism require C for growth and N for protein synthesis. C:N ratio 30-40 is optimal for composting. If the material has high C:N ratio (>40), it takes longer time for composting. If the material has low C:N ratio (<30), the N is in excess of requirement of microbes, the loss of N takes place through NH 3 volatilization. About 20-40% N is lost through NH 3 in water hyacinth, animal dung, and immature green organic materials. Mixing of organic materials Material having high C:N ratio (>40), can be mixed with activated sewage sludge, legume residue, aquatic weeds, slaughter house wastes to maintain proper C:N. Material having low C:N ratio (<30) can be added with dry soil at 5- 10% to reduce the moisture content and absorb the NH 3 in the material

9. 3. Size of residue: The most desirable particle size is 3- 5 cm. The period of composting of non-shredded materials is increased by 30 days. 4. Moisture and Temperature: The optimum moisture content is 50- 60% for aerobic composting. When the temperature rises above 40°C, the mesophilic microorganisms are replaced by thermophilic microorganism. The thermophilic condition appear within 2-7 days of start of the composting operation, where the temperature rises up to 55 - 70°C. The decomposition is faster in this range. Shigella sp. which cause dysentery and Escherchia coli common in sewage are killed at 60°C. Tapeworm and hookworm are killed at 55°C. Common pathogens are killed at 60°C. Shredding of waste materials

10. pH Most of the microorganism grow under neutral pH. There will be drop in pH due to acid forming bacteria. But the pH will rise again due to formation of NH3 during the decomposition process. pH is auto regulated in the composting process. Microorganism and microbial inoculants: Mesophilic bacteria are involved in consuming readily degradable carbohydrates and proteins. Thermophilic bacteria attack lipid and hemicellulose. Actinomycetes such as Thermonosopra curvata and many fungi involved in cellulose decomposition. Preparation sawdust compost with inoculation of cellulolytic fungi Coprinus phemerus hasten the composting from 1-2 years to 3 months.

11. 7. Amendment with Rock minerals: Application of rock phosphate (RP) at 5% besides improving P and N content also improves micronutrient content. Application of RP with paddy straw along with inoculation of Aspergillus niger and Azotobacter chroococum accelerates the process of composting and improves N and P content of the compost.

12. Factors of composting PARAMETER DETAILS C:N ratio 30- 40 Particle size 3- 5 cm Moisture content 50-60% Aeration 10- 18% oxygen Temperature 55- 60°C for three days pH control Not necessary Heap size Any length, 2.5 m wide, 1.5 m high Activators Use efficient cellulolytic fungi

13. Properties of good quality compost Parameters Good quality Poor quality Colour Brown- Black Vary Smell Pleasant and earthy smell Bad odour pH 6.5- 8.0 <6 and >8 C:N 10- 20 <10 and >20 Temperature 30-45°C >45°C Moisture 25- 30 % >30% Humus >4% <4% N >1.25% <1%

14. Benefits of Compost It is a store house of energy for growth and multiplication of microbes and their activity in soil, which is vital for plant nutrient cycling. It supplies both macro- and micro- nutrients. It provides growth promoting substances which stimulates early plant growth. It acts as soil conditioner at it improves physical condition of soil such as tilth, water holding capacity, cation exchange capacity, etc. It is pathogen free as all pathogens are killed at high temperature. It increases biological activity of soil and produce crop growth with less disease

15. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 12: Vermicompost production Technology

16. What is Vermicomposting???? Vermicomposting (Latin v ermes = worms) is a simple biotechnological process of composting , in which certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicomposting is the process of recycling organic matter into nutrient rich compost using worms. It is carried out generally under aerobic condition. Vermicompost is a stable organic manure produced as vermicast by earthworm feeding on biological wastes materials. It is an efficient recycling process of animal, agriculture and industrial wastes. Vermicompost is a mixture of warm cast, humus, live earthworms and their cocoons. The major constituents are essential macro and micro nutrients, enzymes, vitamins, antibiotics, humic acid and growth hormones.

17. Earthworm Ecological Group

18. terrestris Eisenia foetida Eudrilus eugeniae Perionyx excavatus Epigeic Species (Tiger worm, red wiggler, manure worm, compost worm) epi = top; geic = earth Small size (1 – 7 cm) and uniformly pigmented (red brown pigment), lives in litters and consumes decomposable organic matter e.g. Eisenia foetida, perionyx excavatus Endogeic Species (Topsoil dweller) endo = in or internal; geic = earth Small to large in size (2-12 cm), weakly pigmented, lives in burrows in organic mineral complex of soil, consumes soil e.g Apprrectodea caligiginosa , Octolasion cyaneum Anecic Species (Subsoil dweller) Very large in size (8-15 cm), brown pigment interiorly and dorsally, lives in deep vertical burrow in soil, but feeds on litter, casting on surface. e.g. Lumbricus Epigeic and Anecic species used for Verm icompost in tropical countries Earthworm Ecological Group (Contd.)

19. Why Vermicomposting???? An important source of organic manure Helps in recycling any organic wastes into a useful biofertilizer and leaves no chance of environmental pollution. An eco- friendly, non- toxic product, consumes low energy input while processing. Improves physical, chemical and biological properties of soil without any residual toxicity. Reduces the incidences of pests and diseases in crop production. Improves quality of agricultural produce.

20. Flow chart of Vermicomposting Waste collection and mixing with cow dung Loading of Wastes mixture in bed Maintenance of moisture and temperature in bed and Earthworm release Maturity Judgement (Colour granules and C/N ratio) Harvesting (Earthworm separation and drying)

21. Wastes Characteristics Wastes C: N ratio Suitability Animal manure, oil seed residues, fish manure Industrial wastes (potato industry wastes baggage wastes etc.) <19 Most suitable for high N content Vegetable waste, food processing waste including pulses, oil seeds, tea etc, kitchen waste, green and succulent crop waste and weed biomass and green manures 19- 27 Moderately suitable Water hyacinth, Stubbles and crop wastes, twigs and crop foliage 30- 85 Moderately suitable Saw dust and coir wastes 90- 550 Less suitable

22. In preparation of waste mixture, animal and plant based organic wastes are generally mixed together. Before mixing, the plant wastes generally undergo size reduction by cutting or crushing. After size reduction, the plant based organic wastes are mixed with animal based wastes like cowdung . For hastening the decomposition process, compost accelerators (Cellullolytic and lignolitiic microorganiiism) are added to the wastes mixture. The proportion of cow dung in wastes mixture must be minimum 30%. Under unlimited supply of cowdung, the share may go up to 70%. Mixing of waste mixture and cow dung

23. Lay out of Vermicompost bed Length: 10 – 15 ft Width: 3.5 – 4.0 ft Depth: 1.0 – 1.5 ft Slope: 2 - 4% Top roof covered Sprinkler system for irrigation

24. Vermicompost Bed Bamboo Bed Cemented Bed Plastic bed

25. Multi-tier Vermicomposting Bed for limited Space area

26. The waste materials, immediately after mixing or after pre-decomposition, are loaded in the bed in a heap with am maximum height of 1.5 ft. Thereafter, a thin layer of cow dung is placed on the surface of waste materials as starter food for earthworms In the bed, after checking the inside temperature (should not exceed 35 C) of the heaped material, the earthworms are released on the surface bed (minimum of 2 kg per bed or 2000-2500 in number). However, if available, the quantity can be increased up to 10 kg per bed. Loading of wastes mixture and earthworm in bed

27. Worm propagation in mother bed/boxes For multiplications of healthy earthworm as seed material propagation boxes or beds are used. A box size of 2 ft length 1.5 ft width and 0.75 ft depth or a bed size 12 ft length 4 ft width and 1 ft depth are considered for multiplication. A mixture of succulent green biomass and cow dung at 50 :50 ratio in the bed Earthworm 500 per box or 4 kg per bed are released. A cover placed on the box or bed with either gunny bag or insulating sheet . Cover provides a dark condition for encouraging the worms to come to the surface for mating besides maintaining ideal and moisture level in the box. The production cycle in the box or bed will vary from 50-60 days depending on species seasons environmental condition and feed material .

28. Vermicompost accelarators The microorganism multiplied in the laboratory is mixed with the organic wastes thoroughly before putting in the vermibed. Some important fungus species are Paeciliomyces fusisporus, Phaenerocete crysosporium, Trichoderma viride and Bacillus polymixa .

29. MICROSPRINKLER Maintenance of moisture Moisture content: 60- 80% Temperature: 20 – 35 C Regular supply of water in the bed, watering can be done manually or by installation of automated micro sprinkler system However, the tolerance limit of temperature differs with type of earthworm species. For stability of optimum temperature and moisture in the bed, both under extreme arid and temperate climate, the bed can be covered with an insulating materials like gunny bag, coconut coir mat etc with moistening at a regular interval.

30. Maturity Judgment of Vermicompost Physical Characteristics of Vermicomposts: Colour, Particle size Chemical Characteristics of Vermicomposts pH, C/N, macro and micro nutrient, humus content Biological characteristics Enzyme activity, Microbial community

31. Harvesting and earthworm separation The harvesting is generally done manually by using a shovel and loaded on to hand trolley. The separation of earthworm from vermicompost is generally done manually or by mechanical process. Manual process: Heap method and manual separation: Vermicompost after harvest is heaped in a dome shape in open space on a cement floor under bright sunlight at hight about 2- 3 ft. Worms move to the lower layer as worms are light sensitive thus facilitating harvest of compost from upper surface. This process repeated 3-4 times. All adult worms migrate to the base of the heap and can be separated. This process is time consuming

32. Harvesting and earthworm separation Mechanical process: The earthworms are separated by sieving using a wire net of 2-3 mm in size . In separation process the earthworms remain above the net and the vermicompost falls below on the floor and collected. The sieving unit may vary in size and its operational processess. The sieving frame including stand and net can be placed either on a simple platform or a spring loaded platform or run by motorized shaker.

33. Harvesting of Vermicompost Heap method Sun drying system

34. Earthworm Separation by Manual and Mechanical process Manual process Mechanical process

35. Drying cum Seiving mechine for Industrial Purpose

36. Drying and packaging For marketing, it is packaged at a moisture level ranging from 25 to 30%. Conventionally, after separation of earthworm the vermicompost is dried in natural process under sunlight . Under cloudy weather, particularly during rainy season, open house drying becomes difficult. Mechanical drying: T he important components are reciprocating screening machine ( 3m in length and 1.5 m breadth), drying chamber consisting of thermostat, a blower, baffle plates inclined horizontally by an angle of 35 C for uniform distribution, a conveyor belt and bagging system. Besides, Solar drying system can also be practiced under sunny weather. After drying, the vermicompost is bagged immediately by manually or by mechanical device. The bag should be stored under cool condition in the shade.

37. More Food required In 21st Century Chemical farming is an easy option Many disadvantages Organic farming is better option Needs value addition of Vermicompost for improved yield Disadvantages of chemical farming Soil erosion and salinity Frequent use of fertilizer and increased cost of production Environmental pollution and increase in global wa rming Advantages of organic farming Improved soil health and quality Disease and pest resistance to plants Recycling of agricultural and aquatic wastes with lower input costs

38. In general, the organic manures like FYM, compost , vermicompost contain on an average 0.5 to 1.5% N, 0.2 to 0.8% P 2 O 5 and 0.5 to 1.2% K 2 O, Which is not sufficient to meet the crop demand in low dose. For supplying N at 100 kg ha -1 , the organic manure to be applied at 07 to 20 t ha -1 . These demerits of manures can be overcome to a certain extent through preparation of enriched VC by adding natural or biological sources of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients either alone or in combination. Moreover waste with different nutrient rich substances opening new direction of technological up gradation for improving the quality and nutrient status of vermicompost. Modification of vermicompost is done either by microbial enrichment or fortifying with nutrient rich rock minerals and agricultural waste . Why Enriched Vermicompost (VC) ?

39. Nutrients enrichment strategies from natural resources Enrichment of vermicompost can be done in two ways Addition of rock minerals during composting process Addition of rock minerals with ready compost Nutrient Enrichment Natural resources Nutrient Enrichment Natural resources Nitrogen Common oil Cake like Potassium Sylvite (63.1) Mustard cake (5.3%), Groundnut cake (7.3%), Wood ash [Eucalyptus wood (5.9)] Neem cake (5.2%), Karanja cake (3.9%), Casuarina wood (1.5%) Sesame cake (6.2%), Castor cake (4.3%) etc. Tobacco stem (2.6%) Babool wood (2.5-3.0%) Poultry manure, Azolla, Green manure crops or wastes forms leguminous crops Calcium and Magnesium Limestone, Gypsum and Dolomite Phosphorus Rock phosphate ( 20- 40%) Bone meal (20- 25%) Basic slag (17- 20%) Horn and hoof meal Wastes from fish and animal processing

40. Aquatic Weeds Agril. Wastes Cow Dung EARTHWORMS VERMICOMPOST SOIL QUALITY Preparation of Enriched Vermicompost (VC) Microbes @50ml broth per kg of Organic wastes Preparation of Enriched VC using microbes Trichoderma viridae (Cellulolytic) Azotobacter chroococcum (N 2 fixing bacteria) Bacillus polymixa (Phosphorus solubilizing bacteria) Bacillus firmus (Potassium releasing bacteria) Mix of above Rock phosphate, Dolomite, Mica (P enrichment) (Ca and Mg) K enrichment Rock Nutrient content phosphate Dolomite Mica pH 8.14 7.24 7.12 Total N (%) nd nd nd Total P (%) 8.52 0.01 0.01 Total K (%) 0.30 nd 10.12 Total Ca (%) 8.12 19.25 0.08 Total Mg (%) 4.82 12.84 6.32 Available N (ppm) nd nd nd Available P (ppm) 35.20 nd nd Available K (ppm) 55.60 nd 140.00

41. The waste resources Water Hyacinth and Paddy Straw having low C/N ratio (48:1 and 67:1), enhanced the growth rate and population of earthworm, thereby resulted better quality of VC with respect to chemical and bio- chemical properties as compared to the waste resource Saw Dust (C/N=366:1) Combined application of microbial inoculants i.e Trichoderma Viridae , Azotobacter chroococcum , Bacillus polymyxa and Bacillus firmus into organic wastes in the vermicomposting process, improved the chemical and bio- chemical properties of VC significantly as compared to convention VC (no microbial inoculants) In the vermicomposting process, use of rock minerals such as RP at 20%, DM at 15% and MC at 10% along with microbial inoculants in organic wastes enhanced the earthworm growth rate, hence improved the quality of VC with respect to higher availability of macronutrients (N=26%, P= 19% and K=10%) over conventional VC (no rock mineral and no microbial inoculants) Application of rock minerals (RP or DM or MC) at 15% along with microbial inoculants in the vermicomposting process increased significantly the bio- chemical properties of VC such as urease assay and acid phosphatase assay content as compared to conventional VC The effective shelf life of VC in storage is for a period of 90-105 days . Storage for longer period (>105 days) reduced the microbial activity and the nutrient availability of VC.

42. Quality Criteria for Vermicomposts A. Physical Characteristics Bulk density, Porosity and Particle size Moisture content B . Chemical Characteristics Acidity (pH) CEC EC C/N ratio Total C, N, P and K content Ammonical- N and Nitrate- N Secondary nutrients (Ca Mg S) and micronutrients content C. Biological Characteristics Enzyme activity Microbial Community

43. Physical and Chemical parameter Content Organic Carbon (%) 20- 25 Pore space (%) 70- 80 Moisture (%) 30 Acidity (pH) 6.5- 7.5 CEC 50- 100 meq/100 g soil EC (soluble concentration) < 1 dS/m Total N (%) 1 to 3 C/N 10 - 20 Chemical and Physical parameter Content Total P and K > 0.7% Ca and Mg >1.0 % and >0.5% Ammonium N 300 ppm Nitrate N 100 to 200 ppm

44. Comparison between Conventional VC and Enriched VC Chemical Properties Conventional VC (%) Microbial Enriched VC (%) Rock enriched VC (%) Total N 1.3-1.5 1.8-2.4 1.4-1.5 Total P 0.8- 1.0 0.9-1.3 2.9- 3.5 Total K 1.0-1.1 1.1- 1.60 2.8-3.5 Total Ca 0.5-0.8 1.5 - 2.0 7.0-8.0 Total Mg 0.1-0.2 0.6 - 0.8 1.5-2.3 Chemical Properties Conventional VC (ppm) Microbial Enriched VC (ppm) Rock enriched VC (ppm) Available N 103- 1326 1600- 1700 705- 1500 Olsen P 900- 1087 900- 1125 1165- 1444 Ammonium acetate K 1250- 3330 4320- 5230 4320- 9274 Bio Chemical Properties Conventional VC Microbial Enriched VC Rock enriched VC Urease Activity (µg NH 4 g - 1 hr - 1 ) 80- 90 120- 130 116- 130 Acid Phosphatase activity (µg pnp g - 1 hr - 1 ) 158- 172 200- 255 216- 222 All value depends upon Input material in the vermicomposting process

45. Some tips of Market i g ..... To market vermicompost for top value – the product must be uniform, consistent and reproducible Don’t think “compost" as the only end product Truly understand your targeted growers and their expectations Marketing Channels and Market volume of vermicompost in Nepal (Source: Devkota et al. 2014)

46. Labelling of Vermicompost Bag Name of the product Logo of the company Composition of the product Crop specific suitability Usage details Specific action Manufacturing and expiring date

47. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 17 : Introduction to Pest and Disease Management

48. Typical Signs of Pest and Disease Incidence Common pests in crop plants Insects Mites Nematodes Mammals Birds Others Common disease in crop plants Fungal Bacterial Viral

49. Insect Damage A. On the basis of feeding mechanism insects are classified as Biting and chewing (e.g. caterpillars, weevils) Piercing and sucking (e.g. aphids, psyllids) (Curled leaves in Aphid attack) Boring (e.g. borer, leaf miner) (Withered Plants by borer)

50. Some typical symptoms Leaves with holes or missing parts by caterpillar or weevil damage curled leaves in case of aphids damaged/rotten fruits in case of fruit flies withered plants by larvae of noctuids or the stem borer holes in trunks/stems due to lignovorous insects Insect Damage (cont..) Gram Pod Borer Bore holes in sugarcane Mango Stem Borer Mango fruit fly

51. Hidden (e.g. stem borer) Easy to Observe (e.g. Caterpillars, Weevils) B. On the basis of movements insects are classified a Slowing (e.g. caterpillars) Fast moving (e.g. fruit flies) C. On the basis of ease of observance Insects are classified as s Insect Damage (cont..) Mite Damage Tiny, microscopic organisms Leaves and fruits become yellowish Nematode Damage Tiny, mostly microscopic organisms Attack plant roots, plants become yellow, wither and die. Mite attack Root galls by Root knot nematode

52. Bacteria They cause any of the following Problems Some produce enzymes that breakdown the cell wall of the plants. This causes rotting. Some produce toxins which cause early death of the plant. Moko wilt in Banana Some produce sticky sugary substances that travel through the plant and block the narrow channels preventing uptake of water and nutrients. Some produce proteins that mimic plant hormones, leading to overgrowth and tumours . Scab diseas e in Potato Disease Incidences

53. Fungi: It causes great majority(2/3 rd ) of infectious plant diseases It includes all white and true rusts, smuts, needle casts ,leaf curls, mildew, sooty moulds and anthracnose They are responsible for most leaf fruit and flower spots cankers blights, wilts, scabs and root wood rots Viruses: It mostly cause systemic disease It show chlorosis or change in colour of leaves and other green parts Light green or yellow patches of various shades shapes and sizes appear in affected leaves Mosaic virus on Chilli Leaf spot Powdery mildew Mosaic virus Disease Incidence (cont..)

54. 33% 26% 15% 26% Crop Losses Due to Pests and Diseases Rodents and others Diseases Weeds Insects National Rice Research Institute (NRRI) 19% 4% 2% 72% 3% Indian Crop Protection Market Herbicides Fungcides Biopesticides Insecticides Others Source: Industry reports, Analysis by Tata Strategic

55. Pesticide dependence of smallholder vegetable farmers in Southeast Asia Farmers association Chemical Pesticide use, % Advice from friends and neighbor - 45 Advice from shopkeeper +251 Woman was in- charge of pest control - 42 Knowledge of bio pesticide - 31 PepijnSchreinemachers et al, 2017: Too much to handle? Pesticide dependence of smallholder vegetable farmers in Southeast Asia, Science of Total environment, 593- 594: 470- 477 Dey et al., 2013. Impact of pesticide use on the health of farmers: A study in Barak valley, Assam (India ), Journal of Environmental Chemistry and Toxicology, 5(10): 269- 277 Sign and symptoms Pesticide application in India (Assam), % Chest pain/burning feeling 37.9 Burning/stinging/itc hing eyes 37.2 Excessive sweating 36.8 Skin redness/white patches 35.4 Excessive salivation 35

56. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 18 : Pest and Disease Management in Organic Farming

57. Level A (Preventive) The first line of defense in managing insect and disease is a systems based approach. Well- designed and healthy organic system will naturally have fewer pest problems. System is designed to prevent pest and disease outbreaks. Level B (Physical & Mechanical) The second line of defense is utilized if the practices of level A are not sufficient to control the weed insect or disease problem. Level B mechanical generally includes and physical practices that are tradition in organic farming. Level C (Allowed biopesticide) The third line of defence is used if the level of pest control required is not achieved after A and B. Level C practices include the use of inputs such as biologicals and botanicals pesticides to control pests. Levels of Pest and Disease Management

58. Practices in LEVEL- A Selection of adapted and resistant varieties Choosing varieties which are well adapted to the local environment This allows them to grow healthy and makes them stronger against pests and diseases e.g. Tomato varieties advertised as VFN are resistant to Verticillium, Fusarium and nematodes. Selection of clean seed and planting material U se of pathogen and weed free, safe seeds at all stages of production. Use of planting material from safe sources Leaf Folder Moderately Resistant varieties

59. 3. Use of suitable cropping systems Crop rotation : Crops of different families are taken up in rotations. This minimises the risk of the incidence of a family specific disease e.g. cereal crops like wheat, barley, etc are taken up in rotation with legumes. This breaks the disease cycle of Fusarium Blight . Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in the same field is called as intercropping. This increases biodiversity and decreases pest outbreaks. Intercropping

60. 4. Use of balanced nutrient management Moderate fertilisation: Steady growth makes a plant less vulnerable to infection. Too much fertilisation results in salt damage to roots, paving the way for secondary infections e.g. Excess nitrogen fertilizer makes the plant succulent and hence more susceptible to attack of diseases and pests Balanced potassium supply makes the plant hardy to various infections. 5. Supply of organic matter Increases the density and activity of microbes in soil, thus decreasing density and activity of micro pathogens in soil. Stabilises soil structure Improves aeration and water holding capacity of soil Strengthens the plants defence mechanism by the secretion of certain substances Lodged plants due to excess nitrogen

61. 6 . Application of suitable soil cultivation methods F acilitates the decomposition of infected plant parts. Regulates weeds which serves as hosts for pests and diseases Protects the beneficial soil micro flora 7. Use of proper water management Avoid water- logging: causes ambient conditions for different pests and diseases Avoid water on the foliage: water borne diseases spread with droplets and fungal disease germinate in water . Conservation and promotion of natural enemies Providing an ideal habitat for the growth and reproduction of natural enemies Avoiding products that may harm the natural enemies e.g. Growing of some plants that attract ladybugs or other natural predators will help reduce populations of plant pests. Water- logged field Ladybug

62. 9. Selection of optimum planting time and spacing Most of the pests and disease attack the plant at a certain growth stage, called as the “Critical stage”. This vulnerable stage should not coincide with the period of high pest density, thus optimal planting time should be chosen. Optimum spacing reduces the spread of a disease Good aeration of the foliage hinders pathogen development. Use of Proper Sanitation Measure Remove infected plant parts (leaves, fruits) from the ground to prevent the disease from spreading. Discard the infected plant residues after harvest. e.g. a) Apple and pear growers remove branches infected with fire blight (strikes). The strikes are removed from the orchard and burned to kill the bacteria that cause fire blight. b) Mushroom growers pasteurize the bedding material to kill fungi that would compete with the mushroom crop.

63. 11. Cover crops : Some cover crops like Sudangrass, Rapeseed and mustard are effective at suppressing nematodes. Trap crops: These are small plantings of a crop or crop variety intended to draw a particular pest away from the main crop. e.g. Alfalfa planted in strips amid cotton attracts lygus bugs away from the cotton crop Trap crops must be destroyed to kill the pests that have been attracted to the m Marigold used as Trap Crop

64. Practices in Level- B Mulching Mulching can reduce disease to some extent by reducing soil contact and maintenance of an even soil moisture e.g. Mulching in tomatoes can reduce certain diseases. 2. Canopy Management: By training and pruning trees, there is increased airflow and decrease in outbreak of diseases. e.g. Viticulturists practice leaf removal to control Botrytis bunch rot of grapes. Solarisation: Covering the soil with plastic during summer allows the soil to get hot enough to kill many pathogens Organic Mulch Artificial Mulch

65. 4. Mass Trapping of Insects a. Light Trap Used to catch moths viz; armyworms, cutworms, stem borers and other night flying insects Most efficient when placed before the adult moths start laying eggs. b. Yellow Sticky Trap Yellow sticky traps can be used to control whiteflies, aphids and leaf mining flies. Yellow colour attracts many insects, even beneficial ones. So, it should be used only when needed . Motor oil or transparent car grease are used Placed around 10 cm above foliage 02 to 05 sticky traps per 500 m 2 field area c. Pheromone Trap Uses pheromones to lure insects Successful in mating disruption Yellow sticky Trap Light Trap Pheromone Trap

66. 5. Fruit bagging prevents fruit flies from laying eggs on the fruits the bag also provides physical protection from mechanical injuries (scars and scratches) works well with melon, bitter gourd, mango, guava, star fruit, etc. Fruit Bagging

67. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 19 : Level “C” Pest and Disease Management

68. Biological Control: Biological control or biocontrol is the use of natural enemies to manage populations of pests. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms (such as ladybird beetles, gallmidges, hoverfly larvae predatory against aphids and psyllids), but typically also involves an active human management role. Syrphus hoverfly larva feed on aphids, making them natural biological control agents Biological control

69. Types of biological pest control 1. Introduction It involves the introduction of a pest's natural enemies to a new locale where they do not occur naturally . 2. Augmentation Augmentation involves the supplemental release of natural enemies that occur in a particular area, boosting the naturally occurring populations there. Ex: The egg parasite Trichogramma is frequently released to control harmful insects Cards with Trichogramma : Against corn fruit borer

70. Types of biological pest control 3. Conservation Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost- effective. Ex: Nectar- producing crop plants grown in the borders of rice fields, provide nectar to support parasitoids and predators of planthopper pests . Brown Planthopper Predatory Bug, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis

71. Types of biological pest control 3. Conservation Natural enemies are already adapted to the habitat and to the target pest, and their conservation can be simple and cost- effective. Ex: Nectar- producing crop plants grown in the borders of rice fields, provide nectar to support parasitoids and predators of planthopper pests . Effect of access to flowering plants of varying plant species on predation by Cyrtorhinus lividipennis Zhu P, Lu Z, Heong K, Chen G, Zheng X, et al. (2014) Selection of Nectar Plants for Use in Ecological Engineering to Promote Biological Control of Rice Pests by the Predatory Bug, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis, (Heteroptera: Miridae). PLOS ONE 9(9): e108669. https://doi.org /10.1371/journal.pone.0108669 http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.010 8669

72. Population dynamics of pests and predators If populations of natural enemies present in the field are too small to sufficiently control pests, they can be reared in a laboratory or rearing unit . The reared natural enemies are released in the crop to boost field populations and keep pest populations down. There are two approaches to biological control through the release of natural enemies: Preventive release of the natural enemies at the beginning of each season : . This is used when the natural enemies could not persist from one cropping season to another due to unfavourable climate or the absence of the pest. Populations of the natural enemy then establish and grow during the season. Releasing natural enemies when pest populations start to cause damage to crops: Pathogens are usually used in that way, because they cannot persist and spread in the crop environment without the presence of a host (pest).

73. Releasing Natural enemies Natural enemies that kill or suppress pests or diseases are often fungi or bacteria. They are called antagonists or referred to as microbial insecticides or bio- pesticides. Microbial Insecticides: Bacteria: Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Control of caterpillars Beetles in vegetables and other agricultural crops Mosquito and black fly control Bacillus thuringiensis var. Kurstaki and Bacillus thuringiensis var. Aizawai against diverse lepidopteran pests ( african armyworm. African bollworm. bean armyworm beet armyworm cabbage webworm green looper spiny bollworm pod borrers tomato loopers etc.)

74. Fungi Fungi that work against plant pathogens Trichoderma sp . Wildly used in Asia for prevention of soil- borne diseases such as damping off and root rots in vegetables. Trichogramma species against African bollworm. Trichoderma harzianum: It is known to parasite important plant diseases like damping off Trichoderma species can affect plant diseases by antibiosis and competition It works as a growth stimulant and improves yields and product quality Damping off

75. Fungi that work against insects Beauveria bassiana is an entomopathogenic fungi that causes white muscadine disease in a range of insects. Strain Bb 147 is used for control of corn borers in maize Strain GHA is used against whitefly thrips aphids and mealybugs in vegetables and ornamentals. Viruses NPV (nuclearpolyhedrosis) virus effective for control of several caterpillar pest species. . Every insect species requires a specific NPV- species e.g The armyworm Spodoptera exigua is major problem in Indonesia. SeNPV specific for S. Exigua.

76. Bio- pesticides Some plants contain components that are toxic to insects. When these plant extracts applied on infested crops, they are called botanical pesticides . Azadirachtin ( Neem ), Pyrethrins ( Chrysanthemum sp.), Rotenone ( Derris sp.), N icotine (Tobacco), Limonene (Citrus) have been used as botanical pesticides. Most botanical pesticides are contact, respiratory, or stomach poisons. Therefore, they are not very selective, but target a broad range of insects. Botanical pesticides are generally highly bio- degradable so that they become inactive within hours or a few days. This reduces again the negative impact on beneficial organisms and they are environmentally safe compared to chemical pesticides.

77. Commonly used botanicals pesticides Neem: Active ingredient is azadirachtin . Both deters and kills many species of caterpillars thrips and whitefly. Neem seeds contain a higher amount of neem oil. A neem solution looses its effectiveness within about 8 hrs after preparation and when exposed to direct sunlight. Most effective to apply neem in the evening directly after preparation under humid conditions.

78. Neem Products as for pest control NEEM Trees Fruit Bark Flower Leaf Neem Oil Azadirachtrin Phytochemicals Pulp Seed Neems Oil Neem Cake Phytochemicals Neem Cake Neem Oil Phytochemicals

79. Neem Applications Neem has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of conditions such as malaria, ulcers, cardiovascular disease, and skin problems In the cosmetics and hygiene sector , neem is used in the composition of face masks, lotions, sunscreens, soaps, and toothpastes It has a powerful insect growth regulator (IGR) that also affects many other organisms (such as nematodes and fungi) and can act as a plant fertilizer Neem seed cake can be used as a biofertilizer , providing the macronutrients essential for plant growth that improve soil quality and enhance the quality of crops. Due to their compositional complexity, act as anti-feedants , growth regulators, sterilants, anti- oviposition agents, and repellents.

80. Application Product Manufacturer in India Application Product Manufacturer in World Fertilizer Ozoneem cake Ozone biotech Fertilizer Fortune neem cake Fortune biotech (USA) Ozoneem coat Ozone biotech Fortune neem coat Fortune biotech (USA) Parker neem coat Parker Neem Neem cake Uniball Corporateion (Russia) Neem Urea Guard Neemex Agrochemica l Fortune Aza 3% EC Fortune biotech (USA) Agrochemical Subhdeep Neem Oil King Agro Food Ozoneem Oil Ozone Biotech Azamax UPL Ltd. (Brazil) Safer Brand 3 in 1 Wood stream Corp. (Canada) Neem applications and commercial products available worldwide

81. Organic Farming for Sustainable Agricultural Production Lecture 20 : Level “C” Pest and Disease Management (Contd..)

82. Action of Neem oil Mode of action Disrupting or inhibiting the development of eggs, larvae, or pupae Blocking the molting of larvae or nymphs Disrupting mating and sexual communication Repelling larvae and adults Deterring females from laying eggs and feeding Sterilizing adults Poisoning larvae and adults Inhibiting the formation of chitin Neem formulation: Ground 30 g neem kernels (that is the seed of which the seed coat has been removed) and mix it in 1 litre of water. Leave that overnight. The next morning, filter the solution through a fine cloth and still with little soap powder and spray in afternoon.

83. Pyrethrum and Pyrethrins Pyrethrum is a daisy- like Chrysanthemum. Pyrethrins are insecticidal chemicals extracted from the dried pyrethrum flower. The flower heads are processed into a powder to make a dust. This dust can be used directly or infused into water to make a spray. Pyrenthrins cause immediate paralysis to most insects. Low doses do not kill but have a “knock down” effect stronger doses kill. Pyrethrins break down very quickly in sunlight so they should be stored in darkness. Tanacetum cinerariifolium Pyrethrin- I

84. Mode of action of Pyrethrum Pyrethrins exert their toxic effects by disrupting the sodium and potassium ion exchange process in insect nerve fibers and interrupting the normal transmission of nerve impulses. Pyrethrins insecticides are extremely fast acting and cause an immediate “knockdown” paralysis in insects . Despite their rapid toxic action, however, many insects are able to metabolize (break down) pyrethrins quickly. After a brief period of paralysis, these insects may recover rather than die. To prevent insects from metabolizing pyrethrins and recovering from poisoning , most products containing pyrethrins also contain the synergist, piperonyl butoxide (PBO). Without PBO the effectiveness of pyrethrins is greatly reduced.

85. with dried Pyrethrum powder is made ground flowers. To make liquid pyrethrum extract (mix 20g pyrethrum powder with 10 l water), add soap to make the substance more effective. Strain and apply immediately as a spray. For best effects this should be applied in the evening. Pyrethrum can also be extracted by alcohol. Pyrethrin Formulations Spray Pour the mixture into a spray bot tle Add the soap powder and mix . Strain off the flower heads. Mix the flower heads with the hot water. Allow to stand for one hour. Obtain the flower heads. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

86. Rotenone Rotenone is insecticidal compound that occurs in the roots of Derris species in Asia, and several other related tropical legumes . Currently the main commercial source of rotenone is Peruvian Lonchocarpus , which often is referred to as cube root. Rotenone is extracted from cube roots in acetone or ether. Most rotenone products are made from the complex resin rather than from purified rotenone itself. Alternatively, cube roots may be dried , powdered and mixed directly with an inert carrier to form an insecticidal dust. ROTENONE

87. Mode of action of Rotenone Rotenone is a powerful inhibitor of cellular respiration, the process that converts nutrient compounds into energy at the cellular level. In insects rotenone exerts its toxic effects primarily on nerve and muscle cells , causing rapid cessation of feeding. Death occurs several hours to a few days after exposure. Rotenone is extremely toxic to fish, and is often used as a fish poison (piscicide) in water management programs. Rotenone works by interfering with the electron transport chain in mitochondria . It produces oxygen free radical in mitochondria which can damage the DNA and other components of mitochondria.

88. Nicotine Mostly effective against minute soft body insects like aphids, white flies, fruit tree borers, termites, cabbage butterfly larvae. Types of Tobacco Bidi Tobacco Cigar Tobacco Chewing tobacco Hookah tobacco Nicotine is a simple alkaloid derived from tobacco, Nictiana tabacum , and other Nicotiana species. Nicotine constitutes 2-8% of dried tobacco leaves. Insecticidal formulations generally contain nicotine in the form of 40% nicotine sulfate . Tobacco plant

89. Mode of action of Nicotine In both insects and mammals, nicotine is an extremely fast- acting nerve toxin. It competes with acetylcholine, the major neurotransmitter, by bonding to acetylcholine receptors at nerve synapses and causing uncontrolled nerve firing. This disruption of normal nerve impulse activity results in rapid failure of those body systems that depend on nervous input for proper functioning. In insects, the action of nicotine is fairly selective Nicotine

90. Citrus Oil Crude citrus oils and the refined compounds limonene and linalool are extracted from orange and other citrus fruit peels. Limonene, a terpene, constitutes about 90% of crude citrus oil , and is purified from the oil by steam distillation . Linalool, a terpene alcohol, is found in small quantities in citrus peel and in over 200 other herbs, flowers, fruits, and woods . Terpenes and terpene alcohols are among the major components of many plant volatiles or essential oils . Essential oils are the volatile compounds responsible for most of the tastes and scents of plants. Citrus oil

91. The modes of action of limonene and linalool in insects are not fully understood. Limonene is thought to cause an increase in the spontaneous activity of sensory nerves. This heightened activity sends spurious information to motor nerves and results in twitching, lack of coordination, and convulsions . The central nervous system may also be affected, resulting in additional stimulation of motor nerves . Massive over stimulation of motor nerves leads to rapid knockdown paralysis . Adult fleas and other insects may recover from knockdown, however, unless limonene is synergized by PBO. Mode of action of linalool and limonene Limonene Linalool

92. Plant Protection (green chilli and garlic) 100L water, 10L urine, 1kg green chilli and 500gm local garlic 12 100L water+10L urine+1kg green chilli+500gm local garlic Boiling filtering and fermentation spraying

93. 13 Plant Protection (Neem and Cow dung and urine) 100L water+5L urine+5kg neem leaves+5kg cowdung fermentation and filtering spraying

94. Seed treatment Water = 20 litres Desi cow dung = 5 kg Desi cow urine = 5 Litres Lime = 50 grams 14 5kg cowdung+5L cow urine+20L water Squeezing 50gm lime Application to seeds

95. Soil treatment Water 200 litres Desi cow dung 10 kg Desi cow urine 5 to 10 litres Jaggery 2 kg Flour of any pulse 2 kg 6 Handful of soil from farm or forest 15 200L water 10kg cowdung+10L cow urine+2kg jaggery+2kg pulse flour+ hand full of soil Fermentation Spray with irrigation

96. Precautions regarding use of plant extract s Some botanicals may be dangerous for humans and they can be very toxic to natural enemies. Nicotine for example, derived from the tobacco plant, is one of the most toxic organic poisons for humans and other warm- blooded animals. Pyrethrins are not poisonous for humans and warm- blooded animals Before a new botanical pesticide is applied in a large scale, its effect on the ecosystem should be tested in a small field experiment. Do not just use botanical pesticides as a default option! Do not have direct skin contact with the crude extract during the process of preparation and application. Contact with plant extracts should be avoided in the eyes. Make sure that you place the plant extract out of reach of children during storage. Wear protective clothing (eyes, mouth, nose and skin) while applying the extract. Wash your hands after handling the plant extract.