UNIT-2-The-Physical-Environment. Ecology

Terrestrial ecology

1. THE PHYSICAL
ENVIRONMENT
UNIT 2

2. LearningOutcomes
1.Identifythefactorsthatcauselocalvariationsof
climate.
2.Determinehowmountainranges,landbridges
andarchipelagoesareformed,
2

3. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
3
Climateistheprevailingpatternsof
temperature andprecipitationacrossa
region.
Climatealsoreferstothelong-termweather
patternsinaparticulararea,including
temperature, precipitation,humidity,and
atmosphericpressure.
Geography and Climate

4. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
4
Geography isthestudyofplacesandtheir
relationshipsbetweenpeopleandtheirenvironments.
Geography,orlocation,isoneofthemajor
determiningfactorsinclimateacrosstheglobe.
Geographyisthestudyofthephysicalfeaturesofthe
Earthandhowtheyimpactlifeontheplanet.It
encompasses variousfeatureslikelandforms,water
bodies,vegetation,andsoil.
Geography and Climate

5. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
5
Geographyplaysasignificantroleinshaping
climatepatterns,andchangesinthephysical
featuresoftheEarthcanimpactclimatechange.
Forexample,deforestationcanleadtoarisein
temperatures and decreased rainfall,
contributingtoclimatechange.
Geography and Climate

6. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
6
THEEFFECTOFALTITUDE(ELEVATION)
referstotheheightofalocationabovesealevel.
Asaltitudeincreases,atmospheric pressure
decreases,leadingtoadecreaseintemperature.
Therefore,areaslocatedathigheraltitudestend
tohavecoolertemperaturesthanthoseatlower
altitudes.
Geography and Climate

7. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
7
THEINFLUENCE OFLATITUDE
Latitudeistheangulardistanceofalocation
northorsouthoftheequator.Itisoneofthe
mostcriticalfactorsindeterminingtheclimate
ofaregion.TheEarthreceivesitsenergyfrom
thesun,andtheintensityofthesun’srays
decreasesasthedistancefromtheequator
increases.
Geography and Climate

8. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
8
THEIMPACTOFLANDFORMS
Landformslikemountains,oceans,anddeserts
canalsoinfluenceclimatepatterns.Mountains
actasbarriers,causingairmassestoriseand
cool,leadingtotheformationofcloudsand
precipitation.Thewindwardsideofamountain
tendstoreceivemoreprecipitationthanthe
leewardside.
Geography and Climate

9. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
9
WATERBODIES
Waterbodies,suchasoceans,seas,lakes,andrivers,can
alsoinfluenceclimatepatterns.Oceans,inparticular,have
amoderatingeffectontemperature,keepingcoastalareas
coolerinsummerandwarmerinwinterthaninlandareas.
Thisisbecausewaterhasahigherheatcapacitythanland,
meaningitcanabsorbandreleaseheatmoreslowly.
Forexample,coastalregionshavecoolersummersandwarmerwintersthaninland
regionsatthesamelatitude.Thisisbecausetheoceanabsorbsheatduringthe
summerandreleasesitduringthewinter,keepingthetemperaturemoderate.
Geography and Climate

10. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
10
VEGETATION
Vegetationplaysavitalroleinshapingclimatepatterns,
particularlyinareaswithhighrainfall.Treesandotherplants
absorbcarbondioxidefromtheatmosphere,regulatingthe
Earth’stemperature.
Thewatervaporreleasedbyplantsduringphotosynthesisalso
contributestocloudformation,leadingtorainfallinareasthat
wouldotherwisebedry.Deforestation,therefore,canhave
adverseeffectsontheclimate,leadingtoariseintemperatures
anddecreasedrainfall.
Geography and Climate

11. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
11
PREVAILING WINDS
Prevailingwindsarewindsthatblowpredominantly in
onedirectionoveraparticularregion.Theycanaffectthe
temperatureandprecipitationofaplace.
Forexample,thetradewindsarewindsthatblowfrom
easttowestinthetropicalregions.Theybringmoisture
fromtheoceantotheland,causingheavyrainfallinsome
regions.
Geography and Climate

12. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
12
TheITCZappearsasabandof
clouds,usuallythunderstorms,
thatencircletheglobenearthe
Equator. In the Northern
Hemisphere,thetradewindsmove
inasouthwestward directionfrom
thenortheast, whileinthe
SouthernHemisphere, theymove
northwestward fromthesoutheast.
INTERTROPICAL CONVERGENCE ZONE

13. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
13
MARITIME CLIMATEis
influencedbyoceanic
airpatterns.Ithas
coolsummer, warm
wintersandminimal
changeintemperature
throughouttheyear.
CONTINENTAL AND MARITIME MOONSOONS

14. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
14
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE
donothavestabilizing
influenceofaneighboring
largebody ofwater.
Summers are hotter,
wintersaremoresevere,
andtemperatureschange
more drastically
throughouttheyear.
CONTINENTAL AND MARITIME MOONSOONS

15. Climateand its Globaland Local Variation
15
➢TheSaharaDesertisoneofthehottestanddriestplaces
onEarthbecauseitislocatedatalowlatitudeandfar
fromtheocean.
➢TheHimalayasareoneofthecoldestandsnowiest
placesonEarthbecausetheyareatahighelevation.
➢TheAmazonrainforestisoneofthewettestplaceson
Earthbecauseitislocatedneartheequatorandreceives
alotofrainfallfromtheocean.
➢TheBritishIsleshaveamildclimatebecausetheyare
locatedneartheoceanandhavearelativelylow
elevation.
Examples of how Geography Affects Climate

16. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS,
EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
16
CONTINENTAL DRIFT

17. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
17
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY
Atheorystatingthatthe
Earth'scontinentshave
beenjoinedtogetherand
havemovedawayfrom
eachotheratdifferent
timesintheEarth's
history.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT

18. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
18
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
THEORY
AlfredWegenercameupwiththis
ideabecausehenoticedthatthe
coastsofwesternAfricaand
easternSouthAmericalookedlike
puzzlepieces,whichmighthave
oncefittogetherandthendrifted
apart.ThenamePangaeacomes
fromtheAncientGreekwords
“pan,” meaning entire,and
“Gaia,”meaningEarth.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT

19. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
19
CONTINENTAL DRIFT

20. 20

21. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
21
TECTONICPLATES
•Thelithosphere(Earth'souter
shell)isbrokenintoseveral
largeandsmallpiecesknownas
tectonicplates.Theseplatesare
notstatic;theymove and
interactwitheachother.
•Platescanbeaslargeas
continentsorassmallasparts
oftheoceanfloor(e.g.,the
CocosPlate).
CONTINENTAL DRIFT –KEY CONCEPT

22. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
22
ASTHENOSPHERE
•Theasthenosphere isasemi-fluid
layerbeneath thelithosphere,
locatedwithintheuppermantle.
•Thetectonicplatesfloatonthe
asthenosphere becauseitbehaves
likeaveryslow-flowingliquid
(thoughstillsolid),allowingthe
rigidplatesabovetomove.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT –KEY CONCEPT

23. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
23
PLATEMOVEMENT
Tectonicplatesaregigantic
piecesoftheEarth'scrust
anduppermost mantle.
Theyaremade upof
oceanic crust and
continentalcrust.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

24. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
24
PLATETECTONICS
TheTheoryofPlateTectonicsbuildsonWegener’s
TheoryofContinentalDrift.IntheTheoryofPlate
Tectonics,itistectonicplates,ratherthancontinents,
whicharemoving.
Tectonicplatesarepiecesofthelithosphereandcrust,
whichfloatontheasthenosphere.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

25. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
25
PLATETECTONICS
Therearecurrently
sevenplatesthat
makeupmostof
thecontinentsand
thePacific
INDO-AUSTRALIAN
PLATE
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

26. 26

27. 27
WhatisRingofFire?
TheRingofFireis
in the Pacific
Ocean.Itismade
upofastringof
volcanoes, deep
oceantrenches,and
high mountain
ranges.Itisthe
siteofearthquakes
aroundtheedgesof
thePacificOcean.

28. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
28
TECTONICPLATEBOUNDARY
Atectonicplateboundaryistheborderbetween
twoplates.Thetectonicplatesslowlyand
constantlymove butinmany different
directions.Somearemovingtowardeachother,
somearemovingapart,andsomearegrinding
pasteachother.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

29. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
29
TYPESPLATEBOUNDARIES
CONVERGENT PLATEBOUNDARY
Whereplatescrashtogether,onedives
(“subducts”)beneaththeother,causing
volcanoes(redtriangles)toeruptonthe
overridingplateandearthquakes (black
stars)atavarietyofdepths.Thelargewhite
starrepresentsthezonewhereplateslock
togetherforcenturiesthensuddenlyletgo,
causingthelargestearthquakes.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -EVIDENCECONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

30. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
30
TYPESPLATEBOUNDARIES
CONVERGENT PLATEBOUNDARY
Whentwocontinentalplatesconvergeon
land(collideintoeachother),mountains
areformed.Thisisbecausebothofthe
plates,whicharesimilarlydense,willpush
upagainsteachother,causingtherockto
getallfoldedandbunchedup.Thecrustin
theregionofamountainisthickerthanthe
surroundingcrust.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

31. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
31
TYPESPLATEBOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT PLATEBOUNDARY
Thisiswheretwoplatesmoveawayfrom
eachother.Moltenrockfromthemantle
eruptsalongtheopening,formingnew
crust.
Volcaniceruptionsandshallowearthquakes
arecommonwhereplatesripapart.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

32. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
32
TYPESPLATEBOUNDARIES
TRANSFORM PLATEBOUNDARY
occurswhentwoplatesslidepasteach
other,horizontally.
Awell-knowntransformplateboundaryis
theSanAndreasFault,whichisresponsible
formanyofCalifornia’searthquakes.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -KEY CONCEPT

33. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
33
Avolcanoisanopeningintheearth'scrust
throughwhichlava,volcanicash,andgases
escape.
MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES
Amountainisanelevatedportionofthe
Earth'scrust,generallywithsteepsidesthat
showsignificantexposedbedrock.

34. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
34
WHAT DOMOUNTAINS ANDVOLCANOES
HAVEINCOMMON?
➢Theyarebothlarge,steeplandformsmadeof
rockthatareformedwhentectonicplatesare
pushedandpulled.
➢Whether you get mountains or
volcanoesdepends on the type of tectonic plates
and where they are colliding.
MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES

35. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
35
Tounderstandwhetheryouwillgetmountains
orvolcanoes,youneedtoremember two
things:
1.Therearetwomajortypesoftectonic
plates:oceanicandcontinental.
2.Oceanic plates are denser than
continentalplates.
MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES

36. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
36
1.Convergent Boundaries
(WhenTwoPlatesCollide)
a.Oceanic-OceanicConvergence
b.Oceanic-Continental
Convergence
c.Continental-Continental
Convergence
Plate Interactions and the Formation of Mountains or Volcanoes

37. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
37
2.DivergentBoundaries
(WhenTwoPlatesMoveApart)
Whenplatesmoveawayfromeach
other,magmarisesfromthemantleto
fillthegap,whichcancreatevolcanic
activity.In oceanic divergent
boundaries,liketheMid-Atlantic
Ridge, this process creates
underwatervolcanoes.
Plate Interactions and the Formation of Mountains or Volcanoes

38. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
38
3. Transform Plate
Boundaries
(WhenPlatesSlidePastEach
Other)
Plate Interactions and the Formation of Mountains or Volcanoes

39. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
39
FOSSILEVIDENCE
Fossilsofsimilartypesofplantsand
animalsinrocksofasimilaragehavebeen
foundontheshoresofdifferentcontinents,
suggestingthatthecontinentswereonce
joined.Forexample,fossilsofMesosaurus,
afreshwaterreptile,havebeenfoundboth
inBrazilandwesternAfrica.Also,fossilsof
thelandreptileLystrosaurushavebeen
foundinrocksofthesameageinAfrica,
IndiaandAntarctica.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT -EVIDENCE

40. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
40
Anearthquakeiswhathappenswhentwo
blocksoftheearthsuddenlyslippastone
another.Thesurfacewheretheyslipiscalled
thefaultorfaultplane.Thelocationbelowthe
earth’ssurfacewheretheearthquakestartsis
calledthehypocenter,andthelocation
directlyaboveitonthesurfaceoftheearthis
calledtheepicenter.
EARTHQUAKE

41. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
41
AnEarthquake,anysuddenshakingofthe
groundcausedbythepassageofseismic
wavesthroughEarth’srocks.
Earth'scrustisbrokenupintoirregular
piecescalledtectonicplates.
EARTHQUAKE

42. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
42
Anearthquakeiswhathappenswhentwo
blocksoftheearthsuddenlyslippastone
another.Thesurfacewheretheyslipiscalled
thefaultorfaultplane.Thelocationbelowthe
earth’ssurfacewheretheearthquakestartsis
calledthehypocenter,andthelocation
directlyaboveitonthesurfaceoftheearthis
calledtheepicenter.
EARTHQUAKE

43. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
43
1.Whatcausesearthquakes andwheredothey
happen?
2.Whydoestheearthshakewhenthereisan
earthquake?
3.Howareearthquakesrecorded?
4.Howdoscientistsmeasurethesizeofearthquakes?
5.Howcanscientiststellwheretheearthquake
happened?
6.Canscientistspredictearthquakes?
Assignment-notebook

44. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
44
EARTHQUAKE

45. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
45
Anearthquakeistheresultofa
suddenreleaseofenergyinthe
earth’scrustthatcreatesseismic
waves.
Theseismicactivityofanarea
referstothefrequency,typeand
sizeofearthquakesexperienced
overaperiodoftime.
What is an earthquake?

46. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
46
FOCUS(HYPOCENTER)
Focusisthepoint
whereruptureoccurs
andthelocationfrom
whichseismicwaves
arereleased.
Terms related to Earthquake

47. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
47
EPICENTER
Epicenteristhepointon
theearth’ssurfacethatis
directlyabovethefocus.
What is an earthquake?Terms related to Earthquake

48. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
48
FAULT arecracksintheearth'scrust
alongwhichthereismovement.Thesecan
bemassive(theboundariesbetweenthe
tectonicplatesthemselves)orverysmall.
Iftensionbuildsupalongafaultandthen
issuddenlyreleased,theresultisan
earthquake.
FRACTURES aresimplycracksinthe
crustwherethereisnomovement.
Terms related to Earthquake

49. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
49
Types of Fault

50. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
50
Types of Fault
Astrike–slipfaultoccursinan
areawheretwoplatesaresliding
pasteachother.Inrelationtothe
groundsurfacetheslipinvolves
sidewaymovement.Strike-slip
faultsarefoundinCalifornia,the
SanAndreasfaultbeingthemost
famouswhichhascausedmany
powerfulearthquakes.

51. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
51
Types of Fault
Normalfaultscrackswhereone
massofrockslidesdownward
andpullsawayfromanother
massofrock.Astheseplatesare
slowlysplittingapartandpulling
away fromeachother,the
normalfaultsareformedinthis
way.

52. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
52
Types of Fault
Areverseorthrustfaulthappens
whenplatesarebeingpushed
together.Thisinvolvesupward
movement asthetwoplates
collideandbuckleupwards.This
kind ofevent signifiesa
compressionoftheEarth'scrust.

53. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
53
Theearthhasfourmajorlayers:
theinnercore,outercore,mantle
andcrust.Thecrustandthetopof
themantlemakeupathinskinon
thesurfaceofourplanet.
What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

54. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
54
Theskinisnotallinonepiece–it
ismadeupofmanypieceslikea
puzzlecoveringthesurfaceofthe
earth.Notonlythat,butthese
puzzlepieceskeepslowlymoving
around,slidingpastoneanother
andbumpingintoeachother.We
callthesepuzzlepiecestectonic
plates,andtheedgesoftheplates
arecalledtheplateboundaries.
What causes earthquakes and where do they happen?

55. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
55
Thetectonicplatesarealways
slowlymoving,buttheyget
stuckattheiredgesdueto
friction.Whenthestressonthe
edgeovercomes thefriction,
thereisanearthquake that
releasesenergyinwavesthat
travelthroughtheearth'scrust
andcausetheshakingthatwe
feel.
Why does the earth shake when there is an earthquake?

56. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
56
Earthquakes arerecorded
by instruments called
seismographs. The
recordingtheymake is
calledaseismogram.
How are earthquakes recorded?

57. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
57
Theyusetheseismogram recordingsmadeonthe
seismographsatthesurfaceoftheearthtodetermine
howlargetheearthquakewas.Ashortwigglylinethat
doesn’twiggleverymuchmeansasmallearthquake,
andalongwigglylinethatwigglesalotmeansalarge
earthquake.Thelengthofthewiggledependsonthe
sizeofthefault,andthesizeofthewiggledependson
theamountofslip.
How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

58. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
58
Twomeasurements thatdescribethesizeofan
earthquakeare:
1.Intensity–ameasureofthedegreeofearthquake
shakingatagivenlocalebasedontheamountof
damage.
2.Magnitude –estimatestheamount ofenergy
releasedatthesourceoftheearthquake.
How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

59. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
59
TheMercalliIntensityScalewas
developedbytheItalianvolcanologist
Giuseppe Mercalliin1884 and
expanded toinclude12degreesof
intensityin1902byAdolfoCancani.It
wasmodifiedagainbyHarryO.Wood
andFrankNeumann in1931.Itis
knowntodayastheModifiedMercalli
IntensityScale.
How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?
Giuseppe Mercalli

60. 60

61. DRIFTING CONTINENTS, MOUNTAINS, EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES
61
Theideaofalogarithmicearthquake
magnitudescalewasfirstdeveloped
byCharlesRichterinthe1930'sfor
measuring thesizeofearthquakes
occurringinsouthernCaliforniausing
relativelyhigh-frequencydatafrom
nearbyseismographstations.
How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

62. 62

63. ANY QUESTION?

64. QUIZ 1 –LABORATORY
64
1.Whatarethe3primaryrolesoforganismsinanecosystem?Defineeach.
2.Whatplantspeciesarefoundinthequadrats(pleasespecify),andhow
manyindividualsarethereforeachspeciesinabioticandbiotic
communityactivity?
3.Whatisthetotalnumberofplantspecies(speciesdiversity)found
withinthequadratsinyourstudy
4.WhatisthesizeofthequadratusedintheEdaphicFactorsandSoil
InhabitantsActivity?
5.Howdoeselevationaffectatmosphericpressure?
6.WhatarethelaboratoryequipmentsusedinmeasuringthePhysicaland
Edaphicfactorsoftheenvironmentandtheiruses?
7.Whatarethedifferentlayerofthesoilandwhatistheircomposition?
8.Whatissoilandwhyisitimportant?
9.Refertotheactivityaboutsoilerosion.Whichtypeofsoilcanresist
erosionduringrainstorm?
10.Whatcausessoilerosionandhowdotheyaffectsoilfertility?

65. SEATWORK 1–EARTHQUAKE
65
1.Defineearthquake.
2.Breakdowntheanatomyofanearthquakebyillustrating
andexplainingkeyelements.
3.Howcanyoumeasurethesizeofanearthquake?
4.Whatisthedifferencebetweenearthquakesintensityand
magnitude?
5.Whatcausesearthquake?
6.Whattypeoffaultispresentineachplateboundaries.
7.Howcanhumanactivitiestriggerearthquake?