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1. UNIT-3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

2.   A. Cognitive Development theories 1. Piaget’s Theory 2. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory

3. 1. Piaget’s Theory “’The principle goal of education is to create men who are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done men who are creative, inventive and discoverers." -Jean Piaget

4. 1. Piaget’s Theory For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive development. His research method involved observing a small number of individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks. Piaget called his general theoretical framework "genetic epistemology" because he was interested in how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget examined the implications of his theory not only to aspects of cognition but also se intelligence and moral development. His theory has been applied widely to teaching and curriculum design specially the preschool and elementary curricula.

5. Basic Cognitive Concepts 1.Schema. Piaget used the term "schema" to refer to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize they environment. It is an individual's way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience. It is like the mind has a fitting cabinet, and coach drawer has folders that contain files of things he has had a experience with.

6. Basic Cognitive Concepts 2.A ssimilation. This is the process of fitting a new experience into an existing or previously created cognitive structure or schema. If the child sees another dog, this time a little smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new information (a different looking dog) into his schema of a dog.

7. Basic Cognitive Concepts 3.A ccommodation. This is the process of creating a new schema If the same child now sees another animal that looks a little bit like dog, but somehow different. He might try to fit it into his schema of a dog, and say, "Look mommy, what a funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too!" Then the mommy explains. "That's not a funny looking dog That's a goat!" With mommy's further descriptions, the child will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his filing cabinet.

8. Basic Cognitive Concepts 4.E quilibration. Piaget believed that that people have the natural need to understand how the world works and to find order, structure and predictability in their life. Equilibration is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation. When our experiences do not match our schemata (plural of schema) or cognitive structures, we experience cognitive disequilibrium . This means there is a discrepancy between what is perceived and what is understood. We then exert effort through assimilation and accommodation to establish equilibrium once more.

9. Paget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 1. Sensori -motor Stage. (birth-infancy) Grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more organized in his movement and activity. The term sensori -motor focuses on the prominence of the senses and muscle movement through which the infant comes to learn about himself and the world. In working with children in the sensori -motor stage, teachers should aim to provide a rich and stimulating environment with appropriate objects to play with. Object permanence . This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage.

10. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 2. Pre-Operational Stage. ( 2-7) roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage is intuitive in nature. Child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to the use of symbols. This stage is highlighted by the following: 1. Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a thing that represents something else. A drawing, a written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a real object Symbolic function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years.

11. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development By the age of 6 of 7 the child can pretend play with objects that exist only in his mind Example: Nico, may, after pretending to drink from an empty glass, turns the glass into a rocket ship or a telephone Enzo, who is six, can do a whole ninja turtle routine without any costume nor "props".

12. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 3.Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view. EXAMPLE: T hree year old girl who cannot understand why her cousins call her daddy "uncle" and not daddy. 4. Centration . This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. EXAMPLE: When a child is presented with two identical glasses with the same amount of water, the child will say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child might say that there is more water in the taller glass.

13. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 5. Irreversibility . Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 23 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2. Animism. EXAMPLE: When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply. "Mr. Sun is asleep". 6. Transductive reasoning . This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular EXAMPLE: If A causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy comes home everyday around six o' clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will say. "because my mom is already home."

14. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 7.Irreversibility . Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can understand that 23 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2. Animism. EXAMPLE: When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply. "Mr. Sun is asleep". 8.Transductive reasoning . This refers to the pre-operational child's type of reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive. Reasoning appears to be from particular to particular EXAMPLE: If A causes B, then B causes A. For example, since her mommy comes home everyday around six o' clock in the evening, when asked why it is already night, the child will say. "because my mom is already home."

15. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage. This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the ages between 8-11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete operational stage is marked by the following: 1.Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension.

16. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 2.Reversibility. During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow that certain operations can be done in reverse. EXAMPLE: T hey can already comprehend the com mutative property of addition, and that subtraction is the reverse of addition. 3.Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. C hild can now judge rightly that the amount of water in a taller but narrower container is still the same as when the water was in the shorter but wider glass.

17. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 4.Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.

18. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage, In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the follow- ing : 1. Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. EXAMPLE: "What if" questions.

19. Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development 2 .Analogical reasoning . This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. EXAMPLE: UK : EUROPE , PHILIPPINES : __________ 3 . Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular instance or situation. EXAMPLE: All countries near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.

20. 2. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory What a child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he will be able to do alone -Lev Vygotsky

21. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory When Vygotsky was a young boy he was educated under a teacher who used the Socratic method. This method was a systematic question and answer approach that allowed Vygotsky to examine current thinking and practice higher levels of understanding. This experience. together with his interest in literature and his work as a teacher, led him to recognize social interaction and language as two central factors in cognitive development. His theory became known as the Socio-Cultural Theory of Development .

22. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory 1. Social Interaction. Piaget's theory was more individual, while Vygotsky was more social Plaget's work on Piagetian's tasks focused heavily on how an individual's cognitive development became evident through the individual's own processing of the tasks. Vygotsky, on the other hand gave more weight on the social interactions that contributed to the cognitive development of individuals. For him, the social environment or the community takes on a major role in one's development. They explain, model, assist, give directions and provide feedback to the leamer . Peers, on the other hand, cooperate and collaborate and enrich the learning experience.

23. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory 2.Cultural factors . Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of children. Vygotsky, on the other hand, looked into the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture's view about education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive development of the child. 3. Language. Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world and solve problems. Language serves a social function but it also has an important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking.

24. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory EXAMPLE: preschoolers play and you may hear, " Gagawin ko itong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito ang airport (holding two long blocks)." For Vygotsky, this "talking-to-oneself is an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child's thinking and action. Vygotsky believed in the essential role of activities in learning Children learn best through hands-on activities than when listening passively. Leaming by doing is even made more fruitful when children interact with knowledgeable adults and peers.

25. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory 4. Zone Proximal Development When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be immediately proficient at it. So, alone she may perform at a certain level of competency. We refer to this as the zone of actual development . However, with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of competency. The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and what she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky referred to as zone of proximal development. The zone represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more advanced peer can assist the child's development.

26. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently is called scaffolding . Scaffolding is not about doing the task for the child while he watches. It is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the lunch bag, opening the food container and putting straw in the child's tetrapack juice for him is not scaffolding When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the lunch bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding. Loosening the food container lid just a bit and letting the child open the lid himself is scaffolding.

27. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory The instructor should scaffold in such a way that the gap is bridged between the learner's current skill levels and the desired skill level. As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade-away technique . Scaffolding, when done appropriately can make a learner confident and eventually he can accomplish the task without any need for assistance.

28. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory .

29. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory Piaget and Vygotsky Vygotsky worked on his theory around the same time as Piaget in between the 1920' and 30's but they had clear differences in their views about cognitive development. Since Piaget was taken up already in the preceding module, it would be easier now to see how his views compare with Vygotsky's. .

30. Vygotsky’s Socio-cultural Theory   Piaget   Vygotsky More individual in, focus Believed that there are universal stages of cognitive development   More social in focus. Did not propose stages but emphasized on cultural factors in cognitive development   Did not give much emphasis on language Stressed the role of language in cognitive development

31. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet)

32. 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet) Alfred Binet A French psychologist, defined intelligence as a combination of reasoning, judgment, memory, and the ability to abstract. Binet’s theory of intelligence was based on the idea that intelligence could be measured by comparing a child’s performance to that of other children of the same age. It is primarily associated with his development of the first practical intelligence test, which aimed to measure a person’s intellectual ability in a way that could guide educational interventions.

33. 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet) His views on intelligence: Intelligence as a Set of Abilities Focus on Mental Age The Role of Age in Intellectual Development Critique of Innate Intelligence Practical Purpose of Intelligence Testing The Concept of “Intelligence” as a Fluid Trait The Role of Judgment and Problem Solving

34. 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet)   1.Intelligence as a Set of Abilities Binet viewed intelligence not as a single, fixed trait, but as a set of cognitive abilities that could be measured and developed. 2. Focus on Mental Age Binet's most famous contribution was the concept of "mental age" (MA). He proposed that a child's intellectual development could be assessed in terms of how well they performed on tasks typical of various age groups.

35. 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet)   3. The Role of Age in Intellectual Development Binet emphasized that intelligence develops with age and that children of different ages would show different intellectual abilities. 4. Critique of Innate Intelligence Binet rejected the notion that intelligence was fixed or purely genetic. Instead, he believed that intelligence could be nurtured and developed through education.

36. 1. Concept of Intelligence (Alfred Binet)   5. Practical Purpose of Intelligence Testing Binet developed his intelligence test with a clear educational purpose in mind. The goal was not to rank individuals but to identify children who were struggling and might benefit from additional educational resources. 6. The Concept of "Intelligence" as a Fluid Trait Binet believed that intelligence was not a rigid, unchangeable quality but rather something that could evolve over time. 7. The Role of Judgment and Problem Solving Binet believed that intelligence was closely tied to the ability to make judgments, reason logically, and solve problems.

37. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN)

38. 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN)   Charles Spearman -was born on September 10th 1863 in London, England and died September 17th, 1945. Spearman believed we have one general intelligence which was known as g. This g was used in factor analysis, a theory that he helped developed. Factor analysis is a statistical procedure that breaks down test scores in identifying areas of intelligence. All in all he helped pioneer theories of general intelligence and factor analysis.

39. 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN)   G-factor (general intelligence) reflects the capability of a person in doing the general mental ability tasks. S-factor (specific intelligence) - responsible for recognizing the specific abilities of a person.

40. 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN) COMPONENTS OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE: Fluid reasoning : This involves the ability to think flexibly and solve problems. Knowledge: This is a person's general understanding of a wide range of topics and can be equated with crystallized intelligence. Quantitative reasoning: This is an individual's capacity to solve problems that involve numbers. Visual-spatial processing: This relates to a person's abilities to interpret and manipulate visual information, such as putting together puzzles and copying complex shapes. Working memory: This involves the use of short-term memory such as being able to repeat a list of items.

41. 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN) Impact of General Intelligence While the concept of intelligence is still the subject of debate within psychology, researchers believe that general intelligence is correlated with overall success in life. Some of the effects that it may have on an individual's life include areas such as: Academic Achievement Job Success Health and Longevity Income

42. 2. General intelligence (CHARLE’S SPEARMAN) Challenges of General Intelligence The notion that intelligence could be measured and summarized by a single number on an IQ test was controversial, even during Spearman's time. IQ and intelligence testing have remained topics of debate ever since. While influential, the g factor is just one way of thinking about intelligence.

43. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 3. Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone )

44. 3. Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone ) Primary Mental Abilities = Refer to the fundamental cognitive abilities that underlie human intelligence. Louise Leon Thurstone = Proposed theory in 1930's that intelligence is composed of several different factors.

45. 3. Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone ) The Seven Primary Mental Abilities: 1. Verbal comprehension 2. Verbal fluency 3. Number facility 4. Spatial Visualization 5. Perceptual speed 6. Memory 7. Inductive reasoning

46. 3. Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone ) 1. Verbal comprehension The ability to understand and interpret written and spoken Language, involving vocabulary, syntax, semantics and inference. 2 . Verbal fluency Quickly generate words fitting specific criteria, such as category, letter or sound. 3. Number facility The ability to perform mathematical calculations, reasons numerically, and interpret quantitive data with speed and accuracy. 4. Spatial Visualization Mentally manipulate and understand objects , spaces and relationships in three dimension.

47. 3. Primary Mental Abilities ( Thurstone ) 5. Perceptual speed = Quickly and accurately process and identify visual information . 6. Memory = The mental capacity to encode, store and retrieve information, encompassing shot - term, long - term, sensory and working memory. 7. Inductive Reasoning = Drawing logical conclusions fron specific observations to make generalization  

48. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner)

49. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) What is Multiple Intelligences Theory? Proposes that people are not born with all of the intelligence they will ever have. Challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as "g" for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical- mathematical modalities are most typed valued in school and society.  

50. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) Gardner also suggests that there may other "candidate" intelligences such as spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence-but does not believe these meet his original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011) Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each "candidate" intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.  

51. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 1. Linguistic Intelligence ("word smart") Odeals with sensitivity to the spoken and written language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. OPeople with linguistic intelligence, such as William Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have an ability to analyse information and create products involving oral and written language such as speeches, books, and memos.  

52. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") ORefers to the capacity to analyse problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. OPeople with logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, have an ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract problems.  

53. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 3. Spatial Intelligence ("picture smart") Spatial intelligence features the potential to recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used, for instance, by navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those of importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects. People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart, have an ability to recognize and manipulate large- scale and fine-grained spatial images  

54. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence ("body smart") Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or the mouth) to solve problems or to fashion products. People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, such as Michael Jordan and Simone Biles, have an ability to use one's own body to create products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind- body union.  

55. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 5. Musical Intelligence ("music smart") Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. People with musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have an ability to recognize and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone  

56. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 6. Interpersonal Intelligence ("people smart") lnterpersonal intelligence is the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and consequently to work effectively with others People with interpersonal intelligence, such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have an ability to recognize and understand other people's moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.  

57. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 7. Intrapersonal Intelligence ("self smart") lntrapersonal intelligerte is the capacity to understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself- including owns desires, fears, and capacities and to use such information effectively in regulating one's own life. People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya Angelou, have an ability to recognize and understand his or her own moods, desires, motivations, and intentions. This type of intelligence can help a person to understand which life goals are important and how to achieve them  

58. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) Implications for learning A common misconception about the theory of multiple intelligences is that it is synonymous with learning styles. Gardner states that learning styles refer to the way an individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks and materials. Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight intelligences at varying degrees of proficiency and an individual's learning style is unrelated to the areas in which they are the most intelligent.

59. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) Research shows that students are more engaged and learn best when they are given various ways to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers more accurately assess student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2010). The biggest mistake of past centuries in teaching has been to treat all students as if they were variants of the same individual and thus to feel justified in teaching them all the same subjects the same way. - Howard Gardner

60. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 5. Triarchic theory of intelligence (Stemberg)

61. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) -is a theory that describes intelligence as a combination of three distinct types of intelligence: Practical intelligence The ability to adapt to and change one's environment to suit their needs. This is also known as street smarts. Creative intelligence The ability to come up with new ideas and solve new problems using past experiences. This is also known as experiential intelligence.

62. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) Analytical intelligence The ability to process and analyze information. This is also known as componential intelligence. The triarchic theory of intelligence was developed by psychologist Robert J. Sternberg as an alternative to the concept of general intelligence. The theory is based on the idea that intelligence is the ability to succeed in life based on one's standards and sociocultural setting. The triarchic theory is made up of three subtheories : contextual, experiential , and componential . Each subtheory corresponds to one of the three types of intelligence.

63. B. Intelligence and Individual Differences 6.Cognitive information processing Theory

64. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) theory, also known as the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, in 1968. This theory explains how people process and store information, comparing the human mind to a computer with three main components:

65. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 1. Sensory Memory: • This is where information from the environment (what you see, hear, feel, etc.) first enters. • It lasts for only a few seconds. Example: Seeing a flash of light or hearing someone call your name . 2. Short-Term Memory (STM): • Also known as working memory. • Can hold approximately seven items of information for 15 to 30 seconds. Example: Remembering a phone number before dialing it.

66. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) 3. Long-Term Memory (LTM): • This stores information permanently for later use . • Information here is organized and retrieved when needed. Examples: 1. Remembering lessons from past classes or personal experiences. 2. Your happy childhood moments, or even just your birthdays.

67. 4. Multiple Intelligences ( Howard Gardner) How It Works: 1. Information enters through sensory memory 2. If you pay attention, it moves to short-term memory. 3. Through rehearsal (repeating or connecting ideas), it transfers to long-term memory. Retrieval brings information from long-term memory back when needed. Key Takeaways: • Focus and repetition help improve memory. • Distractions can stop information from reaching long-term memory. • Learning happens when you process information deeply (e.g., understanding instead of just memorizing).

68. C. Factors affecting Cognitive Development D.Language development -is the process by which children learn to understand and communicate language. It begins before birth and continues throughout a child's life:

69. Factors affecting Cognitive Development Language development Infancy Babies start to recognize speech patterns in their mother's voice in utero. By 10 months, they can distinguish speech sounds and start babbling. Toddlerhood Children typically have a vocabulary of around 200 words by the time they become toddlers. They start to put words together in short phrases, which is called the naming explosion.

70. Factors affecting Cognitive Development Language development Elementary school Children continue to expand their spoken language and start learning to read and write. Middle school Children continue to improve their vocabulary and grammar, and their writing becomes more complex.

71. Factors affecting Cognitive Development Language development Language development is influenced by many factors, including: • Environment: Children develop best in environments with lots of sounds and sights, and consistent exposure to speech and language. • Motivation: A child's motivation can influence their language learning. Gender: A child's gender can influence their language learning. • Physical development: A child's physical development can influence their language learning.

72. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development

73. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development Genetic Factors 1. Genetic predispositions - Inherited traits influencing intelligence and language ability. 2. Chromosomal abnormalities- Conditions like Down syndrome affecting cognitive development.    

74. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development ll. Environmental Factors 1. Socioeconomic status- Access to education, healthcare, and resources. 2. Parent-child interaction - Quality of communication and nurturing. 3. Family dynamics - Stable, supportive environment . 4. Culture and values- Language, customs, and beliefs .

75. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development lll . Prenatal and Perinatal Factors   1. Maternal nutrition - Adequate nutrition during pregnancy. 2. Prenatal care- Regular health check-ups. 3. Premature birth - Potential cognitive delays. 4. Birth complications -Oxygen deprivation or trauma.  

76. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development lll . Prenatal and Perinatal Factors   1. Maternal nutrition - Adequate nutrition during pregnancy. 2. Prenatal care- Regular health check-ups. 3. Premature birth - Potential cognitive delays. 4. Birth complications -Oxygen deprivation or trauma.  

77. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development lV. Early Childhood Factors   1. Nutrition - Adequate nutrition for brain development. 2. Stimulation - Exposure to sights, sounds, and experiences. 3. Play - Opportunities for exploration and learning. 4. Childcare quality - Trained caregivers and stable environments.  

78. E. Factors that affecting cognitive and language development Keep in mind that these factors interact and influence one another. A comprehensive understanding of these factors can help support healthy cognitive and language development.

79. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications EDAGOGY MOST COMMONLY UNDERSTOOD AS THE APPROACH TO TEACHING, IS THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF LEARNING, AND HOW THIS PROCESS INFLUENCES, AND IS INFLUENCED BY, THE SOCIAL, POLITICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNERS. PEDAGOGY, TAKEN AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE, IS THE STUDY OF HOW KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS ARE IMPARTED IN AN EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT, AND IT CONSIDERS THE INTERACTIONS THAT TAKE PLACE DURING LEARNING.

80. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Cognitive Development Cognitive development is how humans acquire, organize, and learn to use knowledge ( Gauvain & Richert, 2016). In psychology, the focus of cognitive development has often been only on childhood. However, cognitive development continues through adolescence and adulthood. It involves acquiring language and knowledge, thinking, memory, decision making. problem solving, and exploration (Von Eckardt, 1996). Much of the research within cognitive development in children focuses on thinking, developing knowledge, exploring, and solving problems ( Carpendale & Lewis, 2015).

81. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Pedagogical Applications Cognitive Development Connects with assets that is needed. to present Create cognitive psychology based on the learning process .

82. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Pedagogical Content Knowledge(PCK)   Pedagogical content knowledge is the combining of pedagogy and subject content knowledge which Shulman re-emphasized in the 1980s. Lee Shulman was a teacher education researcher who worked towards expanding and improving knowledge about teaching and teacher preparation. He posited that simply developing general pedagogical skills were insufficient; he believed that the key to distinguishing the knowledge base of teaching rested at the intersection of content and pedagogy. he established pedagogical content knowledge as teachers' interpretations and transformations of subject-matter knowledge in the context of facilitating student learning.

83. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Key Elements Pedagogical Content Knowledge Understanding Of students Conceptions Of The Subject And The Learning Knowledge of Educational Contexts Knowledge Representations Of Subject Matter Curriculum Knowledge Knowledge of The Purpose of Education Key Elements Of Pedagogical Content Knowledge Knowledge Of Representations Of Subject Matter

84. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Subject Matter Knowledge -extends beyond knowing a Jot about something. It suggests that both educators and students think in a disciplined manner that they can apply to a multitude of places and situations. • A teacher's understanding and expertise in the content area they are teaching.

85. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Understanding Of Students' Conceptions Of The Subject And The Learning PCK illustrates how the subject matter of a particular discipline is transformed for communication with learners. It includes recognition of what makes specific topics difficult to learn. the conceptions students bring to the learning of these concepts, and teaching strategies tailored to this specific teaching situation.

86. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Curriculum Knowledge The purpose of the curriculum is to facilitate effective student learning; it is much more than guiding them to learn specific chapters in maths , science or literature. • Reflects the national culture in which a school operates different countries have different expectations of their students, even if teaching practices are similar. Knowledge Of Educational Contexts Teachers indeed need to understand subject matter deeply and flexibly so they can help students map their own ideas, relate one idea to another, and re- direct their thinking to create powerful learning. Provide students with plenty of opportunities nities to achieve learning outcomes and develop the knowledge. skills and understandings that are essential to all areas of the curriculum.

87. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Knowledge Of The Purpose Of Education Cochran et al. (1993) highlighted that Shulman's concept of PCK is stagnant and divided into various components, they remarked that a teacher's knowledge of teaching should he dynamic, developing and continuously growing. Therefore, the revised version that came to be known as pedagogical content knowing PCKg outlined a few vital aspects of teacher education. It emphasized: Subject matter knowledge Knowledge of pedagogy Knowledge of students Knowledge of environmental contexts  

88. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Early Childhood Social and Emotional Development Promoting Young Children's Social and Emotional Health Middle Childhood Development of Self and Social Understandings Piaget (1952), focusing on children's cognitive development, characterized middle childhood as a time when children become less egocentric and much more responsive to the views of others.

89. F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications Adolescent The adolescent must develop expanded verbal skills As adolescents mature intellectually, as they face increased school demands, and as they prepare for adult roles, they must develop new verbal skills to accommodate more complex concepts and tasks. Their limited language of childhood is no longer adequate. Higher education Higher education takes a much different approach. The traditional lecture is still an accepted teaching approach, especially in large classes and the sciences. Many students still spend their class hours passively taking notes as the professor talks.

90. Key people Choose three leaders for Black History Month using Bing.com and discuss their lives and accomplishments. Here are some examples: