UNIT 4.3 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION.pdf

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1. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

2. Theterm‘motivation’hasbeenderivedfromtheword‘motive’.Motive
maybedefinedasaninnerstateofourmindthatactivatesanddirectsour
behaviour.Itmakesusmovetoact.Motivationissomethingthatmovesthe
persontoactionandcontinueshiminthecourseofactionalreadyinitiated.
AccordingtoS.P.Robbins,”Motivationisthewillingnesstoexerthigh
levelsofefforttowardsorganizationalgoals,conditionedbytheeffortand
abilitytosatisfysomeindividualneed”.
Therelationshipbetweentheorganizationanditsmembersis
influencedbywhatmotivatesthemtoworkandtherewardandfulfilmentthey
derivefromit.Themanagerneedstoknowhowbesttoelicittheco-operation
ofstaffanddirecttheirperformancetoachievingthegoalsandobjectivesofthe
organization.
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3. Types of Motivation
Therearemainlytwotypesofmotivationssuchas
•ExtrinsicMotivation
•IntrinsicMotivation
ExtrinsicMotivationisgearedtowardexternalrewardsandreinforcer's.Some
examplesofexternalrewardsaremoney,praise,awards,etc.Someexamplesof
externalreinforcer'sarepolicyandprocedures,disciplinaryaction,speeding
tickets,boundary-setting,etc.Extrinsicmotivationisexternalinnature.Themost
well-knownandthemostdebatedmotivationismoney.Belowaresomeother
examples:
•Employeeofthemonthaward
•Benefitpackage
•Bonuses
•Organizedactivities
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4. IntrinsicMotivationisgearedtowardinternalrewardsandreinforcer's.People
mayworkatajobbecauseitgivesthemfeelingsofcompetenceandasenseof
personalcontroldoingthejobisfun,theworkismatterofpride,thetasksare
challenging,andsoon.Ourdeep-rooteddesireshavethehighestmotivational
power.Belowaresomeexamples:
•Acceptance:Weallneedtofeelthatwe,aswellasourdecisions,areaccepted
byourco-workers.
•Curiosity:Weallhavethedesiretobeintheknow.
•Honor:Weallneedtorespecttherulesandtobeethical.
•Independence:Weallneedtofeelweareunique.
•Order:Weallneedtobeorganized.
•Power:Weallhavethedesiretobeabletohaveinfluence.
•Socialcontact:Weallneedtohavesomesocialinteractions.
•SocialStatus:Weallhavethedesiretofeelimportant.
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6. ContentTheories:Thecontent
theoriesfindtheanswertowhat
motivatesanindividualandis
concernedwithindividualneeds
andwants.Followingtheoristshave
giventheirtheoriesofmotivation
incontentperspective:
1.Maslow–HierarchyOfNeeds
2.Herzberg’s Motivation-hygiene
Theory
3.Mcclelland’s Needs Theory
4.Alderfer’s ERG Theory
ProcessTheories:Theprocess
theoriesdealwith“How”the
motivationoccurs,i.e.the
processofmotivationand
followingtheoriesweregivenin
thiscontext:
1.Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
2.Adam’s Equity Theory
3.Goal Setting Theory
4.Reinforcement Theory
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ContentTheories:
1.Maslow–HierarchyOfNeeds:
Maslow'shierarchyofneedsisatheory
inpsychologyproposedbyAbrahamMaslowinhis1943paper"ATheoryof
HumanMotivation"inpsychologicalReview.Maslowsubsequentlyextendedthe
ideatoincludehisobservationsofhumans'innatecuriosity.
Humanbehaviorisgoal-directed.Motivation
causegoal-directedbehaviour.Itisthroughmotivationthatneedscanbehandled
andtackledpurposely.Thiscanbeunderstoodbyunderstandingthehierarchyof
needsbymanager.Theneedsofindividualservesasadrivingforceinhuman
behaviour.Therefore,amanagermustunderstandthe“hierarchyofneeds”.Maslow
hasproposed“TheNeedHierarchyModel”.

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9. 2.Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:
TheHerzberg’sMotivation-HygieneTheoryisgivenbyFredrick
Herzbergandhisassociates,whostudiedthevariablesthatareperceivedtobe
desirabletoachievegoalsandtheundesirableconditionstoavoid.Inthis
context,thestudywasconductedwhereintheexperiencesandfeelingsof200
engineersandaccountantswereanalyzed.
Theywereaskedtosharetheirpreviousjobexperiencesin
whichtheyfelt“exceptionallygood”or“exceptionallybad.”Throughthisstudy,
Herzbergconcludedthattherearetwojobconditionsindependentofeach
otherthataffectthebehaviordifferently.
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10. Thefirstsetofjobconditionshasbeenreferredtoasmaintenanceor
hygienefactor,whereinthesamejobconditionsprovidethesamelevelof
dissatisfaction,incasetheconditionsareabsent,however,theirpresencedoes
notmotivateinastrongway.
Thesecondsetofjobconditionsisreferredtoasmotivationalfactors,
whichprimarilyoperatetobuildstrongmotivationandhighjobsatisfaction,
buttheirabsencedoesnotresultinstrongdissatisfaction.
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11. •HygieneFactors:Herzbergidentifiedtenmaintenanceorhygienefactors,thatare
notintrinsicpartsofajob,butarerelatedtotheconditionsinwhichthejobhasto
beperformed.Thesearecompanypolicyandadministration,technicalsupervision,
jobsecurity,workingconditions,interpersonalrelationshipwithpeers,
subordinatesandsupervisors,salary,jobsecurity,personallife,etc.
•Motivationalfactors:Thesefactorshaveapositiveeffectonthefunctioningofthe
employeesintheorganization.Therearesixfactorsthatmotivateemployees:
Achievement,Recognition,Advancement,Work-itself,Possibilityofgrowthand
Responsibility.Anincreaseinthesefactorssatisfiestheemployeesandthedecrease
inthesewillnotaffectthelevelofsatisfaction.
Thus,Herzberg’sMotivation-HygieneTheorystudiedthevariableswhich
wereresponsibleforthelevelofsatisfactionandhadbeenappliedintheindustrythat
hasgivenseveralnewinsights.
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12. 3.McClelland’sNeedsTheory:McClelland’sNeedsTheorywas
proposedbyapsychologistDavidMcClelland,whobelievedthatthespecificneeds
oftheindividualareacquiredoveraperiodoftimeandgetsmoldedwithone’s
experienceofthelife.McClelland’sNeedsTheoryissometimesreferredtoasThree
NeedtheoryorLearnedNeedsTheory.
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•NeedforPower(n-pow):WhatisPower?Poweristheabilitytoinduceorinfluence
thebehaviorofothers.Thepeoplewithhighpowerneedsseekhigh-levelpositions
intheorganization,soastoexerciseinfluenceandcontroloverothers.Generally,
theyare

13. outspoken,forceful,demanding,practical/realistic-notsentimental,andliketoget
involvedintheconversations.
•NeedforAffiliation(n-affil):Peoplewithhighneedforaffiliationderives
pleasurefrombeinglovedbyallandtendtoavoidthepainofbeingrejected.
Since,thehumanbeingsaresocialanimals,theyliketointeractandbewith
otherswheretheyfeel,peopleacceptthem.Thus,peoplewiththeseneedsliketo
maintainthepleasantsocialrelationships,enjoythesenseofintimacyandlike
tohelpandconsoleothersatthetimeoftrouble.
•NeedforAchievement(n-ach):McClellandfoundthatsomepeoplehavean
intensedesiretoachieve.Hehasidentifiedthefollowingcharacteristicsofhigh
achievers:
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14. •Highachieverstakethemoderaterisks,i.e.acalculatedriskwhileperforming
theactivitiesinthemanagementcontext.Thisisoppositetothebeliefthathigh
achieverstakehighrisk.
•Highachieversseektoobtaintheimmediatefeedbackfortheworkdoneby
them,soastoknowtheirprogresstowardsthegoal.Oncethegoalisset,the
highachieverputshimselfcompletelyintothejob,untilitgetscompleted
successfully.Hewillnotbesatisfieduntilhehasgivenhis100%inthetask
assignedtohim.
Hence,McClelland’sNeedsTheorypositsthattheperson’slevelof
effectivenessandmotivationisgreatlyinfluencedbythesethreebasicneeds.
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15. 4.Alderfer’sERGTheory:
Alderfer’sERGTheoryistheextensionofMaslow’s
NeedsHierarchy,whereintheMaslow’sfiveneedsarecategorizedinto
threecategories,Viz.ExistenceNeeds,RelatednessNeeds,andGrowthNeeds.
AnAmericanpsychologistClaytonPaulAlderferhad
proposedthistheoryandbelievedthateachneedcarriessomevalueandhence
canbeclassifiedaslower-orderneedsandhigher-orderneeds.Healsofound
somelevelofoverlappinginthephysiological,securityandsocialneedsalong
withaninvisiblelineofdemarcationbetweenthesocial,esteemandself-
actualizationneeds.ThisledtotheformationAlderfer’sERGtheory,which
comprisesofthecondensedformofMaslow’sneeds.
•ExistenceNeeds:Theexistenceneedscomprisesofallthoseneedsthatrelate
tothephysiologicalandsafetyaspectsofhumanbeingsandarea
prerequisiteforthesurvival.
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16. Thus,boththephysiologicalandsafetyneedsofMaslowaregroupedintoone
categorybecauseoftheirsamenatureandasimilarimpactonthebehaviorof
anindividual.
•RelatednessNeeds:Therelatednessneedsrefertothesocialneeds,thatan
individualseekstoestablishrelationshipswiththoseforwhomhecares.
TheseneedscovertheMaslow’ssocialneedsandapartofesteemneeds,
derivedfromtherelationshipwithotherpeople.
•GrowthNeeds:ThegrowthneedscoverMaslow’sself-actualizationneedsas
wellasapartofesteemneedswhichareinternaltotheindividual,suchasa
feelingofbeingunique,personnelgrowth,etc.
Thus,growthneedsarethoseneedsthatinfluencean
individualtoexplorehismaximumpotentialintheexistingenvironment.
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17. ProcessTheories:
1.Vroom’sExpectancyTheory:Vroom’sExpectancyTheorywas
proposedbyVictor.H.Vroom,whobelievedthatpeoplearemotivatedto
performactivitiestoachievesomegoaltotheextenttheyexpectthatcertain
actionsontheirpartwouldhelpthemtoachievethegoal.
Vroom’sExpectancyTheoryisbasedontheassumptionthatan
individual’sbehaviorresultsfromthechoicesmadebyhimwithrespecttothe
alternativecourseofaction,whichisrelatedtothepsychologicalevents
occurringsimultaneouslywiththebehavior.Thismeansanindividualselectsa
certainbehaviorovertheotherbehaviorswithanexpectationofgetting
results,theonedesiredfor.Thus,Vroom’sExpectancyTheoryhasitsrootsin
thecognitiveconcept,i.e.howanindividualprocessesthedifferentelementsof
motivation.
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18. Thistheoryisbuiltaroundtheconceptofvalence,instrumentality,and
Expectancyand,therefore,isoftencalledasVIEtheory.
•The algebraic representation of Vroom’s Expectancy theory is:
•Motivation (force) =∑Valence x Expectancy
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•Expectancy–aperson’sbeliefthatmoreeffortwillresultinsuccess.Ifyou
workharder,itwillresultinbetterperformance.
•Instrumentality–theperson’sbeliefthatthereisaconnectionbetween
activityandgoal.Ifyouperformwell,youwillgetreward.
•Valence–the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of
success.
2.Adam’sEquityTheory:
TheAdam’sEquityTheorypositsthatpeoplemaintaina
fairrelationshipbetweentheperformanceandrewardsincomparisontoothers.
Inotherwords,anemployeegetsde-motivatedbythejobandhisemployerin
casehisinputsaremorethantheoutputs.TheAdam’sEquityTheorywas
proposedbyJohnStaceyAdams,andisbasedonthefollowingassumptions:
Individualsmakecontributions(inputs)forwhichtheycertainrewards
(outcomes).

20. Tovalidatetheexchange,anindividualcompareshisinputand
outcomeswiththoseofothersandtrytorectifytheinequality.Therearethreetypes
ofexchangerelationshipsthatarisewhenanindividualinput/outcomesare
comparedwiththatoftheotherpersons.
1.OverpaidInequity:Whenanindividualperceivesthathisoutcomesaremoreas
comparedtohisinputs,inrelationtoothers.Theoverpaidinequitycanbeexpressed
as:
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2.UnderpaidInequity:Whenanindividualperceivesthathisoutcomesarelessas
comparedtohisinputs,inrelationtoothers.TheUnderpaidEquitycanbe
expressedas:

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3.Equity:Anindividualperceivesthathisoutcomesinrelationtohisinputsare
equaltothoseofothers.Theequitycanbeexpressedas
Thus,Adam’sequitytheoryshowsthelevelofmotivationamongthe
individualsintheworkingenvironment.Anindividualissaidtobehighly
motivatedifheperceivestobetreatedfairly.Whilethefeelingsofde-motivation
arise,ifanindividualperceivestobetreatedunfairlyintheorganization.

22. 3.GOAL SETTING THEORY:
In1960’s,EdwinLockeputforwardtheGoal-settingtheoryof
motivation.Thistheorystatesthatgoalsettingisessentiallylinkedtotask
performance.Itstatesthatspecificandchallenginggoalsalongwith
appropriatefeedbackcontributetohigherandbettertaskperformance.The
importantfeaturesofgoal-settingtheoryareasfollows:
Thewillingnesstoworktowardsattainmentofgoalismain
sourceofjobmotivation.Clear,particularanddifficultgoalsaregreater
motivatingfactorsthaneasy,generalandvaguegoals.Specificandcleargoals
leadtogreateroutputandbetterperformance.Unambiguous,measurableand
cleargoalsaccompaniedbyadeadlineforcompletionavoids
misunderstanding.Goalsshouldberealisticandchallenging.Thisgivesan
individualafeelingofprideandtriumphwhenheattainsthem,andsetshim
upforattainmentofnextgoal.
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23. Themorechallengingthegoal,thegreateristherewardgenerallyand
themoreisthepassionforachievingit.Betterandappropriatefeedbackofresults
directstheemployeebehaviourandcontributestohigherperformancethan
absenceoffeedback.
Feedbackisameansofgainingreputation,makingclarificationsand
regulatinggoaldifficulties.Ithelpsemployeestoworkwithmoreinvolvement
andleadstogreaterjobsatisfaction.
Employees’participationingoalisnotalwaysdesirable.Participation
ofsettinggoal,however,makesgoalmoreacceptableandleadstomore
involvement.goalsettingtheoryhascertaineventualitiessuchas:
a.Self-efficiency-Self-efficiencyistheindividual’sself-confidenceandfaiththat
hehaspotentialofperformingthetask.Higherthelevelofself-efficiency,greater
willbetheeffortsputinbytheindividualwhentheyfacechallengingtasks.
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24. While,lowerthelevelofself-efficiency,lesswillbetheeffortsputinbythe
individualorhemightevenquitwhilemeetingchallenges.
b.Goalcommitment-Goalsettingtheoryassumesthattheindividualis
committedtothegoalandwillnotleavethegoal.Thegoalcommitmentis
dependentonthefollowingfactors:
•Goalsaremadeopen,knownandbroadcasted.
•Goalsshouldbeset-selfbyindividualratherthandesignated.
•Individual’ssetgoalsshouldbeconsistentwiththeorganizationalgoalsand
vision.
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25. 4.Reinforcement Theory:
Thistheoryisbasedontheconceptsofoperandconditioning
developedbyB.F.Skinner.Itarguesthatthebehaviorofpeopleislargely
determinedbyitsconsequence.Inotherwords,thoseactionsthattendtohave
positiveorpleasantconsequencestendtoberepeatedmoreofteninfuture,while
thoseactionsthattendtohaverepeatednegativeorunpleasantconsequencesare
lesslikelytoberepeatedagain.
Thereinforcementtheorysuggeststhatmanagersshouldtryto
structurethecontingenciesofrewardsandpunishmentsonthejobinsuchaway
thattheconsequencesofeffectivejobbehaviorarepositivewhilethe
consequencesofineffectiveworkbehaviorarenegativeorunpleasant.Thefocus
ofthisapproachisuponchangingormodifyingthebehaviorofpeopleonthe
job.thatiswhyitisalsoregardedasorganizationalbehaviormodification.
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27. •Thebasicnotionunderlyingreinforcementtheoryistheconceptof
reinforcementitself.Aneventissaidtobereinforcingiftheeventfollowing
somebehaviormakesthebehaviormorelikelytooccuragaininthefuture.
•Inorganizationalsettings,fourbasickindsofreinforcementcanresultfrom
behavior which is discussed brieflyas under:
1.PositiveReinforcement:Amethodofstrengtheningbehaviorwithrewardsor
positiveoutcomesafteradesiredbehaviorisperformed.
•2.Avoidance/Negativereinforcement:Usedtostrengthenbehaviorbyavoiding
unpleasantconsequencesthatwouldresultifthebehaviorwasnotperformed.
3.Punishment:Usedtoweakenundesiredbehaviorsbyusingnegativeoutcomes
orunpleasantconsequencewhenthebehaviorisperformed.
4.Extinction:Usedtoweakenundesiredbehaviorsbysimplyignoringornot
reinforcingthatbehavior.
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