What is a theory

RESEARCH METHODS FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS

1. What is a Theory ? Desmond Ayim-Aboagye, Ph.D. -Theory helps us to understand many aspects of our environment - It is used to help make decisions, i.e. Hospitals to unearth symptoms of a disease -Fundamental to research work - T o explain behaviour (i.e., aggressive behaviour, delinquency ) Theories: Control theory, Relativity theory, Supply and Demand theory, etc.

2. Four Components of a theory Concepts Thinking contruction Connections/Associations Hypotheses

3. Concept This is defined as ”the building blocks in models, theories, and hypotheses” (Lantz 1993) Concepts are words that are used as symbolic representations of experiences and observations (DePoy & Gitlin 1999) Examples: prejudice,social class, authoritarian, etc. How do we measure them?

4. Thinking Contruction To represent a model between two or several concepts It means to look for relationships between concepts and variables to see whether there is an association between them or not

5. Hypothesis A statement which is possible to prove concerning what a researcher is expecting to find association between them ”There is an association between work satisfaction and productivity” or ”Work satisfaction influences productivity in work places”

6. Definition of a Theory ”A system of concepts which build internal relationships that explain connections and make some patterns more comprehensible” Theory makes it possible to formulate hypotheses which can be proved in empirical manner (Lantz 1993).

7. Kerlinger’s definition (1986) ”A number of internal related concepts, definitions, meaningful ideas which present systematic view of a phenomenon through the specification of association between variables with the purpose to explain and predict a phenomenon”

8. Variable: What is it? ”An operational definition of a concept that is given numerical basis”. Usually it has to do with causality between variables: Violence on TV and aggressive behaviour.

9. Dependent vrs Independent Independent variable (violence on TV) Dependent variable (aggressive behviour) F (x) = y Here y is violence, that is, independent variable X is dependant variable

10. Variables Examples: Ethnic groups, sex, income, age, violence, aggresive behaviour, etc.

11. Deductive method All humans beings shall die I am a human being Therefore I shall die (Conclusion is usually based on the premise)

12. Inductive method I am a human being Uptill now all human beings die after some years on earth Therefore I shall die after some years on earth (Conclusion is based on something that shall happen in the future, not yet )

13. Abduction A kind of conclusion which results from an unexpected knowledge. A phenomenon that is being studied provides a new manner of seeing something in a new perspective

14. Experimental Researcher PREDICT & VERIFY (Characteritics) Logic-deductive process Primarily proving of a theory Go from theory to abstraction level Statement of reality aspect that can be measured Move from from knowledge that is based on existing concepts Focuses on measuring aspects of a phenomenon

15. Experiment 1. THEORY 2. HYPOTHESIS 3. OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS (Measure) 4. ANALYSIS 5. RESULTS 6. OBSERVATION 7. DISCUSSION & CONCLUSION

16. Qualitative Researcher (Inductive) GENERATE THEORY (Characteristics) Primarily inductive Primarily theory generation Common experiences to higher level Multiple subjective understanding of experience The informant owns the knowledge Focus to understand complexity

17. Qualitative 1. Observation- concepts 2. Development of Thinking construction 3. Hypotheses formulation 4. Observation 5. Modification of Thinking construction 6. Theory building (Glaser & Strauss 1967)

18. Thinking about Research 1. Identification of subject/area i.e. Prisons, patients, etc 2. To find,delimit, and formulate research problem/questions 3. Purpose (say why the study is being undertaken, specific goal for the research project) 4. Purpose for experimental method (to describe, to explain, or predict)

19. Thinking about Research 5. Purpose for Qualitative (to understand meaning, experience, and phenomenon) A. Ethnographic B. Phenomenologic C.Grounded theory 6. knowledge and epistemology influence the formulation of specific questions A. Positivism paradigm B. Qualitative paradigm Resources (practical delimitation which influence research goals and completion)

20. Experimental Questions A. Questions are directed to describing a phenomenon (Level 1, concepts) i.e., What are the values of a therapist? B. Questions are directed to finding relationships between phenomena (level 2, associations) i.e., What is the relationship between learning problems and to fall into traumatic brain damage? C. Questions are directed to proving knowledge (Level 3, causes or association two variables to prove knowledge or theory behind the knowledge) i.e., What is the relationship between a therapist’s values and the use of different techniques in acute ward situations?

21. Qualitative questions A. Formulation and reformulation i.e. Questions that have already been formulated can be reformulated before the analysis of data B. Questions following usually comes from or are gained in the course of gathering information from the field

22. Ethnographic questions Questions are directed to describing and interpretation of cultural paterns in different groups Purpose is to understand cultural meanings people go from to organise and interpret their experiences ”Why do these groups exist, and what do they do?”

23. Phenomenologic questions Questions are directed to comprehending how people experience their phenomena ”How do individuals experience their traumatic brain damage?”

24. Grounded theory method A broad question is presented within a given area such as: ”Which theoretical principles characterise women experiences of becoming homeless?”

25. Literature Review Four Principles 1. Which research have been conducted in relation to this topic/subject? 2. Level of knowledge and theory development within the problem area 3. Relevance of the knowledge background of the area 4. A logical base for the choice of research strategy

26. How to Carry out Literature review 1. Decide when the search/investigation is to be made 2. Delimitation on what is to be searched 3. Create access to articles,books, and documents 4. Organise these information 5. Evaluate the critical literature or sources 6. Write out literature overview

27. To Write Literature Review 1. Introduction 2. Discuss concerning concepts, thinking contruction,principle,theory or model in the literature 3. Brief overview of designs, results, from related studies 4. Critical evaluation of the current and related researches or knowledge 5.Integration of different works that have come to pass

28. To write literature review 6. Niche which the researcher’s investigation is going to fill in the gathered knowledge which exist and the subject that is to be investigated 7. Overview and the arguments concerning the design of the current studies

29. Qualitative designs Endogen Research Critical Theory Phenomenology Heuristic Research Life history Method Ethnographic Method Grounded Theory method To observe To understand To describe To explain and develop a theory

30. Differences between them 1. Purpose 2. Literature investigation and presentation 3. The involvement that comes from the researcher’s side

31. Phenomenology To study everyday experiences and the interpretation of meaning in these experiences Meaning of experiences can only be understood by them that had the experiences The method often used is biography Primary interpretation and analysis of experiences are made by the informants during the interview

32. Life-history method Focus on individuals’ lives in a social miliux Information from infromant are gathered and meaning are sought concerning their experiences Purpose is to discover the core genre of individuals’ lives lived during a long period Usually one individual is focused and studied in an intensive manner One looks for the universal characteristic that characterises human experience Others also concentrate on the core of a private person’s life Literature studies: 1. literature are used as organisational framework when one uses theories analysis in order to explain the complexities in life 2. If one is after theoretical and unique insights, he must use literature in a critical manner to make the research more interesting Unique characteristics: Sequence of life experiences and their meanings developed through the informants perspective . The studies reveal and characterise critical experiences or turning points in a person’s life. Use unstructured interview, for example, ”please tell me about your life history/experiences” (direct it to his life experiences and meanings he gives to these experences). Collection of data: Participant & not participant observation will do.

33. Ethnography More employed in the field of anthropology It is a qualitative method that is geared to comprehending the underlying pattern a particular culture and it different way of living One focuses on a person’s culture which consist of rules,symbols, rituals, and human beings manner in living as a group. Ethnographer is an ”outsider” in the cultural scene and attempts to reach an insider’s perspective Through considerable period of observation, physical presence, and active participation in the culture, the ethnographer seeks to systematically gather and understand the rules/laws that steer their behaviours Method: 1. Interview and observe those informants who are willing to inform the researcher about cultural norms and their meanings, 2. the researcher’s own participant and observation, 3. study the cultural patterns, symbols and their meanings Aids: use field documentation, tape recording or videofilming to gather data Research Results: specific for the culture studied and general theory on human behviour Data analysis: continuous description, explanation, and the unearthing of meanings which lead directly to theory building

34. Grounded Theory The systematic approach of building up a theory through the data gathered from a social setting It is more structured and the researcher strictly steers the research in comparison to others where informants play enormous role PURPOSE: To develop and verify a theory, that is, to build one Glaser & Strauss (1967), the originators, combined both qualitative and quantitative manner of reasoning in order to gather and reach their goals concerning research Common with others: To reason from inductive manner in order to build concepts, thinking contruction, associations, and the principles to understand and explain a phenomenon. Different from others: The use of structured data collection and data analysis method known as continous comparison method. That is to say that, the researcher compares every information with others to secure differences and similarities.

35. Qualitative Data Gathering Purpose: To discover and build different perspectives and also patterns which structure experiences in the field. The researcher: 1. describes 2. catalogues by way of elevating 3. explains Everyday experiences with the environment and the associations with the environment in which these investigations are carried out.

36. Data Gathering: Observation To choose the field and learn about the situations there and other characteristics Specific expectations and meanings Keep relationships in order and comport oneself in order to give good impressions To observe means you learn about many things as well as try to understand in order to create intimacy in the environments and its people Are you there as a passive observer or participant observer? Participant observation is described by an author as the process whereby a researcher establishes himself in a human environment within a long period of time in order to learn from a group in their natural environment with the purpose to develop scientific understanding of these people.

37. Interview method 1. Unstructured open interview method (informal conversation) 2. Semi-structured interview method (limit oneself within voluminous data) 3. The structured interview method

38. Four components: Field work A) Access (build up contacts) B) Description (ability to describe) C) Focus (ask in a focus manner and indepth) D) Verification (continuous verification of impression, description, and understanding)

39. Important in qualitative! --jotting down things --Journals informations --letters --other types of informations such hospital informations Description information are asked to illuminate on answers: ”What,” ”where,” and ”when” The gathering of information focuses on questions such as: ”Why” and ”How” In ethnography, one uses these with the purpose to unearth meanings

40. Registering Information Two fundamental component to register information 1. Register occurences, observe their developments 2. Register impressions of these experiences

41. Qualitative Data Gathering FOUR PRINCIPLES 1. Reseacher Engagement: active learning process in order to observe, participate, interview, investigate, which in one way disturbs individual’s personal lives 2. Interactive process and analysis: - information gathering means continuous analysis - one evaluate information as a part of being indepth - active observation, gathering interview, participation of activities with the group - the analysis makes one think about who, what, when,where, that steer - data gathering, analysis, and more data gathering can be regarded as a spiral process 3. Prolonged fieldwork: long fieldwork is needed to guarantee deep understanding and critical meaning to the investigation. Problem formulation, access to resources, and the researcher’s own time influence the time spent on the research environment 4. Multiple data gathering strategies: for rich description and deep understanding, decision about whom to oberve originates from the data gathering one has made, integrated data gathering strategy in the analysis process

42. Different forms of Registration of Data (Qualitative) A) Matriss design to see interaction between individuals, places, etc. B) Documentation of description, eg, stenogramme block, researcher comments, thinking, impressions, questions C) Tape recording of these information D) Photographing E) Videofilming to supplement daily book and jotting down of information .

43. Two points (Detail gathering) 1. Several researchers involve in the gathering of data and analysis process of them. It augment reliability. 2. Triangulation of the method of gathering data, e.g., using interview together with observation

44. Interview Method The commonly used method in qualittative design. Definition A situation of interaction between two persons or groups with different roles that are not equal. While one asks the question, the other only answers.

45. Characteristics of Interview Interaction is voluntary It is the communication which is the focus and will be analysed Focus is on respondent’s verbal answers It is a dialogue between two persons or groups Purpose is to gather information It has intention/aim Interviewer and respondent have different responsibilities and roles in the interview situation The interviewer is the one that controls the situation The interviewer is the one seeking information and he also has to limit himself concerning what to be asked The interviewer steers the development of the interview situation and has already a decided direction where it should lead. This can be compared with conversation that do not have a decided direction

46. Reliability & Validity Special Requirement of Good Interview 1. Reliability- this method should give reliable result 2. Validity- the result must be valid, correct, exact 3. Other researchers should be able to critically examine the results and come to the same conclusions.

47. Different Forms of Interview 1. Completely/fully open (can develop thinking around) 2. Directed open 3. Semi-structured 4. Completely/fully structured

48. Open Interview Ask question concerning what a phenomenon consists of What something is and what meaning it gives It makes it possible to capture the understanding of the respondent and his experience of this phenomenon in accurate manner Respondent defines and delimits the phenomenon

49. Structured Interview It goes from what is known Questions are formulated to capture respondents’ understanding and experience of a decided subject or phenomenon Alternative and fixed answers for all respondents Give possibility to describe many things about subject or phenomenon

50. Two Research Traditions 1. Positivism: A) free from subjectivity and speculation B) differentiate between belief and knowledge C) use objective manner and laws to describe reality D) natural science and later to social science E) Comte used the name to mean exact and accurate description of reality

51. Anti-Positivism 2. Anti-Positivism (Hermanuetic) A) Originates from interpretation of Bible texts (theology) B) Give meaning through interpretation C) Human world is filled with meanings and these meanings must be sought

52. Positivism and research 1. Use in social science and natural sciences 2. Describe similarities between physical and social phenomena Purpose to seek general laws in the world of things or objective world. Found in experimental psychology studies and personality studies where the focus is on description of individuals and what characterises all human beings from one another To discover causal laws and moreover, patterns in variables and how they variates from one another. Explanation on what are the causes of the phenomenon To measure what is considered as objective which they see as ideal Seldom is interview used in this approach

53. Hermaneutic/Anti Positivism,Qualitative Research The emotional aspects and their meaning making become the object of investigation A phenomenon cannot be understood if one divorces it from those aspects that give meaning Interview is the proper manner of acquiring reality when one wants to have connections and associations of reality The open interview and open directed interview characterises these aspects: A. Aims at comprehending the meaning of the phenomenon in relations with the respondent’s worldview/values B. Descriptive C. Focus on specific themes D. Open E. Clear, concise, and changes

54. Problem formulation & choice of interview form 1. Background knowledge and current development perspective Earlier knowledge accummulated in that area to be investigated 2. The importance and value of the studies Who will benefit from the results of these studies

55. Observation Technique Chicago school (1920,1930) Social anthropologists Research area: criminality, deviance behaviour, urbanisation, ethnic groups Differentiate from positivism Central themes: 1. Observe 2. Listen 3. understand

56. Two Traditions 1. Pragmatism William James, Charles Pierce, John Dewey & George Herbert Mead 2. Formalism Gorg Simmel

57. Pragmatism Social life is not static but dynamic and changes Social life expands and is progressive If human life continuously changes then we must be part of their lives in order to comprehend how these changes We must be part of their lives in order to register our experiences of these changes and how they influence human beings and how they themselves interpret it.

58. Formalism If social relations change continuously, they still reveal some similarities Investigations should show or pay attention to group similarities Social research should focus on interaction between persons and their social mileux Naturalistic principle: the social reality ought to be studied in its natural condition without interferance by the researcher

59. Participant Observation Definition: Where a researcher in a considerable amount of time establishes a relationship with a group of people in their natural mileux in order to deveop a scientific understanding of this group Lofland & Lofland 1984

60. Positive Aspects (P. Observation) 1. Researcher does not project his reality on the group 2. Concentration on understanding on why and how people change Registration of real observation, which can be interpreted and explained in a theoretical frame of reference

61. Researcher’s role (P. Observ) 1. Move closer to people 2. Live among them and observe their day to day activities (Indepth interview & life history) 3. One can utilise different methods (Person1993)

62. Researcher’s role (P. Observation) Gold’s (1969) four ways 1. The total participator Full engagement by the researcher within the group 2. Participator as an observator The investigator declares open his role among the group 3. Observer as a participator Long establishment in order to comprehend, which is far from participating 4. No participating role at all

63. Characteristics Be on the field Be flexible Take field notes Subjective adequance : which is aimed to depeen the researcher’s understanding and also to give validity to the investigation. Time: the more time devoted to observation the greater adeqance gained Place: One must concentrate on the place (not only in the observation and interaction) to understand how the physical surrounding influences the workings. Social circumstances: this is the third parameter. The more vaiation the researcher has for the group, (concerning status, role, and activities) the deeper his understanding. Language: To speak and understand the social cultural language is an advantage. It will help one to be exact in his interpretation. Intimate trust: Personal engagement will give proper understanding which is because he has gained trust from the people. Private lives issues could be unearthed easily. Backstage issues, for example. Social consensus: how meaning is created and shared by the people in the culture. ”Verification principle” which increase the reliability of the investigation.

64. ANALYSIS OF QUALITATIVE DATA FOUR TYPES OF ANALYSIS 1. Define problem, concepts, and other outstanding points 2. To control phenomenon frequency and distribution 3. Construt models for social systems 3.1. Method triangulation 4. Substantial theory to formal theory

65. Analysis domain/Unit A tool used to analyse or examine data 1 Meanings: cultural norms, people’s definition of situations and those different rules that concern the social scence. 2. Cultural patterns: conversations topics that rise up, which is analytically useful 3. Occurrences: sudden deaths, etc. 4. Social meeting: encounters 5. Roles: 6. Relations 7. Groups 8. Organisations 9. Settlements 10. Social world 11. Life styles

66. Substantial to Formal Theories DIRECT OBSERVATION ABSTRACT GREATNESS SUBSTANTIAL THEORY FORMAL THEORY

67. Required Readings:     Dunn, D. S. 2001. Statistics and Data Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences. Toronto: McGraw Hill.   Babbie , E. 2007. The Practice of Social Research. Eleventh Edition. Thomsom : Wadsworth.   Creswell, J. W. 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods. Second Edition. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.   Healey J. F. 2009. Statistics: A Tool for Social Research. Eighth Ed. Cengage Learning.   Morgan, S. E., Reichert, T., & Harrison, T. R. (2002). From numbers to words: Reporting statistical results for the social sciences. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. [ISBN: 9780801332807].   Frankfort- Nachmias , C. & Leon-Guerrero, A. 2006. Social Statistics for a Diverse Society. 4 th Edition. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press.   Howitt, Dennis, & Cramer, Duncan (2011) Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology, 3 rd Ed. London: Pearson, Prentice Hall   Cramer, Duncan (1998) Fundamental Statistics for Social Research: Step-by-Step Calculations and Computer Techniques Using SPSS for Windows. 1st Edition. London: Routledge Cramer, Duncan (2006) Advanced Quantitative Data Analysis (Understanding Social Research) McGraw Hill, Open University, Uk