What is plastic

Chemicals

1. What is plastic?
Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials used in a huge, and growing, range of
applications from packaging to buildings; from cars to medical devices, toys, clothes etc.

The term ‘’plastic’’ is derived from the Greek word ''plastikos'' meaning fit for moulding, and ''plastos'' meaning moulded. It refers to
the material’s malleability, or plasticity during manufacture, that allows it to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapes -
such as films, fibres, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more.

There are two broad categories of plastic materials: thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics. Thermoplastics can be heated up to
form products and then if these end products are re-heated, the plastic will soften and melt again. In contrast, thermoset plastics can
be melted and formed, but once they take shape after they have solidified, they stay solid and, unlike thermoplastics cannot be
remelted.

History
How plastic is made

Plastics are derived from organic products. The materials used in the production of plastics are natural products such as cellulose,
coal, natural gas, salt and, of course, crude oil.

Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of compounds. To become useful, it must be processed.

The production of plastic begins with a distillation process in an oil refinery
The distillation process involves the separation of heavy crude oil into lighter groups called fractions. Each fraction is a mixture of
hydrocarbon chains (chemical compounds made up of carbon and hydrogen), which differ in terms of the size and structure of their
molecules. One of these fractions, naphtha, is the crucial element for the production of plastics.

The two major processes used to produce plastics are called polymerisation and polycondensation, and they both require specific
catalysts. In a polymerisation reactor, monomers like ethylene and propylene are linked together to form long polymers chains. Each
polymer has its own properties, structure and size depending on the various types of basic monomers used.

There are many different types of plastics, and they can be grouped into two main polymer families:
Thermoplastics (which soften on heating and then harden again on cooling)
Thermosets (which never soften when they have been moulded)

2. Types of plastics
Everywhere you look you will find plastics. We use plastic products to help make our lives cleaner, easier, safer and more enjoyable.
You will find plastics in the clothes we wear, the houses we live in, and the cars we travel in. The toys we play with, the televisions we
watch, the computers we use and the CDs we listen to contain plastics. Even the toothbrush you use every day contains plastics!

Plastics are organic, the same as wood, paper or wool. The raw materials for plastics production are natural products such as
cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and, of course, crude oil. Plastics are today’s and tomorrow’s materials of choice because they make it
possible to balance modern day needs with environmental concerns.

The plastics family is quite diverse, and includes:
ABS/SAN
Epoxy resins
Expandable Polystyrene
Fluoropolymers
PET
Polycarbonate
Polyolefins
Polystyrene
PVC
PVdC
Styrenic polymers
Unsaturated Polyester Resins (UPR)
All these types of plastics can can be grouped into two main polymer families: Thermoplastics, which soften on heating and then
harden again on cooling, and Thermosets which never soften when they have been moulded.
Examples of Thermoplastics
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene – ABS
Polycarbonate - PC
Polyethylene - PE
Polyethylene terephthalate - PET
Poly(vinyl chloride) - PVC
Poly(methyl methacrylate) - PMMA
Polypropylene - PP
Polystyrene - PS
Expanded Polystyrene - EPS

Examples of Thermoplastics
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene – ABS
Polycarbonate - PC
Polyethylene - PE
Polyethylene terephthalate - PET
Poly(vinyl chloride) - PVC
Poly(methyl methacrylate) - PMMA
Polypropylene - PP
Polystyrene - PS
Expanded Polystyrene - EPS
Examples of Thermosets
Epoxide (EP)
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
Polyurethane (PUR)
Polytetrafluoroethylene - PTFE
Unsaturated polyester resins (UP)

3. Examples of Thermosets
Epoxide (EP)
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF)
Polyurethane (PUR)
Polytetrafluoroethylene - PTFE
Unsaturated polyester resins (UP)
A range of additives are used to enhance the natural properties of the different types of plastics - to soften them, colour them, make
them more processable or longer lasting. Today not only are there are many, many different types of plastic , but products can be
made rigid or flexible, opaque, transparent, or coloured; insulating or conducting; fire-resistant etc., through the use of additives.
Over 100 years of plastics
Humankind worked hard from the earliest times to develop materials which would offer benefits not found in
natural products. The development of plastic materials started with the use of natural materials with plastic
properties (e.g., chewing gum, shellac) then evolved with the development of chemically modified natural materials
(e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally the wide range of completely synthetic material that we
would recognise as modern plastics started to be developed around 100 years ago. Perhaps the earliest example
was invented by Alexander Parkes in 1855. We know it today as celluloid, but he named it Parkesine. Polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) was first polymerisedbetween 1838-1872 and a key breakthrough came in 1907 when Leo Baekeland created Bakelite,
the first real synthetic, mass-produced plastic.
ABS/SAN
The terms Styrenics or Styrenic Polymers are used to describe a family of major plastic products that use Styrene as their key building
block. Included in this family of products are:
ABS, or Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Copolymer: an opaque, thermoplastic polymer material made from the monomers
Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene and Styrene. Strong and durable even at low temperatures, it offers good resistance to heat and
chemicals and is easy to process.
SAN - Styrene Acrylonitrile Copolymer: a transparent thermoplastic polymer material with amorphous structure made from
the monomers Styrene and Acrylonitrile.
PS, or Polystyrene: a thermoplastic polymer which softens when heated and can be converted into semi-finished products like
films and sheets, as well as a wide range of finished articles.
EPS, or Expandable Polystyrene: a thermoplastic product that is lightweight, strong, and offers excellent thermal insulation,
making it ideal for the packaging and construction industries.
UPR, or Unsaturated Polyester Resins: durable, resinous polymers derived from styrene and used mainly the construction, boat
building, automotive and electrical industries.
SBR, or Styrene Butadiene Rubber: a rubber manufactured from styrene.
The benefits of styrenic polymers
Styrenic polymers offer many industries a wide variety of benefits, including:
lightweight, water resistant and excellent thermal insulator characteristics
in food packaging, they provide high levels of protection against spoilage
Rigid, with a high strength-to-weight ratio that offers energy-savings benefits in transportation and an excellent cost
performance
Can be shatterproof and transparent if required
Good electrical insulation
Easy to process and produce in a range of attractive colours
Easy to recycle

4. Manufacturers use styrene-based resins to produce a wide variety of everyday goods ranging from cups and utensils to furniture,
bathroom, and kitchen appliances, hospital and school supplies, boats, sports and recreational equipment, consumer electronics,
automobile parts, and durable lightweight packaging of all kinds.

Member companiesABS/SAN manufacturers
Switzerland
STYRON
Bachtobelstrasse 3
CH - 8810 HORGEN
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Germany
INEOS ABS (Deutschland) GmbH
AlteStrasse 201
D-50769 Köln
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Germany
BASF AG
Carl-Bosch-Strasse 38
D-67056 Ludwigshafen
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Netherlands
SABIC IP
P.O. Box 117
NL-4600 AC Bergen op Zoom
Tel: [phone]
Italy
POLIMERI EUROPA S.p.A.
Piazza Boldrini 1
I-20097 San Donato Milanese (MI)
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Consistent innovation for modern productsConsistent innovation for modern products
Its outstanding material qualities made ABS become one of the most popular plastics materials and an essential element in every day
life:
flexible design
excellent surface quality
brilliant and deep colours
attractive feel and touch
dimensional stability
chemical resistance
impact resistance

5. The market for ABS/SANThe market for ABS/SAN
ABS market applications



Is ABS a widely used plastics?
Clearly, YES. ABS is a very versatile material and therefore very popular among designers. It is scratchproof, highly resistant,
dimensionally stable, glossy and easy to colour. Therefore, ABS is used in a broad variety of applications in everyday life like housings
for vacuum cleaners, kitchen appliances, telephones and toys. Other important fields of applications for ABS are the automotive
industry and the electrical/electronics (E/E) segment – here primarily in white goods and computer/communication electronics.

How large is the market for ABS?
Within the group of styrene co-polymers, ABS is by far the biggest product line in terms of volume. Last year’s global consumption
was about 5.4 million tons. It is expected that ABS will continue to show above average growth rates. Until 2010 the average annual
growth rate is estimated at 5.5%.

For Europe, it is expected that ABS consumption will rise from its present 750,000 tons to 800,000 tons within the next five years.
Automotive, appliances and E/E account for almost 50% of European ABS consumption.


SAN market applications

6. Is SAN a widely used plastic?
Even though SAN is much smaller in terms of volume compared to polystyrene or ABS it is widely used in a great variety of different
applications. The outstanding transparency combined with good chemical resistance, stability in dishwashers, high impact strength,
thermal shock resistance and stiffness make SAN the preferred material for manufacturers of consumer goods. High quality household
appliances and top-quality packaging for cosmetics are examples for SAN products.

How large is the market for SAN?
The European SAN consumption is roughly 125.000 tons per annum. The main industry sec tors are household, cosmetics, sanitary
and toiletry, electronics as well as outdoor industrial applications.
How are ABS/SAN manufactured?How are ABS and SAN made...and processed?
ABS is made by emulsion or continuous mass technique. Globally, the most important is the emulsion process. It is a two-step method
in which the ABS rubber component is produced in emulsion and afterwards combined with SAN on suitable melt mixing aggregates
like extruders or kneaders. The SAN available on the market nowadays is almost exclusively manufactured by the mass process. The
final product is available in the form of pellets.

ABS can be processed by injection moulding or extrusion technique. SAN is mainly processed by injection moulding.



Figure 3: Sequence of operations used in the production of the different forms of polyacrylonitriles from crude oil and natural gas. All
operations include storage and delivery.

Epoxy resins


Epoxy resins have been around for over 50 years, and are one of the most successful
of the plastics families. Their physical state can be changed from a low viscosity liquid

7. to a high melting point solid, which means that a wide range of materials with unique properties can be made. In the home, you’ll find
them in soft-drinks cans and special packaging, where they are used as a lining to protect the contents and to keep the flavour in.
They are also used as a protective coating on everything from beds, garden chairs, office and hospital furniture, to supermarket
trolleys and bicycles! Most industries use them in protective coating materials. They are used, for example, in special paints to protect
the surfaces of ships and oil rigs from bad weather and also in wind turbines!

Benefits of epoxy resins
As a family of synthetic resins, their physical state can be anything from a low viscosity liquid to a high melting point solid. 'Cross-
linked' with a variety of curing agents or hardeners, they form a range of materials with a unique combination of properties, which
make a considerable contribution to practically every major industry, including:
Aircraft and aerospace
Automotive
Construction and heavy engineering
Chemical
Electrical
Electronic
Food and beverage
Marine
Leisure
Light engineering
Expandable Polystyrene
The terms Styrenics or Styrenic Polymers are used to describe a family of major plastic products that use Styrene as their key building
block. Included in this family of products are:
EPS, or Expandable Polystyrene: a thermoplastic product that is lightweight, strong, and offers excellent thermal insulation,
making it ideal for the packaging and construction industries.
PS, or Polystyrene: a thermoplastic polymer which softens when heated and can be converted into semi-finished products like
films and sheets, as well as a wide range of finished articles.
ABS, or Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Copolymer: an opaque, thermoplastic polymer material made from the monomers
Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene and Styrene. Strong and durable even at low temperatures, it offers good resistance to heat and
chemicals and is easy to process.
SAN - Styrene Acrylonitrile Copolymer: a transparent thermoplastic polymer material with amorphous structure made from the
monomers Styrene and Acrylonitrile.
UPR, or Unsaturated Polyester Resins: durable, resinous polymers derived from styrene and used mainly the construction, boat
building, automotive and electrical industries.
SBR, or Styrene Butadiene Rubber: a rubber manufactured from styrene.
The benefits of styrenic polymers
Styrenic polymers offer many industries a wide variety of benefits, including:
lightweight, water resistant and excellent thermal insulator characteristics
in food packaging, they provide high levels of protection against spoilage
Rigid, with a high strength-to-weight ratio that offers energy-savings benefits in transportation and an excellent cost
performance
Can be shatterproof and transparent if required
Good electrical insulation
Easy to process and produce in a range of attractive colours

8. Easy to recycle
Manufacturers use styrene-based resins to produce a wide variety of everyday goods ranging from cups and utensils to furniture,
bathroom, and kitchen appliances, hospital and school supplies, boats, sports and recreational equipment, consumer electronics,
automobile parts, and durable lightweight packaging of all kinds.
Member companies
The market for EPS
Applications overview
Guidelines for transport and storage of expandable polystyrene raw beads
How are EPS manufactured?

Member companies
European Expanded Polystyrene manufacturers
BASF SE
Carl-Bosch Strasse 38
67056 Ludwigshafen
Germany
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Jackon GmbH
Tonnenhofstrasse 16
D-23970 Wismar/Haffeld
Germany
Telephone:+ 49 3841 420 300
Fax:+ 49 3841 420 420
Gabriel Technologie (not member of the National EPS Association support programme)
rue des roseaux 1
Zoning de GhlinBaudourSud
B 7331 Baudour
Belgium
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Monotez S.A.(not member of the NA support programme)
141 g. Papandreou Av.
ATHENS 144 52
Greece
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
INEOS NOVA International SA
Avenue de la Gare 12
CH - 1700 Fribourg
Switzerland
Telephone:[phone]

9. Fax:[phone]
Polimeri Europa S.p.A.
piazza Boldrini, 1
20097 S. Donato Milanese (MI)
Italy
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Polidux SA (Repsol Company)
CR NACIONA 240, KM. 147
22400
MONZON
SPAIN
Telephone:[phone]
Styrochem Finland Oy
P.O. Box 360
FI-06101 Porvoo
Finland
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Styron Europe GmbH (DOW)
Bachtobelstrasse 3
Horgen 8810
Switzerland
Telephone:[phone]
SunporKunststoffGes.m.b.H.
Stattersdorferhauptstr. 48
Postfach 414
3100 St. Pölten
Austria
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Synbra Technology bv (not member of the NA support programme)
Zeedijk 25
4871 NM Etten-Leur
Netherlands
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Synthos S.A.
O.Wichterleho 810
CZ-27852 KralupynadVltavou
Czech Republic
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]
Unipol Holland BV (CRH)
Rijnstraat 15A
Postbus 824
5340 AV OSS
The Netherlands
Telephone:[phone]
Fax:[phone]

10. The market for EPS
Is EPS a widely used plastic?
Yes. EPS is among the biggest commodity polymers produced in the world. The total world demand in 2001 was 3.06 million tons and
is expected to grow at 6 percent per year. EPS is a solid foam with a unique combination of characteristics, like lightness, insulation
properties, durability and an excellent processability. EPS is used in many applications like thermal insulation board in buildings,
packaging, cushioning of valuable goods and food packaging.
How large is the European market for EPS?
Western Europe contributes 27 percent of the global demand for EPS and was approximately 840 ktons in 2001. The corresponding
value of this volume is approximately 3 billion Euro. The average annual growth is expected to be 2.5 percent per annum up to 2010.

The pie chart demonstrates the main EPS market applications for Europe. The major applications are building / insulation and
packaging.



Insulation with EPS provides safe installation and affordable access to energy reduction in heating and cooling buildings. Packaging is
also considered an essential final application of EPS, where it supplies lightness and protects health by reducing spoilage of the
product. The use of plastic packaging in general and of suitable insulating materials like EPS, together with freezing technology means
that only 2 percent of the food is spoiled in the West, while this is up to approximately 50 percent in the developing countries.
Applications overview
Main EPS market applications for Europe





Building & Insulation applications


EPS resins are among the most popular materials for building and construction applications. EPS insulation foam are
used in closed cavity walls, roofs, floor insulation and more. With its excellent price/performance ratio EPS is also
used in pontoons and road construction. In addition to its traditional insulation application in the construction
industry, EPS foam also finds a wide use in civil engineering and building: road foundations, void forming, flotation,
drainage, impact sound insulation, modular construction elements, cellular bricks, etc. They all exploit the excellent mechanical
properties of EPS combined with fast construction / assembly and low subsequent maintenance.

Packaging applications
Eggs, meat, fish and poultry.Cold drinks or carry-out meals. All these products are safely packed with EPS packaging
materials; by doing so spoilage of foods is prevented. In the western world a combination of good packaging,
refrigeration and transportation ensures that only two percent of food is lost through spoilage, compared with 50
percent in developing countries.

No matter what your products package, EPS have long been recognized as a versatile and cost-effective solution for
foods and goods packaging.

Expensive TV's and all kind of IT equipment travel safely from the production line to the consumer's houses. EPS is
the leading choice for electronic goods cushioning.

11. Other applications
Apart from the typical application in construction and packaging, EPS protective qualities can also be used in crash helmets -
protecting the heads and potentially the lives of cyclists, or into surface and other decoration ranging from simple printing of a brand
name to an elaborate pictorial representation achieved by mould engraving, or for fun and sports with e.g. windsurfing board.




How are EPS made ... and processed?
The building block - monomer - of polystyrene is styrene. The raw materials to make styrene are obtained from crude oil. A range of
processes such as distillation, steam-cracking and dehydration are required to transform the crude oil into styrene. At the end
polystyrene is produced by polymerising styrene. During polymerisation pentane is added as foaming agent.. The final product is
available in the form of spherical beads. Before being formed into the final article, the EPS beads need to be processed. When these
expandable pearls are heated with steam, they expand to about 40 times their original size. After a stabilisation period - maturing -
the expanded beads are then transferred to a mould. Further steam-heating makes them fuse together to form a rigid foam
containing 98% air. When and where needed, the foam can then easily be cut into the desired shape.

12. Styrenics polymers
The terms Styrenics or Styrenic Polymers are used to describe a family of major plastic products that use Styrene as their key building
block. Included in this family of products are:
PS, or Polystyrene: a thermoplastic polymer which softens when heated and can be converted into semi-finished products like
films and sheets, as well as a wide range of finished articles.
EPS, or Expandable Polystyrene: a thermoplastic product that is lightweight, strong, and offers excellent thermal insulation,
making it ideal for the packaging and construction industries.
ABS, or Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Copolymer: an opaque, thermoplastic polymer material made from the monomers
Acrylonitrile, 1,3-Butadiene and Styrene. Strong and durable even at low temperatures, it offers good resistance to heat and
chemicals and is easy to process.
SAN - Styrene Acrylonitrile Copolymer: a transparent thermoplastic polymer material with amorphous structure made from the
monomers Styrene and Acrylonitrile.
UPR, or Unsaturated Polyester Resins: durable, resinous polymers derived from styrene and used mainly the construction, boat
building, automotive and electrical industries.
SBR, or Styrene Butadiene Rubber: a rubber manufactured from styrene.
The benefits of styrenic polymers
Styrenic polymers offer many industries a wide variety of benefits, including:
lightweight, water resistant and excellent thermal insulator characteristics
in food packaging, they provide high levels of protection against spoilage
Rigid, with a high strength-to-weight ratio that offers energy-savings benefits in transportation and an excellent cost
performance
Can be shatterproof and transparent if required
Good electrical insulation
Easy to process and produce in a range of attractive colours
Easy to recycle
Manufacturers use styrene-based resins to produce a wide variety of everyday goods ranging from cups and utensils to furniture,
bathroom, and kitchen appliances, hospital and school supplies, boats, sports and recreational equipment, consumer electronics,
automobile parts, and durable lightweight packaging of all kinds.
Who are we
Mission
Member companies
Other sources of information
Contact us
Facts and figures
The market for PS
o Applications overview
o PS in food packaging
The market for EPS
o Applications overview
o Guidelines for transport and storage of expandable polystyrene raw beads
The market for ABS/SAN
How are styrenics manufactured?
What is inside the polymer?
What is inside the Copolymers?

13. Mission
The Polystyrene (PS), Expandable Polystyrene ( EPS), ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) and SAN (Styrene-Acrylonitrile) Product
Committees of PlasticsEurope focus their priorities on promoting the sustainable development of their products. Our activities are
intended to assist the producers, customer and ultimate users.
As well as promoting the benefits of our products, we address key public concerns related to the use of PS and EPS. This is done using
a science based decision making process and forms part of our commitment to Responsible Care.
Our aim is to be recognized as a key reliable source of valuable information for all our stakeholders in Europe.
European Polystyrene manufacturers
Switzerland
STYRON
Bachtobelstrasse 3
CH - 8810 HORGEN
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Czech Republic
SYNTHOS S.A.
CZ-27852 KralupynadVltavou
Tel: [phone]
Tel.: [phone]
Germany
BASF AG
Carl-Bosch-Strasse 38
D-67056 Ludwigshafen
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Switzerland
INEOS NOVA International
Avenue de la Gare 12
CH-1700 Fribourg
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Italy
POLIMERI EUROPA S.p.A.
Piazza Boldrini 1
I-20097 San Donato Milanese (MI)
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Belgium
TOTAL PETROCHEMICALS
rue de l'Industrie 52
B-1040 Brussels
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
European Expanded Polystyrene manufacturers
Switzerland
STYRON
Bachtobelstrasse 3
CH - 8810 HORGEN
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone] (Rheinmünster)

14. Czech Republic
SYNTHOS S.A.
CZ-27852 KralupynadVltavou
Tel: [phone]
Tel.: [phone]
Germany
BASF AG
Carl-Bosch-Strasse 38
D-67056 Ludwigshafen
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Greece
MONOTEZ S.A.
439 Herakliou Ave.
GR-141 22 Heraklio-Athens
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Switzerland
INEOS NOVA International
Avenue de la Gare 12
CH-1700 Fribourg
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Italy
POLIMERI EUROPA S.p.A.
Piazza Boldrini 1
I-20097 San Donato Milanese (MI)
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Austria
SUNPOR KUNSTSTOFF GmbH
StattersdorferHaupstrasse 48
Postfach 440
A-3100 St. Pölten
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Finland
STYROCHEM Finland Oy
P.O. Box 360
FIN-06101 PORVOO
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Spain
REPSOL -POLIDUX S.A
Tarragona 149-157
E-08014 Barcelona
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Belgium
GABRIEL TECHNOLOGIE S.A
Z.I. de Ghlin-Baudour S

15. 1 rue des Roseau
B-7331 Bauour (Saint Ghislain)
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Netherlands
UNIPOL HOLLAND BV
P.O. Box 824
NL-5340 AV Oss
Tel: [phone]
Fax.: [phone]
Other sources of information
American Plastics Council (APC)
Association of Petrochemicals Producers in Europe (APPE)
Bromine Science and Environmental Forum (BSEF)
European Brominated Flame Retardant Industry Panel (EBFRIP)
European Chemical Industry Council (CEFIC)
European Manufacturers of Expanded Polystyrene (EUMEPS)
European Plastics Converters (EuPC)
International Styrene Industry Forum (ISIF)
Polystyrene Packaging Council (PSPC)
Styrene Information and Research Center (SIRC)
The market for PS
Is polystyrene a widely used plastic?
The answer is a simple YES. Polystyrene is the fourth biggest polymer produced in the world after polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride and
polypropylene. The total demand in 2001 was 10.6 million tons. The corresponding value of this volume is approximately 10 billion
euro.

General purpose polystyrene (GPPS) is a glasslike polymer with a high processability. When modified with rubber it results in a high
impact polystyrene (HIPS) with a unique combination of characteristics, like toughness, gloss, durability and an excellent
processability. Polystyrene is one of the most versatile plastics. Both forms are used in a wide range of applications like consumer
electronics, refrigeration, appliances, housewares, toys, packaging, disposables and medical and pharmaceutical.

How large is the global market for polystyrene?
The global market for polystyrene is 10.6 million tons and is expected to grow at 4 percent per year to approximately 15 million tons
in 2010.

How large is the European market for polystyrene?
Europe contributes 26 percent to the global demand for polystyrene and was approximately 2.7 million tons in 2001. Although the
average annual growth is expected to be 3-4 percent per annum up to 2010, the actual annual growth in Europe is 4-5 percent,
slightly ahead of the GDP.

The pie chart demonstrates the main polystyrene market applications for Europe. The major part is in packaging applications, like
dairy products. Packaging is an essential feature of the supply chain operations, which bring the product from the initial manufacture
to its ultimate use by the consumer. For the consumer convenience and easy opening are important elements, for society as a whole,
the biggest advantage is the prevention of spoilage of the product. Only 2 percent of the food is spoiled in developed countries West,
while this is up to approximately 50 percent in the developing countries.

16. Applications overview

Main polystyrene market applications for Europe


Polystyrene applications - packaging

Eggs and dairy products, meat, fish and poultry, cold drinks or carry-out meals. All these products are safely packed
with polystyrene packaging materials; by doing so spoilage of foods is prevented. In the western world a combination
of good packaging, refrigeration and transportation ensures that only two percent of food is lost through spoilage,
compared with 50 percent in developing countries.

No matter what products you package, polystyrene has long been recognized as a versatile and cost-effective
solution for rigid packaging and food service disposables.
Polystyrene applications - appliances

From refrigerators and air conditioners, to ovens and microwaves, from hand-held vacuum cleaners to
blenders, polystyrene resins meet almost all end-product requirements. Polystyrene resins are safe and
cost effective, with excellent appearance and functionality mainly due to easy-processing. Because of
this almost 26 percent of the polystyrene demand is used in injection-molding, extrusion and thermoforming applications.

Polystyrene applications - consumer electronics

Polystyrene is used for housing for TV's and all kind of emerging trends in IT equipment where the critieria for use are
combinations of function, form and aesthetics and a high performance/cost ratio. Polystyrene is the leading choice for
media enclosures, cassette tape housing and clear jewel boxes to protect CD's and DVD's.
Polystyrene applications - construction

Polystyrene resins are among the most popular materials for building and construction applications,
like Insulation foam, roofing, siding, panels, bath and shower units, lighting, plumbing fixtures. With
their excellent price performance balance and good processability and other performance properties,
polystyrene resins find use in these building products.

Polystyrene applications - medical

Bringing new and improved medical technologies to patients and physicians is a complex, regulated process. With
excellent clarity and processability and outstanding post-sterilization aesthetics, polystyrene resins are used for a
wide range of disposable medical applications, including tissue culture trays, test tubes, petri dishes, diagnostic
components, and housing for test kits.

17. Polystyrene applications - other

As well as the traditional uses for polystyrene, a variety of consumer goods applications, including toys, electric lawn
and garden equipment, kitchen and bath accessories and other durable goods are made from polystyrene.
Polystyrene resins have an excellent cost/performance ratio, and in many cases, can be substituted for more costly
polymers.
What is inside the polymer?
Styrene is the primary raw material from which polystyrene (PS) - being general purpose (GPPS) or high impact (HIPS)
or expandable polystyrene (EPS) - is made. GPPS - is a polymer of styrene only, whereas high impact polystyrene in particular is a
copolymer of styrene and polybutadiene synthetic rubber. Often some lubricant - mineral oil - is added to polystyrene to improve the
processability. In order to control the fire characteristics an aliphatic brominated compound or other flame retardant is added to
respectively produce FR-EPS or FR-HIPS. Polystyrene foam and EPS are manufactured with the use of a blowing agent. Primarily a
mixture of pentanes is used, but also carbon dioxide can be employed.
Styrene
Styrene is a clear, colourless liquid that is derived from petroleum and natural gas by-product, but which also occurs naturally. It is
present in many foods and beverages, including wheat, beef, strawberries, peanuts and coffee beans. Synthetic styrene played an
important role during World War II in the production of synthetic rubber. After the war the demand for synthetic rubber decreased and
polystyrene was an obvious alternative. Today roughly 3 million tonnes of polystyrene are produced, ranking it the fourth among the
commodity plastics behind polyethylene, polypropylene and vinyl polymers. Styrene helps create several plastic materials used in
thousands of remarkably strong, flexible, and lightweight products, that represent a vital part of our health and well being. It's used in
everything from food containers and packaging materials to cars, boats, and computers.
Synthetic rubber
Rubber occurs naturally, obtained from the exudations of certain tropical trees; in Indian language it was called "Cahuchu" – tears of
the wood. From Cahuchu it is easy to understand the German "Kautschuk". Synthetic rubber is derived from petroleum and natural
gas. The first synthetically produced rubbers were derived from isoprene and styrene butadiene. Later 1,4-polybutadiene was
introduced using the Ziegler Natta procede catalysis. These polybutadiene rubbers are used in the manufacture of toughened
polystyrene. Unmodified polystyrene (GPPS) offers poor impact resistance and breaks easily, dispersions of up 10 % polybutadiene
rubber into polystyrene yields a high impact resistant product (HIPS).
Mineral oil
White mineral oil is added to polystyrene as lubricant to improve the processing properties. White mineral oil has a paraffinic nature
and is approved by the European Union as additive to be used in plastics that come in contact with foods, when it meets certain
specifications.
Aliphatic brominated compounds
Aliphatic brominated flame retardant additives are often added during the polymerisation of styrene into expandable polystyrene.
These compounds significantly improve the fire behaviour of EPS used in non-food contact applications. Where or whenever this
aliphatic brominated additive is handled during production sufficient and adequate measures are taken to prevent release and
exposure: extraction devices equipped with filters or cyclones, wastewater treatment units, etc.

Other fire retardants
Polystyrene is a combustible material. Because of its extremely good processability polystyrene is an excellent material for certain
electrical and electronic applications. In order to prevent fire and save lives these applications must meet strict fire safety standards.
These standards can only be met by adding a flame retardant additive system, usually a brominated substance.

Pentane
Extended polystyrene foam and expandable polystyrene beads contain a pentane as blowing agent. The relatively small amount
present is gradually but quickly eliminated to the atmosphere through the different steps of processing. Nevertheless, measures are to
be taken to avoid the formation of the explosive air-pentane mixture and to limit emissions in manufacture. With ever evolving
technology, some manufacturers of extruded polystyrene – XPS for short - packaging foam use the natural occurring gas carbon
dioxide (CO2) as a blowing agent.

18. What is inside the Copolymers?
What is inside the Copolymers?
Beside Styrene and polybutadiene synthetic rubber.Acrynolitrile the third monomer component of ABS and SAN. In addition, both
copolymers usually contain approved additives like thermal stabilizers, mould release and flow agents. Light stabilizer /UV stabilizer
are used if better weatherability is required. High modulus materials can be obtained by adding of glass fibres. For ABS, bromine
compounds are employed as flame retardants.

Styrene
Styrene is a clear, colourless liquid that is derived from petroleum and natural gas by-product, but which also occurs naturally. It is
present in many foods and beverages, including wheat, beef, strawberries, peanuts and coffee beans. Synthetic styrene played an
important role during World War II in the production of synthetic rubber. After the war the demand for synthetic rubber decreased and
polystyrene was an obvious alternative. Today roughly 3 million tonnes of polystyrene are produced, ranking it the fourth among the
commodity plastics behind polyethylene, polypropylene and vinyl polymers. Styrene helps create several plastic materials used in
thousands of remarkably strong, flexible, and lightweight products, that represent a vital part of our health and well being. It's used in
everything from food containers and packaging materials to cars, boats, and computers.

Synthetic rubber
Rubber occurs naturally, obtained from the exudations of certain tropical trees; in Indian language it was called "Cahuchu" – tears of
the wood. From Cahuchu it is easy to understand the German "Kautschuk". Synthetic rubber is derived from petroleum and natural
gas. The first synthetically produced rubbers were derived from isoprene and styrene butadiene. Later 1,4-polybutadiene was
introduced using the Ziegler Natta procede catalysis. These polybutadiene rubbers are used in the manufacture of toughened
polystyrene. Unmodified polystyrene (GPPS) offers poor impact resistance and breaks easily, dispersions of up 10 % polybutadiene
rubber into polystyrene yields a high impact resistant product (HIPS).

Acrylonitrile
Acrylonitrile is a man-made colourless to pale yellow liquid of significant volatility (boiling temperature of 78°C) and sharp odour. It is
soluble in water and many common organic solvents. Acrylonitrile is of high reactivity thus polymerizing spontaneously when heated.

Acrylonitrile is produced commercially by oxidation of propylene together with ammonia. It is used mainly as a co-monomer in the
production of acrylic fibers. Uses include the production of plastics, surface coatings, nitrile elastomers, barrier resins, and adhesives.
Worldwide consumption of Acrylonitrile exceeds 4 million tons p.a.
Main use of Acrylonitrile in plastics is as a co-monomer in ABS and SAN. Its main contribution is increased chemical resistance,
toughness and heat resistance.
Fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers are a family of high-performance plastics. The best known member of this family is called PTFE. PTFE is one of the
smoothest materials around, and very tough! You can find it in most kitchens as a coating on pots, pans and many other utensils!
Fluoropolymers are also used to improve the performance and safety of racing cars and aircraft. They help protect big buildings from
fire. They can also be found in the coatings of the cabling for telephones and computers.
Fluoropolymers are polymers containing atoms of fluorine. The family includes two types of fluorinated thermoplastics:
Type one fluoropolymers are fully fluorinated, which means that all hydrogen atoms are replaced by fluorine atoms). Examples of
these include PFA/MFA and FEP. Type two fluoropolymers are only partially fluorinated. Examples of these include PVDF, ETFE, and
ECTFE.
Benefits of fluoropolymers
Fluoropolymers have many unique qualities, including great strength, versatility, durability, and an unusually high resistance to
chemicals (solvents, acids and bases) and heat. These qualities make fluoropolymers very versatile. They are used in:
High-performance automotive and aircraft bearings and seals, to improve the performance and safety of aircraft and
automobiles
Flame retardants, to reduce fire risk in high-rise buildings and reduce industrial and automotive pollution

19. Coatings on many kitchen products, such as pots, pans, knives, spatulas etc. thanks to their high thermal stability and non-
stick properties
The linings of piping and chemical tanks, and in packing for lithium-ion batteries, thanks to their ability to handle harsh
environments
Cable coating in the telecommunications and computer industries, because of their high electrical resistance and good
dielectric properties
Implantable parts and catheters for bio-medical applications, because of their resistance to chemicals
It is estimated that the world market for fluoropolymers is between 80,000 and 90,000 tons per year. Although fluoropolymers
represent just 0.1% of all plastics, their outstanding performance characteristics have made them a valuable catalyst in improving the
quality of our lives.

Performance profile
What are Fluoropolymers?
Fluoropolymers types - General description
Partially Fluorinated Fluoropolymers
How are Fluoropolymers manufactured?
History of Fluoropolymers
What makes Fluoropolymers so versatile?
Typical properties
Public protection
European Food Contact Applications
Recovery and disposal of Fluoropolymers waste
What are Fluoropolymers?
Fluoropolymers are fluorinated plastics. Most plastics are chains of carbon atoms with hydrogen or other atoms attached to them. In
fluoropolymers, fluorine atoms replace some or all of the hydrogen atoms. Substituting fluorine for hydrogen creates a high binding
energy among atoms within the plastic molecules, making the plastics highly stable and giving them unique and valuable properties.
Fluoropolymers are in general more resistant to heat and chemical attack than other materials. They have strong electrical insulation,
lubrication, non-stick, temperature resistance, transparency, and other properties.

Different fluoropolymers have different properties. Type one fully fluorinated polymers, in which fluorine atoms replace all of the
hydrogen atoms generally emphasise the properties mentioned above.
Type two partially fluorinated polymers, in which fluorine atoms replace only some of the hydrogen atoms, are useful for applications
in which mechanical toughness greater than that available to fully fluorinated polymers is required, special processing or
manufacturing conditions are desirable or resistance to specific chemicals is useful.

Type one fluoropolymers. Examples of these are:
PFA/MFA, FEP
And type two fluoropolymers. Examples of these are:
PVDF, ETFE, ECTFE
PTFE
PTFE is a polymer consisting of recurring tetrafluoroethylene monomer units whose formula is [CF2-CF2]n. PTFE does not melt to
form a liquid and cannot be melt extruded. On heating, the virgin resin coalesces to form a clear gel at 335°C+/-15°C. Once
processed, the gel point (often referred to as the melting point) is 10°C lower than that of the virgin resin. PTFE is sold as a granular
powder, a coagulated dispersion/fine powder, or an aqueous dispersion. Each is processed in a different manner.
For nearly seven decades, PTFE has paved the way for technological advancement in many industries. Its properties include the

20. lowest friction coefficient of any solid material in the world, extreme thermal and chemical resistance (essential in aircraft and
spacecraft), and exceptional dielectric strength (LAN Cables). These unique qualities of PTFE have enabled researchers to break new
ground and bring to life modern high-performance aircraft, pharmaceutical production methods, medical diagnostic and treatment
instruments, telecommunications apparatus and wiring, computing gear, and semiconductor technology. In short, fluoropolymers
are crucial to everyday modern life as we have come to know it. Since PTFE is soft and, not being melt-processable, requires
specialized manufacturing techniques.

FEP
FEP fluorocarbon resin is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and hexafluoropropylene with the formula [(CF(CF3 )-CF2)x(CF2-CF2)y
]n. It has a melting point range of 245°-280°C and is melt processable. It is supplied in the form of translucent pellets, powder or as
an aqueous dispersion.
FEP is a fluoropolymer with superior dielectric characteristics and low flammability, ideal for insulating plenum-rated LAN cables.
Cables used in modern telecommunication and computing use ultrahigh-frequency signals (megahertz and gigahertz ranges). Such
high frequencies exceed the capability of almost all materials to provide effective insulation. In addition, the practical use of such
cables often requires running them for considerable distances without splices or other connections.
PFA
PFA fluorocarbon resin is a copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and a perfluorinated vinyl ether having the formula [(CF(ORf)-CF2)x(CF2 -
CF2 )y ]n where ORf represents a perfluoralkoxy group. PFA melts at 280°C minimum and is melt processable. Some grades are
chemically stabilised. It is available in the form of translucent pellets, powder, and as an aqueous dispersion.
MFA

MFA is a random copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and perfluoromethylvinylether. It belongs to the generic class of PFA polymers. MFA
melts at 280° C. It is available in the form of translucent pellets and aqueous dispersions.
PFA & MFA

PFA & MFA fluoropolymers are generally suited to high-purity, low-contamination applications in corrosive environments and certain
grades of PFA and MFA are specially stabilised to work well in highly corrosive environments. Semiconductors with circuits measured
in nanometres, require freedom from contamination. Imperfections even at the submicroscopic level will render a semiconductor
useless. Pipes, valves, fittings, pumps, baths, and carriers used in wet processing must be chemically inert and not leach into, react
with, or release particles into the chemicals used to etch, clean or otherwise process raw silicon wafers, work-in-process or finished
semiconductors.
ETFE

Styrene's ETFE is a copolymer consisting mainly of ethylene and tetrafluoroethylene, having the formula [(CF2-CF2)x-(CH2- CH2)y ]n
often modified with a small percentage of a third monomer. Depending on the molecular structure the melting range is 215°C to
270°C. It is melt processable and is supplied in the form of pellets, powder and dispersions.
ECTFE
ECTFE is a copolymer of ethylene and chlorotrifluoroethylene having the formula (CH2 -CH2 )x -(CFCl-CF2)y]n . It is often modified
with a small percentage of a third monomer. Depending on the molecular structure, the melting range is 190-240°C. It is available in
the form of translucent pellets and as a fine powder.
ECTFE is a fluoropolymer that can be processed into films, and retains integrity when exposed to harsh chemicals and strong polar
solvents. This makes it suitable for water purification systems. Aggressive cleaning agents simply increase ECTFE membrane flux and
overall operating efficiency. ECTFE film vapour barrier properties make it particularly suitable for use in pharmaceutical packaging
applications.
PVdF
PVdF is a homopolymer of vinylidene fluoride having the formula [CH2-CF2]nPVdF polymers melt at 160° C, are melt processable, and
are supplied in the form of powder, pellets, and dispersions. Some grades of PVdF may contain other fluorinated monomers eg a
copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and hexafluoropropylene having the formula [CF(CF3)-(CF2)x(CH2-CF2 )y]n.
PVdF is a tough polymer and is resistant to UV attack. As a result of these properties major applications include architectural coatings
in building cladding and wire and cable jacketing.

21. THV
THV is a terpolymer of tetrafluoroethylene, hexafluoropropylene, and vinylidene fluoride with the formula [CF(CF3 )-CF2 )x(CF2-
CF2)V(CF2- CF2)z]n. THV is melt processable with melting points from 120° to 230° C depending on grade. It is available as pellets,
agglomerates or aqueous dispersions.
Fluorinated Fluoropolymers
ETFE
ETFE is a tough, easily processable thermoplastic. As a film, it offers outstanding UV resistance combined with excellent light
transmittance, making it the material of choice for architectural roofing for large structures such as sports stadia. The film’s non-
stick/self cleaning properties also help reduce maintenance costs.
Another common application is in the wire and cable industry where ETFE’s combinations of toughness and dielectric properties are
employed.
How are Fluoropolymers manufactured?
PTFE is used here as an example of fluoropolymer manufacture.
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a polymer made of long, linear polymer chains containing only carbon and fluorine atoms. This gives
the polymer its exceptional properties. It is produced from tetrafluoroethylene (TFE) which is the starting material (called a monomer).
TFE is made in several steps starting from common salt (sodium chloride NaCl), methane and from an ore called fluorspar. TFE gas is
introduced into a closed vessel under pressure and is polymerised using a catalyst to form very long chains. Polymerisation reactions
are often initiated with active molecules called "free radicals”. Radical initiated reactions can run very fast and give out a great deal of
heat. To prevent such reactions running out of control, the reaction vessels are water cooled; even so, great care must be taken not to
allow reaction conditions to become unstable. As well as temperature control, polymer chemists can modify reaction conditions by the
use of chemicals (chain transfer agents) and can modify the polymer itself by the use of different comonomers to produce copolymers
Mineral Photos - Fluorite

Mii Photos


Florite Photo from Mii,
Courtesy of Smithsonian Institute
Fluorite (fluorspar): Used in production of hydrofluoric acid, which is used in the electroplating, stainless steel, refrigerant, and
plastics industries, in production of aluminum fluoride, which is used in aluminum smelting, as a flux in ceramics and glass, in
steel furnaces, and in emery wheels, optics, and welding rods.

22. Background
When found in nature, fluorspar is known by the mineral name fluorite. Fluorspar (fluorite) is calcium fluoride (CaF2). It is found
in a variety of geologic environments. Fluorspar is found in granite (igneous rock), it fills cracks and holes in sandstone, and it is
found in large deposits in limestone (sedimentary rock). The term fluorspar, when used as a commodity name, also refers to
calcium fluoride formed as a by-product of industrial processes.
Fluorspar is relatively soft, number 4 on Mohs' scale of hardness. Pure fluorspar is colorless, but a variety of impurities give
fluorite a rainbow of different colors, including green, purple, blue, yellow, pink, brown, and black. It has a pronounced cleavage,
which means it breaks on flat planes. Fluorite crystals can be well formed, beautiful and highly prized by collectors.
Despite its beauty and physical properties, fluorspar is primarily valuable for its fluorine content.
Name
Even though fluorite contains the element fluorine, its name is not derived from its chemical composition. The name was given by
Georg Agricola in 1546 and was derived from the Latin verb fluere which means to flow because it melts easily.
Spar is a generic name used by mineralogists to refer to any non-metallic mineral that breaks easily to produce flat surfaces and
which has a glassy luster.
A miner’s name used long ago for fluorite was Blue John.
Sources
The United States once produced large quantities of mineral fluorspar. However, the great fluorspar mines of the Illinois-
Kentucky fluorite district are now closed. Today, the United States imports fluorspar from China, South Africa, Mexico, and other
countries.
A small percentage of the fluorspar consumed in the United States is derived as a by-product of industrial processes. For
instance, an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 tons of synthetic fluorspar is produced each year in the uranium enrichment process, the
refining of petroleum, and in treating stainless steel. Hydrofluoric acid (HF) and other fluorides are recovered during the
production of aluminum.
Uses
The majority of the United States’ annual consumption of fluorspar is for the production of hydrofluoric acid (HF) and aluminum
fluoride (AlF3). HF is a key ingredient for the production of all organic and non-organic chemicals that contain the element
fluorine. It is also used in the manufacture of uranium. AlF3 is used in the production of aluminum.
The remainder of fluorspar consumption is as a flux in making steel, glass, enamel, and other products. A flux is a substance that
lowers the melting temperature of a material.
Substitutes and Alternative Sources
Phosphoric acid plants, which process phosphate rock into phosphoric acid, produce a by-product chemical called fluorosilicic
acid. This is used to fluoridate public water supplies or to produce AlF3. Phosphate-rich rocks are a minor alternative source for
elemental fluorine.

Yellow fluorite from Illinois

Pink fluorite
from Peru

23. Green fluorite from Colorado

History of Fluoropolymers
The story of Fluoropolymers began on April 6, 1938, at DuPont's Jackson Laboratory in New Jersey. Dr. Roy J. Plunkett’s first
assignment at DuPont was researching new chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants. Plunkett had produced 100 pounds of tetrafluoroethylene
gas (TFE) and stored it in small cylinders at very low temperatures preparatory to chlorinating it. When he and his helper prepared a
cylinder for use, none of the gas came out—yet the cylinder weighed the same as before. They opened it and found a white powder,
which Plunkett had the presence of mind to characterise. He found the substance to be heat resistant and chemically inert and to have
very low surface friction.

PTFE is inert to virtually all chemicals and is considered the most slippery material in existence. These properties have made it one of
the most valuable and versatile materials ever invented, contributing to significant advancement in areas such as aerospace,
communications, electronics, industrial processes and architecture.

PTFE has become recognised worldwide for the superior non-stick properties associated with its use as a coating on cookware and as
a soil and stain repellent for fabrics and textile products.

Following the discovery of PTFE a large family of other fluoropolymers has been developed. The introduction of the combination of
fluorinated or non fluorinated monomers allowed the industry to design a large number of different polymers with a wide range of
processing and use temperatures.
What makes Fluoropolymers so versatile?
All fluoropolymers are normally regarded as completely insoluble. Only perfluorocarbons, perfluorocarbon ethers, perhalocarbons,
sulphur hexafluoride and carbon dioxide are known to dissolve fluoropolymers and only under the right conditions of temperature
and pressure.

For example PTFE is completely insoluble in most common solvents and will not contaminate ultra-pure or corrosive applications.
Prime quality PTFE resins are very pure and this level of purity can be translated to the final product using a range of moulding
methods. The finished products manufactured from PTFE have very high purity coupled with low porosity and low levels of
extractables.

Fluoropolymers resist chemical attack from virtually all acids, bases, and solvents. A complete chemical resistance chart is available.
Because of the size of fluorine molecules, Fluoropolymers also have low chemical permeability.

The substitution of fluorine for hydrogen contributes to the numerous performance properties of fluoropolymers, such as:

24. High Flexibility

PTFE has good flexural properties even in the cryogenic range and outstanding resistance to fatigue. Flexural properties are strongly
dependent on degree of crystallinity and great care is necessary in the selection of polymer grade and in processing conditions to
achieve maximum flex life.

High thermal stability

Fluoropolymers have a working temperature range of minus 240°C to + 300° C, and their chemical and electrical properties remain
stable for much of that range.

Non-flammability and high melting-point

Fluoropolymers have the lowest heat of combustion of all known polymers. Additionally, Fluoropolymers have the lowest rate of flame
spreading. Fluoropolymers are therefore very difficult to ignite and will stop burning ("self-extinguish”) once the supporting flame is
removed. Even though some references show an ignition temperature of 530° to 580° C, many consider FPs as plastics that do not
burn.

Low coefficient of friction, surface energy and porosity

Fluoropolymers have the lowest coefficient of friction of any polymer. Static and dynamic coefficients of friction are equal so there is
no stick-slip movement. In particular PTFE has a low surface energy and is very difficult to "wet”. PTFE has exceptionally low porosity
and hence anti-adhesion properties . Other materials exhibit little or no adhesion to PTFE.

Electrical Properties

Fluoropolymers have exceptional electrical properties with an extremely high electrical resistance and with a low dielectric constant
and dielectric loss factor. Fluoropolymers also have good arc and tracking resistance, and high surface resistance.
Typical properties
Applications for fluoropolymers are driven by their superior physical and chemical properties.

Chemical Inertness

Fluoropolymers are used in harsh environments where their chemical resistance has made them very useful in the many industrial
processes such as linings for vessels and piping, fly ash collector bags, gasket packing, semiconductor equipment, carrier materials,
chemical tanks and as packing for lithium-ion batteries.

High Dielectric

The dielectric properties of these unique polymers have made possible the miniaturisation of circuit boards. This concept is
responsible for the very latest in high-speed, high-frequency radar and communications found in the newest defence systems as well
as in the next generation of ultra high speed computers.

Flame Retardancy

Fluoropolymers meet exacting industry standards in relation to electrical properties and flame retardancy. Examples of these
applications are wire coating (robots, personal computers, communication industry, response to high frequencies, electrical systems
in aircraft, etc.) fibre optics, cable coating and electrical and electronic components.

25. Low Friction

Fluoropolymers exhibit very low coefficients of friction. For example PTFE is uniquely used as bearing pads for bridges. Where this
characteristic is used in abrasive environments inert fillers are often added to improve their abrasion resistance. For example high
performance automotive and aircraft bearings and seals are now commonly made from fluoropolymers.

Non Stick

Fluoropolymers are used in everyday life as their unique characteristics offer advantages. They are used in household kitchenware
coatings (pans, rice cookers, knives etc.), fixed rolls for printers, parts for transferring paper in photocopiers.

Weatherability

The performance of fluoropolymers does not deteriorate significantly in an outdoor environment. They are suitable for use over long
periods of time without maintenance. They are used in architectural applications, as films for greenhouse applications, photovoltaic
cell film cover and UV resistant paints.

Inertness and Barrier Properties

The bio-medical field uses fluoropolymers in devices such as catheters and other parts with which to perform diagnostic and
therapeutic procedures. Fluoropolymers’ superior barrier properties are exploited in pharmaceutical packaging where their high
resistance to moisture protects pharmaceutical products. Fluoropolymers have a high resistance to gasoline and this property is
exploited in parts manufactured for the automotive industry.
European Food Contact Applications
The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), has approved for food contact applications:- "the use [of the perfluorinated chemicals in
the production of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)] for repeated use articles, sintered at high temperature” and indicated that "consumer
exposure from use of perfluorooctanoic acid, ammonium salt in repeated use articles, is considered negligible”.- August 2005.

There are other fluoropolymer types that are approved for food contact applications and more details of these can be obtained directly
from your supplier
Recovery and Disposal of Fluoropolymer Waste
Recovery

Fluoropolymers are usually employed in small components in specific complex applications such as electronic equipment, transport
(cars, trains and airplanes) or as very thin layer coatings on fabrics and metals. Where sufficient quantities of fluoropolymers can be
recovered and may be sufficient to warrant recycling then they should be shipped to specialist recyclers.

A very substantial market exists for recovered fluoropolymers as low friction additives to other materials. For example PTFE is typically
ground into fine powders and used in such products as inks and paints.

Disposal

Fluoropolymer waste should be incinerated in authorised incinerators. Preferably, non-recyclable fluoropolymers should be sent to
incinerators with energy recovery. Disposal in authorised landfills is also acceptable.

26. PET
If you ever had fizzy drink, water or fruit juice from a plastic bottle then more than likely the bottle is made of PET, or polyethylene
terephthalate. PET is one of the most commonly used plastics in Europe’s packaging industry for several reasons. It is very strong, it
can withstand high pressures and being dropped without bursting. It has excellent gas barrier properties, so it keeps the fizz in fizzy
drinks, and protects the taste of the drinks in the bottles.

PET is a short name for a unique plastic belonging to the family of polyesters, the word is made up from 'poly-' , the Greek word for
many and '-esters' which are compounds formed by reaction of alcohols with acids via a chemical bonding known as an ester linkage.
PET polyester is formed from the alcohol - ethylene glycol [EG] - and the acid - terephthalic acid [TPA],] - and its chemical name is -
Polyethylene terephthalate or PET.

The raw materials for PET are derived from crude oil. After refining and separating the 'crude' into a variety of petroleum products, the
two PET feedstocks or monomers are eventually obtained, purified, and mixed together in a large sealed, 'cooking pot' type of vessel
and heated up to 300°C in the presence of a catalyst. Each intermediate has two identical points for reaction and is therefore capable
of forming chains by linking several single molecules together and forming a polymer where the monomers are bonded by ester
linkages.

Benefits of PET

Because PET is easily processed by or injection and blow moulding as well as extrusion when in the molten state, it can be tailored to
almost any packaging requirement. Typical applications of PET include:
Bottles for beverages such as soft drinks, fruit juices, mineral waters. It is especially suitable for carbonated drinks, cooking
and salad oils, sauces and dressings and detergents.
Wide mouth jars and tubs for jams, preserves, fruits & dried foods.
Trays for pre-cooked meals that can be re-heated in either microwave or conventional ovens. Pasta dishes, meats and
vegetables.
Foils for 'boil-in-the-bag' pre-cooked meals, snack foods, nuts, sweets, long life confectionery.
Other PET products with an extra oxygen barrier are ideal for containing beer, vacuum packed dairy products e.g., cheese,
processed meats, 'Bag in Box' wines, condiments, coffee, cakes, syrups.
Performance profile
What is PET?
How is PET manufactured?
What is the origin of PET?
What makes PET so versatile?
PET as a packaging material
PET and oil resources
PET market statistics
Other plastics used in packaging
Public protection
Recycled/virgin PET-blends
Health and safety - Food contact legislation
Literature
Bottled Water in PET – Oestrogenic Activity
Chemical resistance of PET consolidated - Products & Chemicals

Links
Sources of information

27. Plastics with 1001 uses
Typical applications
PET bottles
Reusable / refillable PET bottles
PET trays and blister packs
PET films and foils
Practical preservations
Eco-profiles PET & LCA studies
Recovery & recycling of PET
Recycled PET for food contact applications
FAQ's
Facts & figures
Packaging
Health & safety
Environment
Anti dumping
Clarification of PET definitions
Clarification of viscosity measurements of PET
What is PET?
PET is a short name for a unique plastic belonging to the family of polyesters, the word is made up from 'poly-' , the Greek word for
many and '-esters' which are compounds formed by reaction of alcohols with acids via a chemical bonding known as an ester linkage .
There are literally thousands of known esters which appear in many different forms, most flavours and essences are esters, fats are
esters of 'fatty acids' and glycerol, the ester - acetyl salicylate - is better known as 'Aspirin'. PET polyester is formed from the alcohol -
ethylene glycol [EG] - and the acid - terephthalic acid [TPA], or its derivative dimethyleterephthalate [DMT] - and its chemical name is
- Polyethylene terephthalate or PET.
How is PET manufactured?

The raw materials for PET are derived from crude oil, as are many other plastics - after refining and
separating the 'crude' into a variety of petroleum products the two PET intermediates or monomers are
eventually obtained, purified, and mixed together in a large sealed, 'cooking pot' type of vessel and heated
up to 280 to 300 ¼C under a slowly reducing the pressure. Each intermediate has two identical points for
reaction and is therefore capable of forming chains by linking several single molecules together and
forming a polymer where the monomers are bonded by ester linkages.

The mixture becomes more and more viscous as the reaction proceeds and it is eventually halted once the
appropriate viscosity is reached. At this stage the PET is extruded from the reactor in the form of thin
'spaghetti like' strands, cooled quickly under water and chopped into small transparent granules or pellets
before drying and transfer to other treatment stages. PET for manufacture of cola bottles is further refined
by heating the solid granules below their melting point which distills out some impurities and at the same
time enhances the physical properties of the material.

28. What is the origin of PET?
PET was originally synthesized by Dupont chemists during a search for polymers to make new textile fibres, but the
technology for making the very the long chains was developed by ICI (Imperial Chemical Industries) in 1941. Polyester
fibre applications have developed to such an extent that by the late 1990's PET represented over 50% of world synthetic
fibre manufacture. It is used alone or to blend with cotton or wool to confer better wash/wear and crease resistant
properties, in fibre form it is better known as 'Dacron' or 'Trevira'. In the late 1950's, PET was developed as a film by
stretching a thin extruded sheet in two directions; in this form PET film finds extensive use as video, photographic and X-
ray film in addition to uses in packaging.

In the early 1970's, stretching in three dimensions by blow moulding - similar to inflating a balloon in a shaped mould -
produced the first bottle type containers initiating the exploitation of PET as a lightweight, tough, unbreakable substitute for the glass
bottle
What makes PET so versatile?
Careful manipulation of PET generates the wide range of useful products we see as variants of the same chemical formula.

PET is easily processed by extrusion or injection moulding when in the molten state, obtaining an amorphous article of practically any
shape. Its properties can then be tailored to the needs, simply heating the article above its glass transition temperature [ca 72°C]. In
this state the polymer chains are capable of being stretched in one direction [fibres] or in two directions [films and bottles]; if cooled
quickly while stretched, the chains are frozen with their orientation intact. Once set in this stretched form the material is extremely
tough and confers the properties we see in a typical polyester bottle, photographic film or fibre. If PET is held in the stretched form for
a period at temperatures above the glass transition, it slowly crystallizes and the material starts to become opaque, more rigid and
less flexible [crystalline PET or CPET]. However, in this crystalline form it is used for trays and containers capable of withstanding
moderate oven temperatures.
PET as a packaging material
The basic chemical structure of PET is essentially inert and resists attack by many potent
chemicals. The molecular chains are packed together extremely tightly forming a very
tough, dense, but a sparkling transparent material which resists gas penetration [carbon
dioxide and oxygen] better that most other common polymers. It is also very resistant to
biochemical attack and environmentally benign, a unique combination of properties
which make it an excellent material for packaging of foods. PET is easy to process by
simple heating and stretching treatments forming trays, sheets, foils, tubs, and glass
clear bottles that do not break
PET and oil resources
Worldwide Uses of Oil Resource

3,300 billion tonnes

29. PET market statistics

30. Other plastics used in packaging
Recycled/virgin PET-blends
Brussels, 11 August 2004
Comments of the PET Committee on blending of recycled and virgin PET
The use of blends of virgin and recycled PET (Polyethylene-terephthalate) for the manufacture of food contact packaging is becoming
more and more common. Several customers purchase virgin PET from PET producers which are members of PlasticsEurope and blend
it with recycled polymer, where the percentage of recycled PET in the blend is often up to 50%, and sometimes even higher.

PlasticsEurope places the health and safety of consumers as its highest priority. PET recycled for food contact applications is fully
acknowledged by PlasticsEurope, if approved by specific national legislation and complying with the product safety requirements of EC
Directive 2002/72/EC for plastics materials and articles that are intended to come into contact with foodstuffs.

Virgin PET's well-known safety is proven by decades of safe use and is beyond argument. To achieve the same high standards for
recycled PET the quality control of recycled PET should be comparable to those used by manufacturers of virgin PET.

It is expected that the proposed Regulation for the Recycle of Plastics back to Food Contact will lay down requirements for high
standards of quality control that will ensure consumer health and safety.

Against the backdrop of the PlasticEurope´s PET producers dedication to consumer health and safety, it is important for the PET
producers represented within PlasticsEurope to point out, that they can take responsibility for the recycled part of such blends with
respect to their compliance with EC Directive 2002/72/EC only if supplied by themselves.
Health and safety - Food contact legislation
Updated July 2004

This note is a brief summary of the regulatory status of PET food packaging materials and outlines the principles involved. For more
comprehensive details concerning these regulations the reader should consult the particular regulations in question, contact the
appropriate regulatory body or seek additional information from PlasticsEurope (formerly APME) PET producers.

The relevant European Union legislation is still in the process of harmonisation across the Member States but the basic principles of
food contact regulation are now well established in the EC "Framework Directive" [89/109/EEC]. The Directive states that:

"Materials and articles must be manufactured in accordance with Good Manufacturing Practice [GMP] so that, under normal conditions
of use, they do not transfer any of their constituents to foodstuffs in quantities that could endanger human health, bring about an
unacceptable change in the composition of the foodstuffs or cause a deterioration in the organoleptic [taste/odour] characteristics".

The Directive also requires that food contact materials and articles should be 'positively labelled' to the effect that they are suitable for
the declared conditions of use. Any changes or amendments to this law are decided by the Codecision Procedure EU Council of
Ministers following the advice of European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) an appointed body of European experts. The Directive defines
the requirements for all materials intended for all food contact applications, not only plastics.
Within this Framework Directive there is a specific Directive for all plastics [2002/72/EC] including PET. In general, Directive
2002/72/EC requires the establishment of, 'Positive lists' of authorised substances, which may be used in manufacture of plastics and
plastic articles.
An "overall migration limit" (OML), defined as the limit on any substance, which might possibly transfer into the food.
Where necessary, specific migration limits (SML's) or compositional limits (QM's or QMA's) for particular substances.
These two Directives, and related amendments (e.g. 2nd amendment of Directive 2002/72/EC published 2004) are intended to give
consumers maximal protection. Detailed tests that have to be applied to ensure compliance with the legislation are covered in several
other directives including (see practical guide). The Framework Directive is being revised and the amended version is expected within
2004. Concurrently, the Plastics Directive and the Migration Directives with amendments are being consolidated in one "Super
Directive".

31. Other countries (e.g. USA, Japan) have similar regulatory requirements to those of the EU. The procedures and responsibilities are also
similar, i.e., the producers and users of materials and articles must ensure compliance under the conditions of intended use.

PET materials supplied for use in food packaging applications have been subjected to careful review by all the appropriate regulatory
bodies around the world and may be used with complete safety in contact with food and beverages.

PET producers, converters and packers/fillers constantly monitor developments in the regulatory processes to ensure that all their
products and articles are in compliance. Producers and their trade association [PlasticsEurope], provide more specific details and
advice on compliance requirements.
Typical applications of PET
Bottles
Beverages, Cola and soft drinks, fruit juices, mineral waters.Especially suitable for carbonated drinks.Cooking and salad oils, sauces
and dressings.Detergents.


Wide mouth jars and tubs
Jams, preserves, fruits & dried foods.


Trays
Pre-cooked meals for re-heating in either microwave or conventional ovens. Pasta dishes, meats and vegetables.



Foils
'Boil in bag' pre-cooked meals, snack foods, nuts, sweets, long life confectionery.

PET Products with extra oxygen barrier
Beer, vacuum packed dairy products e.g., cheese, processed meats, 'Bag in Box' wines, condiments, coffee, cakes, syrups.

32. PET bottles
The PET bottle is the modern, hygienic package of choice for many food products, particularly beverages and mineral
waters. The main reasons for its popularity are its glass like transparency, ability to retain carbonation and freshness, a
toughness per weight ratio which allows manufacture of lightweight, large capacity, safe unbreakable containers. The
proportion of package weight compared to the contents allows very favourable distribution economics which reduces
overall system costs. For example, a typical transporter vehicle would transport 93% of beverage and 7% of PET bottle
material compared with a glass bottle transporting 57% beverage and 43% unwanted glass.
This ratio is particularly advantageous when measuring fuel consumption per litre of beverage
delivered.

PET bottles and jars are manufactured by the process of injection stretch blow moulding. A
preform, parison or pre-moulding is first formed by injecting molten PET into a cooled mould.
The preform is then carefully heated in a second process stage before using air pressure,
assisted by a rod, to quickly stretch and form the PET material by blowing into a larger mould in the shape of
the desired container followed by cooling. If the desired container is a bottle or jar the screw thread is formed
during the preform manufacturing stage.

Selection of the processing temperatures is vital to achieve the best balance of properties. Toughness,
transparency, stiffness, gas resistance properties are all maximised during this part of the process. Tubs can
also be made by this process but thermoforming is the preferred option.

The weight of a typical 1.5 litre single trip cola bottle would be about 40 to 45g. about one tenth the weight
of an equivalent glass bottle
Reusable / refillable PET bottles
Traditionally the glass bottle has been the material of choice in this end use because practical alternatives have not been available. PET
now provides an alternative to glass, PET offers similar size with 75 % less material weight, it is unbreakable and allows the use of
larger size containers for carbonated products with a higher degree of safety. However, PET is absorbent to some degree and
therefore requires a more strict approach to segregation of unsuitable bottles. Rigorous cleaning and sterilisation procedures must be
followed to guarantee product safety and consumer acceptance.

Many very detailed studies have now been completed investigating all the health, safety and environmental
aspects of using PET in refillable bottle systems.

The weight of a typical refillable PET bottle would be around twice the weight of a single trip PET bottle at
about 80g., approximately one fifth of an equivalent glass bottle.

Refillable PET bottles are now used extensively in Scandinavia and countries like Germany, The Netherlands
and Switzerland.

PET trays and blister packs
Semi rigid PET sheet, the precursor for thermoforming PET articles, is made by a extruding a
ribbon of molten PET polymer on to a series of cooling and compressing rolls, usually in a 'stack'
of three. The cooled sheet is then stored before feeding through a thermoforming line which
heats the sheet, stamp forms, and cuts out the article all in one process. Similar principles to
those in stretch blow moulding apply but the operation is less critical and the range of properties
less demanding

33. PET films and foils
Manufacture of very thin highly stretched PET film is a much more demanding operation which develops fully the properties of the
PET. Film packaging applications approximate to around 20% of PET film use, it finds a wide range of applications in magnetic tapes,
photographic films, photoresist and hot stamping foils in addition to packaging outlets.

The excellent thermal properties of PET allow processing and use over a wider temperature
range (-70 to +150 ¼C) than most common packaging films. It is ideal for retort packaging,
dual ovenable lidding and 'boil in the bag' applications. PET film has the chemical inertness and
good gas barrier properties that are important for many medical, pharmaceutical and food
products, they can be used in the demanding steam, ethylene oxide and radiation sterilisation
processes.

The key to achieving these highly prized film properties is in the way the material is manipulated
during the hot stretching and heat annealing section of the process, which is called 'stentering'
Eco-profiles PET & LCA studies
Environmental auditing of processes is usually carried out by applying the technique of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). A Life Cycle
Inventory (LCI) first catalogues all the raw materials, energy consumption and wastes generated during the whole product cycle, i.e.
the so-called 'Cradle to Grave' inventory.
To facilitate the inventory phase for polymers, PlasticsEurope has prepared eco-profiles for the most important plastics. Eco-profiles
are block collections of average ‘Cradle to Gate’ industry data; i.e., they start with raw materials in the earth and end with polymers
ready for despatch to converters. Among others, eco-profiles of PET resin and PET film have been published by PlasticsEurope in its
series of polymer eco-profiles. An eco-profile for the manufacture of PET bottles is also available. All these reports can be read on, or
downloaded from, this, the PlasticsEurope website.

Every LCA carried out so far on PET containers has shown sound environmental performance.
This has recently been confirmed by an LCA carried out in 2004 by IFEU GmbH (Heidelberg) on behalf of PETCORE (Brussels). This
study compared single use PET bottles for mineral water, carbonated and non-carbonated soft drinks with refillable glass bottles for
the same beverages, with focus on the German market. It was conducted in accordance with International Standards (ISO 14040) and
peer reviewed.
Although several studies with similar goals have been done in the past, this was the first study in which the system boundaries were
expanded to include the additional products obtained from the recycle of post use PET bottles. In this way, it was possible to avoid
partitioning the benefits of recycling between the system of PET bottles and that of articles from recycled PET. As there is no scientific
way of partitioning benefits among several product flows, the interpretation of LCA’s involving additional products is often uncertain
unless the boundaries are enlarged.

The conclusions of the IFEU study were:
Under the conditions of kerbside collection of PET single use bottles (DSD system), there is no clear environmental advantage
for either of the two packaging systems.
Instead, under the conditions of a deposit based collection system and shipping of significant amounts of baled bottles to the
Far East for recycling, there is a clear environmental advantage for refillable glass bottles. However, this advantage would
disappear if recycling of PET bottles were carried out in Europe.
Recovery & recycling of PET
The EU Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive

The European Union, with the adoption of its Packaging and Packaging Waste Directive, 94/62/EC as amended by 2004/12/EC, is
legislating for more effective recovery of used packaging and for the reduction of the impact of packaging on the environment.

34. a) More effective recovery
Recovery of PET packaging falls under the requirements for recovery and is classed together with other plastic materials in the targets
laid down in directive 2004/12/EC:

Overall recovery: minimum 60% of packaging waste Overall recycling of packaging waste (including feedstock recycling): between 55%
and 80% Minimum recycling differentiated by material, for plastics 22.5% (including only what is recycled back to plastics)

Member States must meet these targets by 2008, with the exception of Greece, Ireland, Portugal, and the accession countries, which
are allowed to delay their attainment.

b) Minimisation of the environmental impact
To be allowed on the market, packaging articles must comply with the following essential requirements:
The content of heavy metals (Cd, CrVI, Hg, and Pb) must be lower than 100 ppm.
The use of substances dangerous for the environment must be minimised.
The articles must be recoverable by material recycling, organic recycling, and/or energy recovery (at least one of the three).
They must be suitable for reuse (when relevant and claimed).
The volume or weight of the packaging article must be limited to the minimum adequate amount to maintain the necessary
level of safety, hygiene, and consumer acceptance.
c) Status of PET
PET is widely recycled as a material, making a large contribution to the recycling targets required for plastics by the EU directive. When
material recycling is not feasible, PET can be incinerated with energy recovery.
Moreover, PET usually does not contain heavy metals and/or substances dangerous for the environment.

The introduction of the PET bottle has created a number of dilemmas, which are currently being resolved slowly by a mixture of
political and commercial considerations. The commercial advantages are well understood. However, the traditional use of refillable
glass in many northern European countries has resisted the widespread use of the single use PET container that is more prevalent in
southern Europe. A refillable PET bottle has been developed and is now used widely in the Nordic countries, Germany, The
Netherlands, and Switzerland.
The pursuit of commercial freedom within Europe is a central stone of the EU trade policy, but concerns around unsatisfactory
disposal schemes for single use PET containers need to be resolved to the satisfaction of the relevant authorities before complete
harmonisation of distribution systems is achieved. In Germany, Denmark, Finland, Norway, The Netherlands and Sweden all beverage
containers, single use and refillable, are distributed and collected via a mandatory deposit refund system. Switzerland manages an
advanced disposal fee to fund a voluntary collection scheme. The majority of the other European countries are including the collection
of PET containers in more comprehensive schemes for separate collection of packaging waste set up to comply with the EU directive.

Recycling of PET containers

PET container recycling is a healthy industry and growing very steadily. Even if the PET consumption rate will follow predictions at
around 2.5 to 3.0 million tonnes beyond the year 2007, meeting the EU recycling targets should not be a challenge to the current
growth in recycling of approximately 10% pa. Regular information on recovery and recycling of PET can be obtained from PETCORE
(www.petcore.org), a European organisation constituted solely to facilitate the recycling of PET containers. Similar organisations are
operating on other continents as NAPCOR (www.napcor.com) in the US and the Council for PET Bottle Recycling (www.petbottle-
rec.gr.jp/english/en_top.html) in Japan; all offer guidance on recovery procedures.

To assist the overall process of recycling there are guides to good container design and a common specification for collected used PET
containers. Sophisticated container sorting equipment, using X-rays and optical sensors, is automated to a level that ensures almost
100% separation of PET from other container types.

There are now clear programmes in place to meet the EU recovery targets and establish recycling of PET as a sustainable process.

35. PET recovery processes and sustainability
PET can be recovered, and the material reused, by simple washing processes to regenerate clean washed polymer flake (mechanical
recycling), or by chemical treatment to break down the PET into oligomers or up to the starting monomers, terephthalic acid and
ethylene glycol (chemical recycling). These intermediates are then purified and repolymerised into new PET resins. A final option, for
PET that is unsuitable for material recycling (e.g., very dirty, or too contaminated to clean), is to use PET as an energy source.
Purity is essential for good quality mechanical recycling. Discrete physical contamination is usually easy to remove i.e., dirt, glass
fragments, stones, grit, soil, paper, glues, product residues and other plastics like PVC and PE. However, ingrained soil caused by
abrasion or grinding, for example during baling, transport or handling in poor storage conditions, is difficult to dislodge and will need
some filtration to ensure removal. Oils, fats, and greases need more detergents and contaminate wash waters excessively, although
leaving no residual quality problems. Chemical contamination occurs by adsorption of contents as flavourings, essential oils, or similar
ingredients used in the product formulations. Contamination can also be introduced by consumer misuse of the container for
purposes other than the original intention e.g., storage of pesticides, household chemicals, or motor and fuel oils. Complete removal
will require desorption, a slow process, hence with reduced productivity. However, these occurrences are few, and are not known to
cause many problems during reprocessing. For some low risk applications, like non-food contact and fibres, incidental product
contamination is likely to be insignificant. For other uses, appearance and odour are important. The intended use of the recycled PET
often determines the feedstock purity requirements.

36. Chemical recycling processes are generally less sensitive to purity of feedstock than mechanical ones, as they include efficient
purification steps.
Recovery of PET by combustion in waste-to-energy power generation plants is a useful method of utilising the high intrinsic energy
content of PET (23 MJ/kg, comparable to that of soft coal). If this type of plant is not available, simple incineration is then the
alternative option. Combustion of PET is perfectly safe; containing only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with controlled burning its
combustion generates only carbon dioxide and water. The volume of ash generated is parts per million, essentially insoluble and can
be treated in the same manner as other resulting ashes.
In landfills, PET is stable and inert with no leaching or groundwater risk. Bottles are crushed to very small volume, take up relatively
little space, and generally add a degree of stability to the landfill.

Processes for the recovery of used PET
Degree of
contamination
Recovery process
General
economics
Process convenience Example of feedstocks
Low Washing and remelting Satisfactory Simple
Refillable & Single use clear and
pale coloured bottles
Medium
Glycolysis




Complete chemical
breakdown
Satisfactory






More expensive
Increasing complexity, extra
purification technology
Demands larger scale purification
plant to reduce costs
Fibrous waste, generic PET




Coated and coloured PET, barrier
bottles
High
Energy recovery as a
fuel substitute
Well established
costs
Relatively convenient
Laminates, coated and thin gauge
films. Very dirty bottles

Uses of recycled PET (R-PET)
Clean, recovered R-PET flake is virtually indistinguishable from virgin PET and can be converted into many different products
competing in the same markets. It is used again in bottles for non-food end uses like household chemicals and cleaners. In countries
where local laws allow it, the use of R PET for the manufacture of new beverage bottles is growing rapidly.
However, the major secondary use is for the manufacture of polyester fibres then used to make clothing, either directly or as a filling
fibre in anoraks and bedding. The fibres are also used extensively for carpets and scouring and cleaning pads. Protective packaging
for delicate articles, like eggs, and plants for despatch through the mail, are manufactured from R-PET using thermoforming
techniques.

Markets for Recycled PET
Main markets for melt reprocessing of clean recycled PET flake

Fibres
In staple form for fillings e.g., anoraks, bedding, cushions, and furnishings.
Industrial fibres for belting, webbing, scouring/cleaning pads, filters, cleaning cloths, and geotextiles.
Other textiles like carpets, upholstery fabrics, interlinings, protective clothing, and other garments.

37. Strapping
Binding and strapping tapes, mainly for
securing bales or bulky articles on pallets.



Sheet
Blister packaging. Boxes, trays, shallow pots, and cups.


Blow moulding
Primarily into bottles for non-food applications, but its use for food applications is rapidly growing.


Injection moulding
Transparent articles or plates, when reinforced with glass fibre for selected engineering applications.
Recycled PET for food contact applications
In the context of food contact, PlasticsEurope considers that protection of health and safety of consumers - as well as compliance with
applicable regulations - must have priority over all other considerations.
Technological advances over the last decade have led to the development of manufacturing processes that now make it possible to
supply recycled PET for food contact use that meet the same standards in hygiene and safety as virgin PET.
Although several member states, e.g., Germany, The Netherlands, have recognized these advances and have established regulations
that assure that recycled PET is safe for use in food packaging, there is currently no regulatory consistency among these member
states and other states have not yet established suitable regulations. To establish a consistent, harmonized system that assures the
safety of recycled PET and to regulate recycle processes, the European Commission has prepared a draft regulation on "Recycled
Plastics Materials and Articles Intended for Food Contact".

38. PlasticsEurope PET Group wholeheartedly supports this draft regulation and believes it will protect the health and safety of consumers
and facilitate the environmentally sound use of recycled PET in food packaging.
Polycarbonate
The term Polycarbonate describes a polymer which is composed of many ("poly") identical units of bisphenol A connected by
carbonate-linkages in its backbone chain. Chemically, a carbonate group is a di-ester of carbonic acid, the result of which is a
polymeric chain. Polycarbonate is transformed into the required shape by melting it and forcing it under pressure into a mould or die.
There are two dominant processes involved in making products from polycarbonate:
Extrusion : The polymer melt is continuously pressed through an orifice called a "die", which gives the molten polymer its final
shape.This process makes it possible to create infinitely long pipes, profiles or sheets.
Injection moulding : The hot polymer melt is pressed into a mould. The mould is then cooled, and the hot polymer solidifies
taking on all the characteristics of the mould. This process is used to make single-end products, such as housings, plates,
bottles and many other applications.
Benefits of Polycarbonate
Polycarbonate offers many outstanding characteristics, including:
High transparency, making it ideal for use in protective panelling
High strength, making it resistant to impact and fracture
High heat resistance, making it ideal for applications that require sterilisation
Good dimensional stability which permits it to retain its shape in a range of conditions
Good electrical insulation properties
Biologically inert
Readily recyclable
Easy to process
These characteristics make polycarbonate suitable for many applications, including:
Automotive: Polycarbonate plastic moulded mirror housings, tail lights, turn signals, back-up lights, fog lights, and
headlamps all contribute to a vehicle’s unique style.
Packaging: Polycarbonate bottles, containers and tableware can withstand extreme stress during use and cleaning, including
sterilisation. They can be used to serve, freeze and reheat food in the microwave making them time and energy savers.
Shatterproof and virtually unbreakable, polycarbonate is a safer alternative to glass.
Appliances & Consumer Goods: Polycarbonate’s moulding flexibility styling and colouring possibilities make it perfect for use
in electric kettles, fridges, food mixers, electrical shavers and hairdryers, while fulfilling all safety requirements such as heat
resistance and electrical insulation.
Electrical & Electronics: Polycarbonate’s light weight and impact- and shatter-resistant qualities make it perfect for housing
cell phones, computers, fax machines, and pagers while at the same time withstanding the bangs, scratches and accidental
drops of everyday use.
About Polycarbonate
What is Polycarbonate?
How are products made from PC?
Facts and figures
PC chemistry & characteristics
The history of Polycarbonate
The market of Polycarbonate
PC health and safety

39. Applications
Applications overview
Automotive
Bottles and packaging
Appliances & consumer goods
Electrical & Electronics
Glazing & sheet
Leisure & safety
Medical & healthcare
News
Reebok to launch new Polycarbonate sports sunglasses (January 2003)
The compact disk celebrates its 20th birthday (September 2002)
European commission's scientific committee on food confirms Polycarbonate products are safe for food applications (May
2002)
Industry positions
Info+
Useful links
Contact us
What is Polycarbonate?
Polycarbonate plastic is a lightweight, high-performance plastic found in commonly used items such as
automobiles, cell phones, computers and other business equipment, sporting goods, consumer electronics,
household appliances, CDs, DVDs, food storage containers and bottles. The tough, durable, shatter- and heat-
resistant material is ideal for a myriad of applications and is found in thousands of every day products.

Polycarbonate's versatility makes it excellent for creating functional, as well as aesthetically pleasing products. It
can be easily moulded and dyed in hundreds of colours - for products from car mirror housings to mobile phone
coverings to microwaveable containers, and can also be perfectly transparent, making it ideal for use in
eyeglasses.
How are products made from PC?

Polycarbonate is transformed from prills or pellets into the desired shape for its intended application by melting the
polycarbonate and forcing it under pressure into a mould or die to give it the desired shape depending on the
application. This process is repeated thousands and thousands of times for a given part, such as a cell phone
housing. The part is generally then shipped to a manufacturer who assembles the final product.
There are two dominant processes involved in making products from polycarbonate:
Extrusion:
The polymer melt is continuously pressed through an orifice called a "die", which gives the molten polymer its final shape.
After passing through the die the melt cools rapidly and solidifies hence maintaining the given shape. This process makes it
possible to create infinitely long pipes, profiles or sheets.
Injection moulding:
The hot polymer melt is pressed into a mould. The mould is then cooled, and the hot polymer solidifies taking on all the
characteristics of the mould. This process is used to make single end products, such as housings, plates, bottles and many
other applications
Superior processability combined with excellent mechanical and physical properties makes
polycarbonate an outstanding engineering plastic, and the material of choice for many high quality, durable
applications. This combination of characteristics also allows designers broad design freedom.

40. PC chemistry & characteristics
What is the chemical structure of polycarbonate?

The term Polycarbonate describes a polymer which is composed of many ("poly") identical units of bisphenol A connected by
carbonate-linkages in its backbone chain. Chemically, a carbonate group is a di-ester of carbonic acid. The result is a polymeric chain
as can be seen in the scheme below:



How is polycarbonate made?

Polycarbonate is created by linking its main building unit, bisphenol A, via the formation of carbonate groups.
What are the beneficial characteristics of polycarbonate?
Polycarbonate is a thermoplastic characterised by a wide range of outstanding properties:
High transparency
High strength making it resistant to impact and fracture
High heat resistance, making it ideal for applications that require sterilisation
Good dimensional stability which permits it to retain its shape in a range of conditions
Good electrical insulation properties
Biologically inert
Readily recyclable
Excellent processability
Cost effective
This combination of properties has led to many beneficial, durable and unique applications in the electronic sector, in domestic
appliances and office equipment, in optical data storage media, in the construction industry, in automotive engineering, in food and
beverage containers, in medical devices and in leisure and safety equipment.
The history of Polycarbonate
In 1953, polycarbonate was discovered by Dr. H. Schnell at Bayer AG, Germany, and by D. W. Fox at General Electric Company, USA
working independently. In the late 1950´s polycarbonate began to be used in commercial applications.

Polycarbonate was initially used for electrical and electronic applications such as distributor and fuse boxes, displays and plug
connections and subsequently for glazing for greenhouses and public buildings. Soon polycarbonate’s outstanding combination of
beneficial characteristics made it the material of choice for many other applications.

In 1982, the first audio-CD was introduced to the market, quickly replacing audio records. Within 10 years optical media technology
included CD-ROMs, and within 15 years DVDs. All these optical data storage systems depend on polycarbonate.

Since the mid 1980´s, 18 litre water bottles made of polycarbonate have increasingly replaced heavy and fragile glass bottles. These
light-weight and shatter resistant bottles can now be found in many public buildings and offices.

Already used in the USA since the end of the 1980´s, automotive headlamps made of polycarbonate became authorised in Europe in
1992. Today, only 10 years later, almost every new European car is equipped with polycarbonate headlamps.

41. The market of Polycarbonate
Is polycarbonate a widely used plastic?

Yes. Polycarbonate is a high quality, engineering plastic with a unique combination of properties including strength, lightness,
durability, high transparency, heat resistance and is easily processed. Hence, it is found in a number of products from essential
medical devices, electronics equipment, computer housings, cars, building and construction applications as well as consumer goods.
It is also extensively used in optical data storage applications (e.g. CDs, DVDs), safety equipment and lightweight, transparent roofing
in building & construction.

In addition, as polycarbonate is highly durable and lightweight, it is the best choice for applications such as automotive instrument
panels, sculpted headlights and interior trim which all contribute to a reduced fuel consumption.

How large is the European market for polycarbonate?

The European demand for polycarbonate reached 400,000 tonnes in 1999. This represents around one third of the global demand.
The polycarbonate market is growing as new applications are developed and demand in existing sectors expands at a significant rate.
The demand for polycarbonate to manufacture optical media like CDs or DVDs is, for example, growing at around 30% per year.
Overall, the European market is expanding at around 10% per annum.

The European polycarbonate market is valued at around 1.6 billion. The pie chart demonstrates the main market applications for
Europe; all of these applications are durable and long lasting.

Source: The Weinberg Group, 2001. Polycarbonates and Their Socio-Economic Impact.

What role does polycarbonate play in the European economy?

The polycarbonate industry itself employs approximately 7,000 people. Additionally, it is estimated that in 1999 around 160,000 jobs
directly depended on polycarbonate and its end products and applications. In terms of market value, these polycarbonate products
and applications correspond to a European output of approximately 12 billion euros. Polycarbonate is essential in the field of
Information and Communications Technology in Europe, which employs in excess of 5 million people.

Source: The Weinberg Group, 2001. Polycarbonates and Their Socio-Economic Impact.

42. How large is the global market for polycarbonate?

The global market for polycarbonate has grown from 600,000 tonnes in 1990 to 1,800,000 tonnes (see chart) in 2000. Market growth
is expected to continue with an average growth rate of approximately 10% as new developments and applications contribute to the
quality of life for consumers.


Source: "Polycarbonate (PC)"; Special: Plastics Market; Plast Europe, (2001) 10 , pages 110 – 112 Carl HanserVerlag, München
PC health and safety
How does PC contribute to human health and safety?

Polycarbonate positively contributes to consumers' comfort and safety through its use in a vast array of applications. For example, due
to polycarbonate's strength and impact resistance, it is used in safety lenses to protect the eyes of workers and sportspeople, as well
as anyone enjoying an active lifestyle. In addition, unbreakable and shatterproof food containers and bottles made from polycarbonate
avoid the risk of cuts from broken glass while keeping food fresh and safe to eat. Polycarbonate used in medical devices supports
medical treatments, which in turn prolong life expectancy.

Can I be confident PC products are safe to use?

Yes. More than four decades of research and extensive use throughout the world demonstrate that polycarbonate and BPA, from which
it is made, are safe for all intended uses.

Is PC as a plastic safe for use in contact with food?

Yes. Over four decades of research and extensive use throughout the world demonstrate that polycarbonate plastic can safely be used
in contact with food. It meets all relevant government food contact requirements.

Does polycarbonate plastic meet EU food contact regulations?

Yes. The European Commission’s expert body, the Scientific Committee on Food (SCF), recently reconfirmed that polycarbonate food
contact applications are safe for intended uses and meet EU requirements. These applications also meet the requirements of the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare and other international regulatory bodies.

A brief summary of regulations on food contact materials may be found at the EU Commission's site:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/food/chemicalsafety/foodcontact/index_en.htm

The opinion of the SCF on BPA (Expressed on 17 April 2002) can be found at:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/sc/scf/out128_en.pdf

43. Does PC have an affect on the environment?

Emissions to the environment from the production of polycarbonate are extremely low. It is produced in closed processes (meaning
the material is piped from one closed vessel to another) with careful emission treatment practices.

Long life expectancy products, which are expected to last and be used for years, are typical for polycarbonate. Many applications even
help to save resources, such as light weight polycarbonate containers that reduce fuel consumption during transport, lightweight and
aerodynamic automotive parts that reduce fuel consumption, and multi-wall sheets which are heat insulating and contribute to energy
savings.

At the end of a polycarbonate product´s life it can be recovered, recycled and disposed of safely.
Applications overview

Automotive
Today’s sleek automobiles combine style with high performance and durability on the road; vehicle strength to
protect passenger’s safety; and light-weight, aerodynamic design to increase fuel efficiency. Polycarbonate makes
much of this possible. Polycarbonate plastic moulded mirror housings, tail lights, turn signals, back-up lights, fog
lights, and headlamps all contribute to a vehicle’s unique style. Polycarbonate is also extensively used in todays
stylish automobile interiors.

Scratch and shatter resistant polycarbonate headlamp housings and lenses offer such superior features that they
have virtually replaced glass. Polycarbonate automotive lighting offers:
Weight savings (up to 1 kg per head light)
Increased safety due to a higher fracture strength
Increased design freedom making aerodynamically advantageous shapes possible
Ability to integrate many functional elements in the mouldings
The majority of today's bumpers are made of a combination of different plastics, including polycarbonate. More
impact-resistant than metal bumpers, plastic bumpers have a higher resistance to dents and are much less
expensive to replace – and they don’t rust!

44. Appliances & Consumer Goods
Customers expect their appliances and consumer goods to look stylish while remaining functional and safe.
Customer perceptions have changed in the last decade and appliances such as electric kettles, fridges, food
mixers, electrical shavers and even hairdryers have all become fashionable status symbols in the home.
Polycarbonate plastic and its blends have made a large contribution to this change of perception due to its
moulding flexibility, styling and colouring possibilities while fulfilling all safety requirements such as heat
resistance and electrical insulation.
Electrical & Electronics
Cell phones, computers, fax machines, and pagers all keep us in touch with our businesses, families and friends –
and provide life assuring and life saving communication in an emergency. Polycarbonate is integral to the
electronic age. Light weight, yet impact and shatter resistant, polycarbonate has contributed to making computers
and cell phones weigh grams instead of kilos, while at the same time withstanding the bangs, scratches and
accidental drops of everyday use. It is also transparent making electronic data easy to read, yet protected by a
clear, hard shell.

Polycarbonate's properties of impact resistance, electrical resistance, heat resistance, dimensional stability under
varying environmental conditions, low weight and transparency make it highly desirable for use in distributor
boxes, fuse boxes, circuit breakers, cable sockets, displays, relays, LEDs, safety switches, high voltage plugs and
fluorescent lighting diffusers.

Glazing & sheet
What do greenhouses and the dome of the Sydney Olympic stadium have incommon?Polycarbonate sheet glazing.
Polycarbonate sheets are super-light, virtually unbreakable and can provide heat insulation, making them ideal for
roof glazing. In many greenhouses and conservatories multi-wall polycarbonate sheets contribute to energy
savings. Polycarbonate can be used when you need a material you can see through, but is tough enough to
withstand abuse.

As polycarbonate sheets are virtually unbreakable, protective paneling and glazing is frequently installed wherever
people and property need to be protected from injury and damage. In factories many workers are protected by
polycarbonate safety guards. Spectators at ice hockey games have a perfect view of the game from behind
protective polycarbonate glazing panels and bank employees are protected behind bullet-resistant polycarbonate
windows. Protective barriers and shields made of polycarbonate also guard taxi drivers and riot policemen.
Leisure & Safety
Increased safety awareness has become commonplace with today’s busy, action filled lifestyles. Protective
accessories are not only important but are often a legal safety requirement on the roads for cyclists or on
construction sites for builders. For example, wearing a helmet reduces your risk of head injury by 85 percent.
Growing demand from sport lovers for a high level of safety and maximum comfort, while participating in sports
(particularly "extreme" sports) has resulted in the development of today's super-lightweight helmets combining
comfort, style and protection. Polycarbonate is frequently used for the tough, shatter-resistant, moulded outer shell of helmets as well
as providing the transparent visors. This provides a smooth, aerodynamic surface and helps protect your head from nasty collisions
and falls.

45. In addition, polycarbonate has enabled lenses to be lightweight and shatter resistant while offering tremendous design freedom for a
variety of sports and leisure goggles, fashionable sunglasses, skiing goggles, cycling goggles. Toughness, as well as polycarbonate’s
weathering resistance and its dimensional stability, makes it well suited for many other outdoor applications such as compass and
binocular casings, ship’s lights and ski boot buckles.


Medical & Healthcare
Newly born babies are so vulnerable. Thankfully, plastic incubators provide a protected environment to keep them
safe from infection and cold. The incubator dome is formed of a tough, transparent plastic such as polycarbonate
so parents, doctors and nurses can watch and care for the baby safely. Smooth polycarbonate surfaces are easy to
keep clean and can withstand disinfectants. Moulded-in openings allow doctors and nurses to care for the baby
without letting the warmth out or infection in. The moulded openings also allow parents to hold and feed their
babies while keeping them safe.

Life saving modern medical treatments rely on aids such as kidney dialysers, blood oxygenators, tube connections
and many other components. Providing patients the protection they deserve, polycarbonate medical devices are
reliable in a wide range of environments and fracture resistant even after repeated sterilisation. Due to its
transparency, polycarbonate is excellent for oxygenators, dialysers and infusion units allowing easy detection of
life threatening air bubbles.

Corrective eyeglass lenses made of polycarbonate are becoming more and more popular due to their low weight,
which makes them comfortable to wear. Virtually unbreakable, polycarbonate lenses protect as well as correct
vision. Polycarbonate can even be used to fashion corrective goggles for snorkeling and scuba-diving have allowed
glasses wearers to see the wonders of the sea for the first time!

Bottles & Packaging
Polycarbonate contributes to day-to-day safety in the home by providing unbreakable and shatterproof food and
beverage containers, baby bottles, water cooler bottles and milk bottles. Offering high transparency, but lighter
and stronger, polycarbonate is increasingly replacing the use of glass in such applications. Plastic food containers
and bottles also play an important role in protecting us against food borne illnesses. Millions of people use
polycarbonate containers every day to protect food against spoilage and contamination - keeping us safe while
helping our food stay fresh longer.

Tough polycarbonate bottles, containers and tableware, can withstand extreme stress during use and cleaning,
including sterilisation. They can be used to serve, freeze and reheat food in the microwave making them time and
energy savers. Shatterproof and virtually unbreakable, polycarbonate is a safer alternative to glass making it a
favorite for baby bottles, as well as being more convenient for parents on the go.

In addition, the lower weight and the efficient utilization of space, which is possible with square bottles made of
polycarbonate, allows more refillable containers of milk and other beverages to be transported with less use of
energy. The square bottles also fit more easily into refrigerator shelves.

46. Polyolefins

Polyolefins is the collective description for plastics types that include
polyethylene - low density polyethylene (LDPE), linear low density polyethylene
(LLDPE) and high density polyethylene (HDPE) - and polypropylene (PP). Together
they account for more than 47% (11.2 million tonnes) of Western Europe’s total
consumption of 24.1 million tonnes of plastics each year.

Polyolefins are produced from oil or natural gas by a process of polymerisation,
where short chains of chemicals (monomers) are joined in the presence of a
catalyst to make long chains (polymers). Polymers are solid thermoplastics that
can be processed in two ways – by film extrusion or moulding. During film
extrusion the polymer is heated and forced, in a molten state, through a die to
produce thick sheet, thin film or fibres. The thickness of the film can be varied to
produce anything from lightweight food packaging wrap to much heavier film for
agricultural use. The moulding process involves heating and compressing the
polymer in an extruder, and then forcing it into a mould where it solidifies into
the required shape.

Benefits of polyolefins

Because of their versatility, Polyolefins are one of the most popular plastics in use today. Their many applications include:
LDPE: cling film, carrier bags, agricultural film, milk carton coatings, electrical cable coating, heavy duty industrial bags.
LDPE: stretch film, industrial packaging film, thin walled containers, and heavy-duty, medium- and small bags.
HDPE: crates and boxes, bottles (for food products, detergents, cosmetics), food containers, toys, petrol tanks, industrial
wrapping and film, pipes and houseware.
PP: food packaging, including yoghurt, margarine pots, sweet and snack wrappers, microwave-proof containers, carpet fibres,
garden furniture, medical packaging and appliances, luggage, kitchen appliances, and pipes.

Polystyrene
The terms Styrenics or Styrenic Polymers are used to describe a family of major plastic products that use Styrene as their key building
block. Included in this family of products are:
How is PS manufactured?
How is polystyrene made ... and processed?

The building block - monomer - of polystyrene is styrene. The raw materials to make styrene are obtained from crude oil. A range of
processes such as distillation, steam-cracking and dehydration are required to transform the crude oil into styrene. At the end
polystyrene is produced by polymerising styrene. The final product is available in the form of pellets. In order to get the final articles
polystyrene pellets are extruded, thermoformed or injection moulded. Extrusion is a process in which the pelletised polymer is melted
and then forced continuously through a die to form an endless profile of polymer. Most of the time polystyrene is extruded into sheet.
In a second step this sheet can be thermoformed into the final article. Applications of thermoformed articles include disposables such
as cups and plates, meat and poultry trays, multiple and single-serving food containers in dairy, vending machine cups, trays for
hospital and restaurant use. Injection moulding is a process by which polymer is melted and injected in a mould cavity, which after
cooling down solidifies into the shape of the mould. Typical injection moulding applications are housing of televisions, jewel boxes for
compact discs, toys and innumerable other uses.

47. PVC
PVC (Polyvinyl-chloride) is one of the earliest plastics, and is also one of the most extensively used. It is derived from salt (57%) and oil
or gas (43%). PVC is made from chlorine – produced when salt water is decomposed by electrolysis – with ethylene, which is obtained
from oil or gas via a ‘cracking’ process. After several steps, this leads to the production of another gas: vinyl chloride monomer (VCM).
Then, in a further reaction known as polymerisation, molecules of VCM link to form a fine white powder (PVC). This powder is mixed
with additives (stabilisers and/or plasticizers) to achieve the precise properties required for specific applications. The resulting PVC
granules (compounds) or ready-to-use powders (pre-mixes) are then converted into the final product.

48. The benefits of PVC
PVC’s combination of properties enables it to deliver performance advantages that are hard to match. This material is durable and
light, strong, fire resistant, with excellent insulating properties and low permeability. By varying the use of additives in the
manufacturing of PVC products, features such as strength, rigidity, colour and transparency can be adjusted to meet most
applications, including:
Packaging, for toiletries, pharmaceuticals, food and confectionary, water and fruit juices, labels, presentation trays.
Leisure products, including garden hoses, footwear, inflatable pools, tents.
Building products, including window frames, floor and wall coverings, roofing sheets, linings for tunnels, swimming-pools
and reservoirs.
Piping, including water and sewerage pipes and fittings, and ducts for power and telecommunications.
Medical products, including blood bags, transfusion tubes and surgical gloves.
Coatings, including tarpaulins, rainwear, and corrugated metal sheets.
Insulation and sheathing for low voltage power supplies, telecommunications, appliances, and automotive applications.
Automotive applications, including cables, underbody coating andf interior trimmings
PVdC
PVdC (Polyvinylidene Chloride) is a highly effective barrier coating polymer that is produced by the polymerisation of a vinylidene
chloride monomer with other monomers such as acrylic esters and unsaturated carboxyl groups. It is the chemistry, density and
symmetry of the molecules in PVdC that give the material its excellent barrier properties against fat, vapour and gases. This molecular
structure results from the combination of salt (50-70%) and oil (30-50%).

PVdC’s outstanding barrier properties make it ideal for use in food packaging, and it is particularly effective for products with a high
fat content and strong flavours and aromas. It is often used in the packaging of confectionary, dehydrated foods, dairy products,
sausages, patés, meat, smoked fish, and dried products such as herbs, spices, tea and coffee.

The benefits of PVdC
PVdC is a favourite material among designers because it delivers tangible and distinctive solutions to packaging needs. These include:
High levels of transparency offer the most attractive product presentation and display. In applications where light penetration
can pose problems (medicines fro example), the PVdC film can be colour-toned to reduce exposure.
Excellent barrier qualities extend the shelf life and conservation of foods, while at the same time reducing the need for
preservatives, which in turn enhances the appeal of the product to the consumer.
Outstanding heat sealing properties help materials such as paper, cellophane and other plastics to seal themselves effectively.
This means that packaging can be easily and rapidly sealed during processing, so that high film speeds and throughputs can
be achieved.
Highly flexible characteristics allow the PVdC to perform across a very wide range of applications.
Unsaturated polyester resins
They are typically used in combination with a reinforcement material like glass fibre to form a Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FPR), which has
excellent characteristics that include:
Light weight
High strength-to-weight ratio (kilo-for-kilo stronger than steel)
Rigid
Resistant to chemicals
Good electrical insulating properties
Retention of dimensional stability across a wide range of temperatures

49. These resins are used over a broad spread of industries. They have transformed the boat-building industry, especially the leisure boat
sector, by providing greater flexibility, superior performance and faster production speed. In the automotive industry, FRP materials
bring design freedom, low weight, mechanical strength and reduced system costs to the table. In the construction industry, FRP is
used in everything from roof tiles to finished surfaces for kitchens and bathrooms. It also offers an attractive alternative to
conventional materials in large projects such as building bridges and wind generators, where light weight, low maintenance and high
durability are highly desirable characteristics.

Safe Handling Guide
Questions and Answers
Further information


Safe Handling Guide




The new PlasticsEurope Unsaturated Polyester (UP) Resin Safe Handling Guide has thirteen focused sections. These address the key
health, safety and environment issues associated with the storage and processing of raw materials in the unsaturated polyester resin
industry: (click on the title to open the document)
1. Safe handling of unsaturated polyester resins
2. Safe handling of constituent material used in composite processing
3. Occupational exposure to styrene
4. Storage of UP resins
5. Methods of monitoring exposure to styrene
6. Low styrene emission and low styrene content resins
7. Workplace ventilation
8. Personal protection equipment
9. Styrene abatement techniques
10. European legislation governing the polyester industry
11. REACH and the polyester processing industry
12. Classification and handling of FRP waste within the current EC legislation
13. Unsaturated polyester resins and the EU VOC Directive
The documents aim to communicate best practices in the safe handling of UP Resin. The information is to be used in full or in part on
a voluntary basis by PlasticsEurope unsaturated polyester resin member companies and throughout the composite resin industry.

This group of documents will be expanded in the near future to address further issues of interest.

50. This handling guide has been prepared by PlasticsEurope UP Resin industry group in close contact with the Composite industry, in
particular the European Composites Industry Association (EuCIA) who aided the review of the Guide’s content.
FAQ's
Questions and Answers


What is styrene?
Styrene is a liquid that is derived from petroleum and natural gas by-products, but which also occurs naturally. Styrene helps create
plastic materials used in thousands of remarkably strong, flexible, and lightweight products that represent a vital part of our health
and well being. It's used in everything from food containers and packaging materials to cars, boats, and computers. The styrene used
in these products is synthetically manufactured in petrochemical plants. However, styrene also occurs in the environment and is a
natural component of many common foods, such as coffee, strawberries and cinnamon. Some people confuse styrene, which is a
liquid, with polystyrene, which is a solid plastic made from polymerised styrene. Styrene and polystyrene are fundamentally different.
Polystyrene is inert, and has no smell of styrene, therefore polystyrene often is used in applications where hygiene is important, such
as health care and food service products.

Is styrene present in polystyrene?
Very small amounts of styrene monomer that was not converted into polystyrene during processing do remain in finished polystyrene
products. Numerous studies and investigations have been carried out to determine if there is a safety concern regarding the amounts
of styrene that remain in polystyrene resins. The results of these studies indicate that polystyrene is safe for use in food-contact
products. Styrene is approved for use as a starting material for the production of polystyrene food and beverage packaging by
regulatory agencies worldwide. The European Food Safety Authority has not assigned a so called 'Specific Migration Limit' to styrene.
Many surveys made from e.g. the UK Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries (MAFF) in the late 90-ies gave complying values for
food packaged in polystyrene. This survey was repeated in 2003 and gave again complying values.
For more information see link: www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive

Do I come into contact with styrene?
Styrene is a natural component of some foods, and is present in small amounts in foods such as cinnamon, beef, coffee beans,
peanuts, wheat, oats, strawberries, and peaches. Most people are exposed to styrene in tiny amounts that may be present naturally in
the diet, air (styrene is a component of cigarette smoke,gasoline and fuel exhausts, and, in trace quantities, as a result of using food-
service packaging). Scientific studies have shown that the very small amount of styrene that people may be exposed to from
packaging is about the same amount as comes from naturally-occurring styrene in foods. These studies have also shown that these
levels of exposure are safe and should not be a cause for concern.

Is styrene harmful to my health?
Styrene is harmless in the very small amounts most people might normally encounter in air or food. The general public is very unlikely
to encounter high levels of styrene. In fact, styrene is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration as a food additive. Major
studies in Japan, United States and Europe have shown that even at very exaggerated levels of exposure, the oligomers (combination
of two or three styrene molecules) that can migrate from polystyrene did not show an estrogenic effect.

For those directly working with the product (i.e. professional users, the people involved in the conversion of styrene into the final
items we use in the everyday life), the relevant safety measures are provided by means of a Safety Data Sheet. Governments and
Industry have set safe exposure limits for professional workers.

51. As part of a continuing effort to protect health and the environment, the European Union and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency are both currently conducting formal reviews that will provide safety assessments of the scientific data on styrene.

What about the odour of styrene?
Styrene's distinctive odour can be detected even when styrene is present at extremely low levels - levels that are many, many times
below any level that may result in a possible health effect.

Is there a concern about a risk of cancer?
Styrene is currently under European risk assessment to investigate its impact on the environment and human health. The general
population incurs no detectable risk resulting from styrene exposure. Existing work place exposure limits represent a satisfactory
precautionary measure to protect styrene-exposed workers.
Landfill is not an adequate solution for plastics waste; in fact, landfilling plastics waste simply means throwing oil away!
At the moment there is no uniform plastics waste management practice in the EU-27 countries; some countries are far ahead, while
others are way behind political targets. To effectively tackle this situation, PlasticsEurope has developed a knowledge transfer
programme, the main goals of which are to:
Communicate a vision on waste management that is widely accepted
Assist in providing our know-how and share our best practices regarding waste management
Make the general public aware that a proper plastics waste management scheme leads to resource efficiency
Innovation
Although plastics have been around for about 100 years they are considered to be modern when compared to
traditional materials like wood, stone, metal, glass and paper. In recent decades plastics have enabled numerous technological
advancements, new design solutions, eco-performance enhancements and further cost-savings.
Nowadays, thanks to plastics, the only limitation for designers is their imagination. Diminishing natural and non-renewable
resources, climate change and an ageing and growing population are some of the main challenges for society to rise up to. If plastics
did not exist, we would probably need to invent to tackle thse issues.
For more information on plastics innovation, select an application:

Packaging

Building and
Construction
Transportation


Medical &
Health

Electrical &
Electronic
Agriculture

Sport & Leisure

52. Use of plastics
The relatively low density of most plastic materials means the end products are lightweight. They also have excellent thermal and
electrical insulation properties. However, some can even be made as conductors of electricity when required. They are corrosion
resistant to many substances which attack other materials, and some are transparent, making optical devices possible. They are also
easy to mould into complex shapes and forms, allowing integration of different materials and functions. And in the event that the
physical properties of a given plastic do not quite meet the specified requirements, the property balance can be modified with the
addition of reinforcing fillers, colours, foaming agents, flame retardants, plasticisers etc., to meet the demands of the specific
application.
For these reasons and more, plastics are increasingly used in:

Packaging

Building and
Construction
Transportation



Medical &
Health

Electrical &
Electronic
Agriculture

Sport & Leisure

Basically these plastics are man-made. In principle any combination of properties can be developed to accommodate almost any
application you can think of.
Packaging
The commercial success of plastics as a packaging product is due to a combination of flexibility (from film to rigid applications),
strength, lightness, stability, impermeability and ease of sterilisation. These features make plastics an ideal packaging material for all
sorts of commercial and industrial users.
Plastics food packaging, for instance, does not affect the taste and quality of the foodstuff. In fact, the barrier properties of plastics
ensure that food keeps its natural taste while protecting it from external contamination. Moreover, the material's unparalleled
versatility is demonstrated in a multitude of applications such as packaging films for fresh meats, bottles for beverages, edible oils
and sauces, fruit yoghurt cups or margarine tubs.
The following are just some of the benefits offered by plastics packaging:
The lightest packaging material: While over 50% of all European goods
are packaged in plastics, these plastics account only for 17% of all
packaging weight. Furthermore, this weight has been reduced by 28%
over the past 10 years! Lightweight packaging means lighter loads or
fewer lorries needed to ship the same amount of products, helping to
reduce transportation energy, decrease emissions and lower shipping
costs. It also helps reduce the amount of waste generated.

53. Food conservation and preservation: Plastics packaging protects and
preserves perishable food for longer. It helps reducing waste and the
use of preservatives while maintaining the taste and nutritional value of
food.

Convenient and innovative: nowadays people want packaging with clear
identification and labelling which is easy to open and use. Plastics
packaging evolves to provide exactly that. In the near future, for
instance, it will integrate printable RFID (Radio-frequency identification)
chips based on conductive polymers, providing precious information on
the quality and status of products.

Safe and hygienic: Plastic packaging protects against contamination of
foods and medicine and helps prevent the spreading of germs during
manufacture, distribution and display. Tamper-proof closures provide
additional protection and security, while transparent packaging allows
people to look at food without having to touch it, cutting down on
bruising and other damage.

Building & Construction
In 2010, the Building and Construction sector consumed 9.54 million tonnes of plastics (21% of total European plastics consumption),
making it the second largest plastic application after packaging. Plastic pipes, for instance, command the majority of all new pipe
installations, with well over 50% of the annual tonnage. And this share is still growing.
Although plastics are not always visible in buildings, the building and construction industry uses them for a wide and growing range
of applications including insulation, piping, window frames and interior design. This growth is mainly due to plastics' unique features,
which include:

Insulation
Plastics provide effective insulation from cold and heat, prevent leakages and allow households to save energy while
also reducing noise pollution.

54. Transportation
When developing transport solutions, designers need to find the right balance between high performance, competitive pricing, style,
reliability, comfort, safety, strenght, fuel efficiency and minimal environmental impact. The sustainable solution often lies in a new
generation of lightweight plastics, because:
Plastic components weigh 50 percent less than similar components made from other materials, which means a 25 to 35%
improvement in fuel economy.
For every kilogram lost, your car will emit 20 kilograms less of carbon dioxide over its operating life.
Plastics bring lightweight solutions without prejudice of fire safety when assessed using engineering standards.
The aircraft industry is a good example of how plastics and design innovation are connected. Since the 70's, the use of plastics in
airplanes indeed grew from 4 to almost 30%, and should reach 50% by 2013!
In the automotive industry, plastics allow for energy absorption, weight reduction and innovative design while contributing to
passenger safety. Features such as shock absorption for bumpers, suppression of explosion risks in fuel tanks, seat belts, airbags and
other life-saving accessories such as durable plastic safety seats to protect our youngest passengers make plastics the safest material
for car-related applications.

Plastics are also in the vanguard of sustainable innovation, with the average car containing 120 kilograms of plastics (15 to 20% of its
total weight). Daimler Benz's SMART fortwo cdi, which was introduced at the Geneva Motor Show 2010, is a perfect example of how
innovation made possible with plastics also brings environmental benefits. The car features a range of high-quality thermoplastics
that bring design flexibility, but more importantly, the light weight of these plastics means that the car uses an average of 3.3 litres of
fuel every 100km and emits only 86g of CO2 per kilometre!

Electrical & Electronic
From simple cables and household appliances to smartphones and Blu-ray players, many of the latest devices created in the Electrical
& Electronic sector capitalize on new generation plastics.
Designers of electrical and electronic applications rely on plastics because of their unique features. These include :

55. Resource-efficiency: Polymers can help storing energy for longer, while
LCD (liquid crystal display) flat screens made of liquid crystalline
plastics use over 65% less power than ordinary screens with cathode ray
tubes.

Light weight: Touch-sensitive screens on tablets and smartphones are
created with films of polycarbonate In small appliances like smartphones
and MP3 players, the use of plastics has increased along with the number
of different polymer types being used. Smaller, lighter handsets are made
possible thanks to plastics.

Resistance: The insensitivity of plastics to electromagnetic radiation,
combined with their resistance to mechanical shocks, stress resistance,
flexibility and durability, makes them ideal for vital applications such as
safe, reliable and efficient power supplies.

Reduced size: While most plastics in electrical and electronic equipment
are visible, the latter also contain many plastics components you cannot
see. Nearly half of all the plastics used in this sector are used in
sheathing for cables and in electronic components.

Fire safety: In the electrical and electronic equipment sector (EEE), where a
fire can be ignited from electrical sources, flame retardants offer a large
range of solutions for inhibiting ignition and are in widespread use. In
most cases, a given polymer requires a specific formulation for each

56. possible application.
Innovation: Thanks to ambitious research programmes, plastics in the
electrical and electronic sector are constantly evolving. Lithium batteries,
for instance, can now be made from recycled plastic bags. Plastic
batteries made from conductive polymers have the significant advantage
of offering high power with low weight. But plastic-related innovation
also comes from their optical properties. With polymers used in optical
switching, the flow of data can be facilitated over long distances between
one chip and another.

Agriculture
For years, the growing use of plastics in agriculture has helped farmers increase crop production, improve food quality and reduce the
ecological footprint of their activity. Not only do plastics allow for vegetables and fruits to be grown whatever the season, but these
products are usually of better quality than those grown in an open field.
A wide range of plastics are used in agriculture, including, polyolefin, polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Ethylene-Vinyl Accetate
Copolymer (EVA), Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) and, in less frequently, Polycarbonate (PC) and poly-methyl-methacrylate (PMMA). These
plastics provide:
Innovative and sustainable solutions: Thanks to the use of different plastics in agriculture, water can be saved and crops can
even be planted in deserted areas. Plastic irrigation pipes prevent waste of water and nutrients, rain water can be retained in
reservoirs built with plastics, and the use of pesticides can be reduced by keeping crops in a closed space such as a
greenhouse or, for mulching, under a plastic film. Moreover, the emissions of pesticides in the atmosphere will be reduced as
they will remain fixed on the plastic cover.
Recycling and recovery opportunities: At the end of their life cycle, agricultural plastics such as greenhouse covers can be
recycled. Once retrieved from the fields, plastics are usually washed to eliminate sand, herbs and pesticides, before being
grinded and extruded into pellets. The material can then be used again in the manufacturing of articles such as outdoor
furniture. When recycling is not viable, energy can be obtained from agricultural plastic waste in a process called co-
combustion.
Key applications
Greenhouses: Greenhouses are like intensive-care units.
Thanks to them, plants are exposed to the sunlight and can
grow in ideal conditions according to their physiological
properties. The use of greenhouses indeed provides farmers
with the possibility to create the appropriate environmental
conditions that plants require for faster and safer growth, to
avoid extreme temperatures and protect crops from harmful
external conditions.

57. Tunnels: Tunnels have the same features as greenhouses,
except for their complexity and their height. Crops that are
the most commonly cultivated in tunnels are asparagus,
watermelon, etc.

Mulching: Mulching or covering the ground with plastic film
helps maintain humidity as evaporation is reduced. It also
improves thermal conditions for the plant’s roots, avoids
contact between the plant and the ground and prevents weed
from growing and competing with for water and nutrients.

Plastic reservoirs and irrigation systems: When combined,
plastic reservoirs and plastic irrigation systems make an
essential contribution to water management. Water can be
stored in dams covered with plastics materials to avoid
leaking and distributed via pipes, drop irrigation systems and
systems for water circulation.

58. Silage: This application, which was developed to store
animals’ grains and straw during the winter, is another proof
of the value of plastics. Plastic films used to store silage are
resistant and the content canbe stored for years.

Other plastic applications include boxes; crates for crop
collecting, handling and transport; components for irrigation
systems like fittings and spray cones; tapes that help hold
the aerial parts of the plants in the greenhouses, or even nets
to shade the interior of the greenhouses or reduce the effects
of hail



Medical & Health
Modern healthcare would be impossible without plastics medical products we tend to take for granted: disposable syringes,
intravenous blood bags and heart valves, etc. Plastics packaging is particularly suitable for medical applications, thanks to their
exceptional barrier properties, light weight, low cost, durability, transparency and compatibility with other materials.
People are living better, longer and have increasingly fulfilling lives. Thanks to the endless versatility of modern plastics, medical
breakthroughs considered unthinkable 50 years ago are now regarded as commonplace.
Some applications
Unblocking blood vessels: In the latest heart surgery, thin tubes
(catheters) are used to unblock blood vessels, while deposits
obstructing them can be broken down with a tiny spiral-shaped
implant - a vessel support. Positioned in the treated artery, it is
made of a plastic developed specifically for the medical field
and charged with active substances.

59. Prosthesis: Plastics are now being used as orthopaedic devices,
where they align, support or correct deformities. they can even
improve the function of movable parts of the body or replace a
body part, taking over its main function. Synthetic material also
plays a vital role for diseased arteries that cannot be helped via
vessel support. An affected section of the aorta is removed and the
gap is bridged by a flexible plastic prosthesis. Thanks to this, the
body's lifeline becomes fully functional again.

Artificial corneas: Eye injuries or chronic inflammations, for
example corneal erosion, can impair sight, and if a transplant has
little chance of success, a prosthesis is the only hope. Artificial
corneas made from special silicone are now available for treatment.
Only 0.3 to 0.5 millimetres thick, highly transparent, flexible
and made of bio-mechanics similar to a natural cornea, it can
restore clear vision again.

Hearing aids: People with severely impaired hearing can now have a
plastics implant that brings sound back in thier hears. This implant
consists of numerous components - a microphone, a transmission
device connected to a micro-computer worn on the body, a
stimulator and an electrode carrier with 16 electrodes for 16
different frequency ranges. As it transforms acoustic impulses into
electrical ones, it bypasses the damaged cells and stimulates the
auditory nerve directly.

60. Plastics pill capsules release exactly the right dosage of its active
ingredients at the right time. The tartaric acid-based polymer
gradually breaks down, slowly releasing the active ingredients over
a longer period of time. These tailor-made pharmaceuticals help to
avoid having to frequently take large quantities of pills.


Sport, Leisure, Design

Plastics have revolutionised sports in recent years. From tracks on which Olympic athletes pursue new records to shoes, clothing,
safety equipments (helmets, kneepads) and stadium construction (water and drainage pipes, seats, roofing), modern sports rely on
plastics. Here are some examples application :
Plastics in ballgames: Plastics materials are used in almost all
types of ballgames. Thanks to plastics, football for
instance has become faster and more technical than ever
before. The newest ball production concept - called thermal
bonding and using a high-solid polyurethane layer on a
seamless glued surface – results is an excellent
responsiveness and ball contact sensitivity, a predictable
trajectory, substantially reduced water uptake and maximum
abrasion resistance.

Plastics in sports footwear: Running shoes that weigh just a
few grams yet provide the strength and suppleness that
athletes demand as they power out of the running blocks
can make the difference between victory and defeat. Plastics
play an important role in today’s sports shoe designs,
whether the application is running, jumping or hiking. Take
hiking boots for example; the lining and tongue can be made
from a loosely woven polyester fabric that repels water and
allows moisture to rapidly evaporate from the boot’s exterior,
keeping the hiker’s feet dry in the wet and cool in the heat.
For comfort and support, the mid-sole can be made from
ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), which provides lightweight
cushioning. Polyester foam padding, on the other
hand, provides extra comfort on the insoles.

61. Plastics in tennis: Today, sports manufacturers use plastics to
make tennis racquets that are light and strong, with excellent
shock-absorbing systems. Players now have more powerful
racquets with increased ease of manoeuvrability. In some
racquet models, the central longitudinal strings are lead
through a specially developed plastics core that is embedded
in a plastics composite, which reduces shock vibration by
45% when the ball hits the racquet. This innovative
technology allows tennis enthusiasts at all levels to enjoy the
benefits of plastics on their local courts.

Plastics on water: The mouldability of composite plastics
enables sleek dynamic hulls to be produced that are low in
weight and high in strength. Power cruisers, sailing yachts
and almost every other vessel now has a hull, deck,
superstructure and even a mast made of composites. Today’s
yachts use advanced carbon fibre compounds that helps
taking yacht racing to a new level. This innovative plastics
compounds has largely replaced traditional materials building
methods by providing greater flexibility, superior
performance and faster production speed.

Plastics and children: For close to 50 years, the world's
toymakers have been using plastics to make some of the best
known and most popular toys and products for childrens.
From bicycle helmets and flotation devices to kneecaps and
other protective sporting gear, plastics help keeping children
safe everyday. Plastics are one of the most thoroughly tested,
well-researched, durable, flexible and cost-efficient materials
on today's market .

The European plastics industry
The European plastics industry - plastics producers, converters and machinery manufacturers - are a major contributor to the
European economy. The industry directly employs some 1.6 million people and many more that work in industries relying on plastics

62. for their business. Together the different parts of the industry contributed around 13 billion euro in trade surplus to the EU27
economy in 2008 - helping to reduce an overall industrial trade deficit of over 240 million euros.
PlasticsEurope
PlasticsEurope is the only European trade association headquartered in Brussels with representatives across all European Union’s 27
member states. PlasticsEurope has developed close partnerships with sister associations that represent the European plastics
manufacturing chain, which includes 50,000 converters and over 1,000 machinery manufacturers as well. PlasticsEurope is the official
voice of the European plastics manufacturers.
PlasticsEurope has more than 100 member companies, producing over 90% of all polymers across the 27 EU member states plus
Norway, Switzerland, Croatia and Turkey.

PlasticsEurope promotes the positive contributions of plastics by:
Highlighting the material’s beneficial properties and its positive contributions to society throughout its life cycle;
Providing society with educational information to help raise awareness and correct misconceptions;
Liaising with European and national institutions in policy matters to secure decisions based on accurate information;
Communicating plastics contribution to sustainable development, innovation and quality of life;
Initiating indepth studies and sharing experiences.
PlasticsEurope is recognised as a key ally of
the European Commission (agreement signed June 2007)
and is part of the Sustainable Energy Campaign
as a Campaign Associate

Organisation
PlasticsEurope has a governing body called the General Assembly made up of members. A Steering Board guides the Executive
Director and Leadership Team on strategy, budget and policy. The Steering Board is supported by Regional Advisory Boards and
Programme Steering Groups.The Leadership Team is the operational centre of the organisation. This team consists of an Executive
Director, Functional Directors and Regional Directors and is responsible for proposing strategies, building and driving projects and
ensuring delivery.

The Regional Advisory Boards ensure that special needs of countries are sufficiently considered, while the Programme Steering
Groups give strategic advice on the development and implementation of main projects with respect to the business impact and
business relevance.

63. PlasticsEurope regional centres
Central Region
RüdigerBaunemann
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Iberica Region
Ramón Gil
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Mediterranean Region
Giuseppe Riva
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

North Region
Jan-Erik Johansson
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

West Region
Michel Loubry
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]
PlasticsEurope Headquarters
WilfriedHaensel
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]
Mission and values
Our mission for plastics
The reason plastics have steadily replaced many traditional materials is because they offer many improvements in performance
(reduction in the consumption of scare resources, a reduction in energy requirements, a lower cost)

64. Plastics are also inherently capable of meeting the needs of sustainable development. Economically: they provide cost-efficient
market solutions. Socially: they have been developed with little compromise – to perform exactly as is required to meet society’s
growing demands. Environmentally: performance can now be matched with ensured safety in use and managed environmental impact
in production and at end-of-life.

Plastics are now an essential part of our world. If they did not already exist, society would have to invent a material with all of the
same properties to enable our survival. Continuous development and improvement of what these amazing materials can do, and how
we manage them throughout their lifecycle will ensure that they continue to add value for us.

Therefore, as an industry, we see plastics' mission as being simply:
"to meet people’s needs better”
PlasticsEurope's values

Innovative: Our industry's pioneering outlook and our courage to face challenges and innovate, allows us to take advantage of
opportunities and find new solutions.

Reliable: We understand that behaving honestly, transparently and straight forwardly, and always delivering on what we say will build
confidence in our promises

Responsible: We know that demonstrating responsible care and showing a willingness to accept long term commitments will build the
trust necessary to share measured risks

Efficient: The ability to consistently control complex things helps our stakeholders to have confidence that we can handle difficult
challenges that they don’t understand
Our activities
As the official voice of the European plastics manufacturers, PlasticsEurope develops and provides legislative, environmental, technical
and communications programmes.
Legislation
PlasticsEurope represents the plastics industry’s views by:
Providing fact based information and data to European opinion formers;
Networking with relevant stakeholders both at European and national level;
Presenting the industry’s view at European and national levels;
Safeguarding fair trade for its products.
Environment
PlasticsEurope highlights the sustainability of plastics as a raw material by:
Explaining best practices on the production, use and waste management of plastics;
Providing the environmental fingerprints - the so called eco-profiles - of more than 75 polymers and their intermediates;
Confirming the contribution of plastics as a protector of energy and resources;
Highlighting the economic and environmental benefits of plastic as a recyclable and recoverable material.
Communications
PlasticsEuropeendeavours to make people aware of the benefits of plastic products by:
Demonstrating benefits and sustainability of the use of plastics materials;
Promoting a balanced view of plastics as the material for the 21st century material.

65. Who we are
PlasticsEurope Leadership Team

Wilfried Haensel
Executive Director
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Martin Engelmann
Advocacy Director
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]


Patricia Vangheluwe
Consumer & Environmental Affairs Director
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Patrick d'Hose
Finance Director
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Rüdiger Baunemann
Regional Director - Central Region
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]

Ramón Gil de Luigi
Regional Director - Ibérica Region
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]



Giuseppe Riva
Regional Director - Mediterranean Region
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]



Jan-Erik Johansson
Regional Director - North Region
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]



Michel Loubry
Regional Director - West Region
PlasticsEurope
[email protected]
Members directory

66. Our members are among the most important polymer producers in the world.

Click on the company name to access its website.

AGC CHEMICALS EUROPE
ANWIL
ARKEMA
BASELL ORLEN POLYOLEFINS
BASF
BAYER MATERIALSCIENCE
BOREALIS
BORSODCHEM
CYTEC
DOW EUROPE
DSM ENGINEERING PLASTICS
DUPONT DE NEMOURS INTERNATIONAL
DYNEON
EASTMAN CHEMICAL
EMS-CHEMIE
ERCROS
EVAL EUROPE
EVONIK DEGUSSA
EXXONMOBIL CHEMICAL COMPANY
GABRIEL TECHNOLOGIE
HUNTSMAN ADVANCED MATERIALS
INEOS
INEOS NOVA INTERNATIONAL
JACKON
LEUNA-HARZE
LVM
LYONDELLBASELL
MOMENTIVE
MONOTEZ
NOVACKE CHEMICKE ZAVODY
NOVAMONT
OLTCHIM
POLYONE
REPSOL YPF
RHODIA
SABIC EUROPE
SABIC INNOVATIVE PLASTICS
SHELL CHEMICALS EUROPE
SHIN-ETSU PVC
SIR INDUSTRIALE
SOLVAY
SPOLANA
SPOLCHEMIE
STYROCHEM FINLAND
STYRON EUROPE
SUNPOR KUNSTSTOFF
SYNBRA TECHNOLOGY

67. SYNTHOS
TICONA
TOTAL PETROCHEMICALS
UNIPOL
VERSALIS
VESTOLIT
VINNOLIT
WACKER-CHEMIE
ZAKLADY CHEMICZNE "ORGANIKA -SARZYNA”
Our views


PlasticsEurope position papers provide a clear standpoint on actual developments in which plastics play a significant role.
Explanatory views on Regulation (EU) No. 10/2011 on plastic materials and articles intended to come into contact with food -
November 2011
EU legislation for oligomers in plastic food contact materials - 20 September 2011
PlasticsEurope views on Building & Construction certification and rating systems - 2 December 2010


PlasticsEurope views on the potential EU anti-dumping duty on glass fibre import from China - 4 August 2010
PVC Industry Position on RoHS - 8 June 2010
ENVI Committee’s proposal for restrictions on PVC in EEE not backed by facts
PlasticsEurope’s Views on the Marine Litter Challenge - April 2010
PlasticsEurope views on the recast of the RoHS Directive- December 2009
PlasticsEurope generally welcomes the Commission proposal for a recast of RoHS, and in particular its aim to adapt to
technical and scientific progress
Plastics products made of bioplastics - 3 September 2009
Endocrine disruptors in bottled mineral water: total estrogenic burden and migration from plastic bottles - 25 March 2009
The study by Wagner and Oehlmann does not allow to conclude on a risk for public health.
Hormones in bottled water? German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment reviews the study
The ‘carbon footprint’ – an unreliable indicator of environmental sustainability - 18 February 2008
Position of PlasticsEurope on the 2nd Reading of the Waste Framework Directive - January 2008
The difference between biodegradable and biomass-based Plastics - 7 March 2007
PlasticsEurope: Our View on the First Reading of the Waste Framework Directive - January 2007
Market and Economics

68. Statistical Monitoring of the European Plastics Industry

Latest business developments in plastics manufacturing, processing and machinery building.

View here the latest developments
(Issue 20/02/2012 / Expiration 15/03/2012)

Plastics the Facts
The plastics industry – comprising PlasticsEurope, EuPC, EuPR and EPRO – publishes an annual report on trends in production, demand
and recovery of plastics called the "Plastics - the Facts”. The report can be downloaded in pdf format or ordered in printed form.
Standardisation


We are all used to standards: you can consult your bank account, withdraw money from a cash dispenser or go shopping around the
world with just your credit card because it is ‘standardised’ and follows international protocols. Similarly, the plumber can buy a PVC
pipe for drinking water in Finland and it will fit a PVC valve bought in Italy because their diameters have been standardised according
to a European standard – in this case EN 1452.

We can find another good example of standardization in packaging. In order to comply with legislation, a plastic packaging item –
bottle, tray, film, etc- meant to be in contact with foodstuff has to demonstrate that it is safe for consumers use. The only way to
demonstrate this is by adhering to a standard. This standard describes the test method for, e.g., the determination of overall
migration of substances from the packaging into a food stimulant, for example olive oil.

But plastics cover almost every application we can imagine so our materials and products are affected and come under many
standardization activities. From very specific ones, like the examples already given, to more general ones, like the carbon footprint of
products.

Standards are developed as voluntary agreements, made in an open and transparent way and are the result of consensus. Typically
standards exist at three levels: National, European and International.

At the European level, legislation impacting our industry is driven more and more by the EU and requires transposition at the national
level (Parliament/Council) – 65% of new laws come from Brussels.

A new regulatory strategy has been introduced by the Council Resolution of 1985 on the "New Approach” to technical harmonization
and standardization. The New Approach relies on mandates from the European Commission to the European standardization bodies
CEN, CENELEC and ETSI giving these standards legally binding power or making them compulsory. That is one of the reasons for the
importance of being involved in the standard making-process.

Public concern around environmental, safety and health issues has grown enormously and has influenced policy and regulation. The
European Commission wants to involve all stakeholders in order to integrate environmental aspects into European Standardization.
This position has resulted in a greater involvement of consumers and environmental NGOs. This is another reason to be attentive to
standardization and to provide the proper industry input.

Not only at the European, but also at a global level, business to business relations are based on agreements which conform to
international standards, as e.g. in the automotive and E&E sectors, fire safety issues or for publicp. This is another reason to be

69. involved in standardization.

Standardization has always been a complex matter to coordinate from a global perspective. Each of the three levels of standardization:
International, European and National are very important but have to be approached differently.

Now, with the incorporation of new member states into the European Union, the standardization playing field is broadening and offers
more chances for the plastics industry but which, at the same time, needs to be better organized: participation of companies in
national standardization bodies, creation of national mirror groups etc. PlasticsEurope, being aware of the relevance, standardization
has, for the industry, has created the Standardization Working Group to identify relevant standardization issues and to encourage
participation of the members.
Plastics & Sustainability


The plastics industry aims to be a responsible partner to policy-makers and other stakeholders in finding solutions to the
crucial issues of climate change, energy and resource efficiency, consumer protection and waste management. Plastics have a great
potential to help deal with these issues and this is the reason why PlasticsEurope is working closely with the value chain to develop a
common plastics industry vision and approach.



Plastic plays a major role in delivering and sustaining the quality, comfort and safety of modern life-styles. Its impressive ratio of cost
to performance also means that people of all income groups can enjoy these benefits. But meeting the needs of society is not just
about ''today''. Future generations also have the right to material and other benefits. Meeting the needs of tomorrow is the foundation
of the concept of ‘Sustainable Development’. Plastic products are already helping every day to improve people’s lives, whilst
conserving natural resources and helping to protect the environment for tomorrow, in a world that is growing in population, with
ever-increasing demands for water, food, shelter, sanitation, energy, health services and economic security.
Consumer protection

70. From safety to food conservation and cost-efficiency, plastics protect consumers in many ways while also providing them with
sustainable solutions. In packaging applications, for instance, more than 50% of products are packaged with plastics. However,
plastics account for only 17% of total packaging weight and therefore help reach greater resource efficiency.
Constantly doing more with less, plastics also tend to reduce their use of raw materials. Plastic bags indeed require 70% less material
today than they did in the 80s. Not only does it increase resource efficiency, but it also provides consumers with increasingly cost-
efficient solutions.
Then, thanks to their unique features, plastics also reduce food waste by extending shelf life, preserve food taste and protect it from
bacteria while also providing unique protection to non-food products. This all results in additional comfort for consumers and in a
substantial reduction of thier environmental foodprint.
Packaging is just but an example of application where plastics combine consumer protection with sustainable solutions. For instance:
We use plastic pipes to carry our drinking water safely and efficiently, and to get rid of sewerage
Many of the toys our children play and of the applications they use daily are made of plastics. Plastics’ strength, light weight,
versatility and malleability contribute to children safety.
Plastics also help in fire safety, with firemen helmets and suits being the best example of their contribution.
In our cars, lightweight plastics are used to protect us, enhance our comfort and increase fuel savings
In sports, plastics provide consumers with efficient, light and strong safety gear.
REACH


The EU Chemicals Policy, known as REACH (Registration, Evaluation and Authorisation of Chemicals) entered into force on June 1st,
2007 (EC1907/2006). It has a direct impact on every member of the plastic supply chain, including additives producers, plastics
producers, plastics converters and retail businesses.
Substances of interest to the plastics industry
Total: 14 substances
Monomers: 3.
Not subject to authorisation (intermediates)
Pigments: 3
Lead chromates (Red and yellow + mixtures)
Flame retardants: 3
Phthalates: 4 (PVC plasticisers and components of PP catalysts)
Catalyst: 1 (HDPE cata)


Exposure Scenarios
PEST (Plastics Exposure Scenario Team) formed by the most important associations representing the plastics supply chain has
produced a list of Generic Exposure Scenarios that cover most of the known plastics uses and has translated them into "REACH use
descriptors”.

71. To access the table, click on the image below

These use descriptors should be used by the plastics producers to communicate with
their suppliers to inform them of their uses. This is recommended for classified additives
and facultative for the non-classified ones.


ES for registrants of substances used as additives in plastics
A web based tool is now available to the M / I of substances used as additives in plastics. It allows them to easily evaluate the safe
conditions of use of their substances, both for the human health and the environmental end points.

The access to the site is limited to the members of the associations part of PEST. This means that if, as a member of PlasticsEurope,
you need to register an additive and evaluate its safe conditions of use, you have the right to use the site. Just take contact with
Claude Palate to get a password key that will allow you to register on the site and use it.

The second phase of the project is already launched. It will give the possibility to evaluate the use of classified substances (additives)
in the use phase when they are added to a plastic, a compound or a master-batch. It will even be possible to assess blends of
classified substances. This step will thus cover typical compounding activities of PlasticsEurope members. It will be particularly useful
in case of classified compounds (due to the presence of one or more classified additives) and will allow producing the details of the ES,
to be put as annex to the SDS. It is expected that this development will become available end of 2010 / beginning of 2011.

All the ES are based on the ECETOC TRA tool, Tier 1 for the workers exposure and Tier 2 for the environmental impact (including the
OECD default parameters of the different plastics families covered). The latter is particularly interesting as it provides with not too
conservative results, a very positive point as the tools recommended by ECHA are in general very conservative. The workers exposure
scenario does not benefit from this feature and the use of a scaling tool (that will also be available on the website) will in many cases
be necessary.
Climate protection


PlasticsEurope is an official Associate of the Sustainable Energy EU Campaign, as part of the plastics industry's efforts
to contribute to an increasingly energy efficient society. Sustainable development is one of the driving forces for acting
responsibly to protect the world’s resources for future generations and plastics play a key role in the area.


Plastics and the Climate Change Paradox

72. Plastic products account for the use of just 4% of the World non-renewable fossil fuel consumption but, paradoxically, increased
use of plastics would actually reduce the overall consumption of non-renewable fossil fuels and reduce society’s GHG emissions.
Contrary to popular belief, reduced use of plastics would actually have the opposite effect - increasing the overall consumption
of non-renewable fossil fuels and increasing society’s GHG emissions.
Resource efficiency


Making the most of our planet's limited resources is now one of the key challenges our society has to rise up to. In light of this
evolution, plastics can bring sustainable solutions provided that their use is supported by appropriate policies, infrastructure and
consumer behaviours. Plastics can indeed:
Do more with less: plastics account for 50% of product packaging while representing only 17% of its overall weight. Therefore,
thanks to the growing use of plastics in the packaging sector, less material is required to do more. Plastics also help products
reach consumers undamaged, properly sealed, maintained at an appropriate temperature and in the case of food products,
kept fresher for longer.
Improve resource efficiency: using raw materials such as oil and natural gas to make plastics is much more resource-efficient
than burning them to create energy, as their life cycle is substantially extended. Moreover, the resources used to produce
plastics are progressively decreasing. In Germany, for instance, to produce the same amount of plastics the industry reduced
its consumption of oil (from 1.4 to 0.5 million tonnes), coal (from 0.9 to 0.3 million tonnes) and gas (from 6 to 5.8 million
tonnes) between 2000 and 2005. Equally the weights of plastic products are reducing, e.g. for plastic carrier bags, the amount
of plastics used has been reduced by 70% since the 1980s.
Be banned from landfills: with today’s focus on resource efficiency there is strong evidence to argue that plastics are a
resource that is too valuable to be thrown away. Landfill is not an appropriate solution for plastics waste. In fact, landfilling
plastics waste simply means throwing oil away!
At the moment there is no uniform plastics waste management practice in the EU-27 countries; some countries are far ahead, while
others are way behind political targets. To address this imbalance PlasticsEurope has developed an ambitious Knowledge Transfer
Programme. Within this framework, our role is to communicate a vision of waste management that is in line with the EU waste
hierarchy policy, to spread the industry's know-how and share information on our best practices regarding materials sorting and
recycling.
Finally, we aim to make the general public aware that a proper plastics waste management scheme leads to greater resource
efficiency. PlasticsEurope advocates for plastics to be recycled where it is both economically and environmentally viable to do so. But
for those products where this is not an option, their energy should be recovered through the use of advanced thermal processes such
as combined heat and power, or converted into new plastics and fuels.
Plastics Recycling


Many types of plastics can be recycled. PVC, for example, is one of the most versatile plastics and is the 3rd most used in the world. It
is also one of the most recycled; 72% of all collected PVC waste from windows and 67% of used PVC pipes are recycled. Industrial
packaging films made from polyolefins are also recovered and recycled. Think of products as diverse as shopping bags, bottle crates,
food containers, sacks for agricultural products, water pipes and windscreen wipers; all made from polyolefins, and all suitable for
some form of recovery.
Plastics recovery

73. Plastics that can’t easily be recycled are still a valuable energy source. The cement industry, for example, began using high-calorific
plastics waste for generating heat in the mid-1990s. Since then, the amount of plastics used as a fuel source for making cement has
increased ten-fold. Studies have shown that using plastics for generating heat in this way not only provides economic advantages, but
also provides environmental benefits.. Used plastics are also a very cost-effective and efficient way of providing heat and electrical
power in cities around Europe, which reduces land-fill space and helps save the environment.

PlasticsEurope supports the diversion of ‘calorie rich’ plastics waste from landfill and actively promotes the end-of-life management
of this material through recycling or recovery to achieve the most eco-efficient solution. Eco-efficient waste management of plastics is
part of an integrated waste management system; all options (mechanical recycling, feedstock recycling and energy recovery) are
needed
Waste in automotive


In the past, the presence of large homogeneous waste streams has meant that for the transport sector, mechanical recycling focused
on removing the large parts for recycling. Apart from 8 to 9 kilotonnes of bumpers, which are relatively easy to dismantle and
separate, the recycling of other car parts has been difficult to develop. As the EU ELV directive came into force, and the industry began
to concentrate on implementation, PlasticsEurope started to explore new techniques to improve end of life recovery. The limited
availability of homogeneous and clean waste streams for mechanical recycling means interest in shredder residue treatment is now
becoming even more important. To demonstrate the eco-efficiency of plastics, research across the whole life cycle of plastics, from
'cradle-to-grave', will continue to play an essential role in shaping future legislation. In particular, as revision of ELV recycling targets
begins, PlasticsEurope will again be proactive in contributing studies to help guide this legislation.
Energy savings

74. With the EU committing to saving 780 million tonnes of CO2 by 2020, our society has entered a period of major change where
decision-makers, industries and consumers will have to work hand-in-hand towards greener living standards. For PlasticsEurope, this
ambitious goal cannot be separated from the efficient use of energy. This is something the plastics industry can contribute to achieve,
thanks to:
Efficient insulation: in buildings, plastics provide effective insulation from cold and heat and prevent
air leakages. Plastic insulation materials consume approximately 16% less energy and emit 9% less
GHG than alternative materials. Across their whole life cycle, plastic insulation boards save 150
times the energy used for their manufacture.




Applications in the generation of renewable energy: Did you know that wind turbines' rotor blades
and photovoltaic panels contain large amounts of plastics? Thanks to these major contributions to
the efficient production of renewable energy, plastics can help save 140 times and 340 times
respectively, the emissions produced during their production.




Prevention of food losses: plastics food packaging
delivers more efficient protection, reduces food waste and extends shelf life, thereby saving energy
and GHG emissions. Plastics packaging for meat, for instance, extend shelf life by three to six days
and even longer for the most advanced ones. Considering that producing one kilo of beef leads to
emissions equivalent to three hours of driving, this extended shelf life is a substantial improvement for our planet!
Lightweight applications: plastics also provide lightweight packaging and vehicle weight reductions
that combine to result in less CO2 emissions linked to transportation. Replacing plastic packaging
with alternatives would lead to packaging weight being multiplied by a factor of four if alternative
packaging materials were used!


Less greenhouse gas emissions at production level: most plastic products need less energy to be
produced than other materials, especially in applications such as transport, building and
construction, packaging and electronic devices. If plastics had to disappear and to be replaced by
alternatives, the life-cycle energy consumption for these alternatives would be increased by around
57% and the GHG emissions would rise by 61%.

Clearly the use of plastics helps reduce energy, costs and greenhouse gasses.
Life Cycle Thinking


PlasticsEurope promotes the use of Life Cycle Thinking (LCT) to improve understanding about product benefits and to take more
informed decisions. As a scientific method, Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a technique to analyse the potential environmental impacts
associated with a product, process or service. It involves:

75. Compiling an inventory of energy and material inputs and environmental releases
Assessing the potential environmental impacts associated with identified inputs and releases
Calculating performance indicators to inform decisions.
Learn more about how PlasticsEurope applies LCA and find links to additional resources.
Eco-profiles Programme


PlasticsEurope was the first industry organisation to assemble and publish detailed environmental data on the processes operated by
its member companies. The first Eco-profile reports were published in 1993. Since then, more reports have been added and
continuously updated, so that there are now more than 70 Eco-profile reports freely available. In 2006, a complementary
Environmental Product Declaration programme was begun. Eco-profiles and EPDs cover the high volume, bulk polymers, some of the
more widely used engineering plastics and several common plastics conversion processes. Widely acknowledged among life cycle
practitioners and other stakeholders worldwide as representative datasets, they have been included in various commercial life cycle
databases as well as in the publicly available European Life Cycle Database (ELCD).
Objectives of Eco-profiles
PlasticsEurope has clear objectives when compiling the Eco-profile reports, representing European production averages:
One, is to place scientifically sound data in the public domain for use in product life-cycle studies, without compromising the
confidentiality of detailed process data of the individual companies.
The second is to encourage environmental improvements in production processes through benchmarking against a European
industry average.
The third key factor is that, given the large contribution of upstream effects to the Eco-profile of a polymer and in view of the
distribution of input materials, such as ethylene or naphtha via the European pipeline network, industry averages are the most
robust representation of polymer production systems.
Future of Eco-profiles
Since the first Eco-profile reports were published, the Life cycle assessment methodology, standardisation and practice has undergone
substantial changes. New concepts, such as Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) and Carbon Footprint have emerged.
Downstream industries like the building and construction sector have their own standards and data needs. Hence, Eco-profiles need
to change in response to best practices and stakeholder needs. To this end, PlasticsEurope periodically seeks stakeholder input on the
Eco-profile methodology. Furthermore, in view of the need for globally harmonised practices and comparable results, PlasticsEurope
welcomes and actively invites liaison with other regional federations. As a contribution towards shared best practices, the Eco-profile
methodology aligns with other material- or sector-specific standards.
Environmental Product Declarations


Based on the Eco-profiles, PlasticsEurope also provides Type III Environmental Declarations according to ISO 14025, commonly called
Environmental Product Declarations (EPDs). The EPD programme is governed by the following:
General Instructions for the Environmental Declaration Programme - September 2007

76. The PlasticsEurope Methodology Document (see sidebar) also includes the Product Category Rules (PCR) which define how to calculate
EPDs from the Eco-profile datasets. Given the more recent nature of the EPD programme, EPDs are available for many polymers, but
not yet for all. Where no EPD is available yet, the Eco-profile report includes figures on Global Warming Potential (Carbon Footprint).
All updated Eco-profiles comprise the EPD as an introductory section
Applicable standards


PlasticsEurope considers the recognition and use of the ISO 140xx series of standards to be very important when using Life Cycle
Thinking in the decision-making processes involving environmental criteria.
ISO 14040: Environmental management – Life Cycle Assessment – Principles and Framework
ISO 14044: Environmental management – Life Cycle Assessment – Requirements and Guidelines
ISO 14021: Self-declared environmental claims – Type II Environmental Labelling
ISO 14025: Environmental labels and declarations – Type III Environmental Declarations
ISO 14067: Carbon Footprint of Products (under development)
Literature


Further reading on Life Cycle Thinking
Increasing the credibility of LCA
Using LCI results
Who gets the credits
Plastics recycling – overview
Life Cycle Management: a business guide to sustainability (UNEP-SETAC)
Links to external resources
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
European Platform on LCA
European Commission Joint Research Centre ILCD Handbook
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Latest findings

The impact of plastics on life-cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in Europe (PDF document)
Denkstatt Study: summary report
Published: June 2010
Marine Litter


Global Plastics Associations Take Action on Marine Litter

The European plastics industry has been instrumental in bringing together 47 plastics industry organisations from around the world to

77. sign up to a "Joint Declaration for Solutions on Marine Litter”, which was announced at the 5th International Marine Debris Conference
in Hawaii in March 2011.

The Declaration outlines a set of clear objectives for industry action, and advocates close cooperation with a broad range of
stakeholders to achieve substantial progress in reducing damage to the marine environment.

In the six-point strategy outlined in the Declaration, the industry will:
Work in public-private partnerships aimed at preventing marine debris
Work with the scientific community to better understand the scope, origins and impact of marine litter and the range of
solutions to the problem
Promote comprehensive science-based policies and enforcement of existing laws to prevent marine litter
Promote best practices in waste management, particularly in coastal regions
Enhance opportunities to recover plastic products for recycling and energy recovery
Steward the transport and distribution of plastic resin pellets and products to its consumers and promote this practice along
the supply chain





New International Co-operation to Tackle Marine Debris


Honolulu Commitment among outcomes of Fifth International Marine Debris Conference in Hawaii

Honolulu (USA) / Nairobi, 25 March 2011 – Government
representatives, major industries and leading marine
researchers have come together to make a new set of
commitments to tackle the widespread problem of debris
in the world’s seas and oceans.

Despite decades of efforts to prevent and reduce marine
debris, such as discarded plastic, abandoned fishing nets and industrial waste, there is evidence that the problem continues to grow.
A lack of co-ordination between global and regional programmes, deficiencies in the enforcement of existing regulations and
unsustainable consumption and production patterns have aggravated the problem.

By bringing together experts from some 35 countries, governments, research bodies, corporations including the Coca-Cola Company,
and trade associations such as Plastics Europe, the Fifth International Marine Debris Conference resulted in new commitments and
partnerships to address the issue of marine debris at global, national and local levels.

A key outcome of the conference, which was co-organised by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and held in Honolulu, Hawaii from 20 to 25 March 2011, the Honolulu Commitment
marks a new, cross-sectoral approach to help reduce the occurrence of marine debris, as well as the extensive damage it causes to
marine habitats, the global economy, biodiversity and the risks posed to human health.

The Commitment encourages sharing of technical, legal and market-based solutions to reduce marine debris, improving local and
regional understanding of the scale and impact of the problem and advocating the improvement of waste management worldwide.
"Plastics litter in any environment is unacceptable. This global industry declaration will act as
a catalyst for tangible actions at national, regional and international level. Contributing
to substantially reducing marine litter is essential for our industry.”
Jacques van Rijckevorsel
Former President, PlasticsEurope

78. "Marine debris – trash in our oceans – is a symptom of our throw-away society and our approach to how we use our natural resources.
It affects every country and every ocean, and shows us in highly visible terms the urgency of shifting towards a low carbon, resource
efficient Green Economy as nations prepare for Rio+20 in 2012,” said United Nations Under-Secretary-General and UNEP Executive
Director Achim Steiner in a message to conference delegates. "The impact of marine debris today on flora and fauna in the oceans is
one that we must now address with greater speed,” added Mr. Steiner

"However, one community or one country acting in isolation will not be the answer. We need to address marine debris collectively
across national boundaries and with the private sector, which has a critical role to play both in reducing the kinds of wastes that can
end up in the world’s oceans, and through research into new materials. It is by bringing all these players together that we can truly
make a difference,” said Mr. Steiner.

The Commitment marks the first step in the development of a comprehensive global platform for the prevention, reduction and
management of marine debris, to be known as the Honolulu Strategy.

This document – currently being developed by conference delegates, UNEP, NOAA and international marine debris experts – will aim to
provide a strategic framework for co-ordinated action plans to prevent, reduce and manage sources of marine debris. The Strategy
will be finalised following the conference.

"This conference comes at a critical time for our world” said Monica Medina, NOAA’s Principal Deputy Undersecretary for Oceans and
Atmosphere. "The oceans and coasts are facing a multitude of stressors, including marine debris, that lead to consequences that have
both ecosystem and economic impacts. It is vitally important to bring together people committed to these issues to share ideas,
develop partnerships and move us all a step closer to the changes that are badly needed for our oceans and coasts."

Marine debris: risks to livelihoods, wildlife and human health

The impacts of marine debris are far-reaching, with serious consequences for marine habitats, biodiversity, human health and the
global economy.
At least 267 marine species worldwide are affected by entanglement in or ingestion of marine debris, including 86 percent of
all sea turtles species, 44 percent of all seabird species and 43 percent of all marine mammal species.
There is growing concern over the potential impact on human health of toxic substances released by plastic waste in the
ocean. Small particles (known as ‘microplastics’) made up of disintegrating plastic items or lost plastic pellets used by
industry, may accumulate contaminants linked to cancer, reproductive problems and other health risks. Scientists are studying
whether these contaminants can enter the food chain when microplastics are ingested by marine animals.
Accumulated debris on beaches and shorelines can have a serious economic impact on communities that are dependent on
tourism.
Marine debris may house communities of invasive species which can disrupt marine habitats and ecosystems. Heavy items of
marine debris can damage habitats such as coral reefs and affect the foraging and feeding habits of marine animals.

Surfing for Solutions in Hawaii

One of the key themes to emerge from the Fifth International Marine Debris Conference was the need to improve global waste
management.

The Honolulu Strategy will outline several approaches for the reduction of marine debris, including prevention at land- and sea-based
sources, and the need to see waste as a resource to be managed. It will also call for public awareness campaigns on the negative
impacts of improper waste disposal on our seas and oceans – targeting street litter, illegal dumping of rubbish and poorly-managed
waste dumps.

79. Improving national waste management programmes not only helps reduce the volume of waste in the world’s seas and oceans and
subsequent damage to the marine environment, but can also bring real economic benefits.

In the Republic of Korea, for example, a policy of Extended Producer Responsibility has been enforced on packaging (paper, glass,
iron, aluminium and plastic) and specific products (batteries, tyres, lubricating oil) since 2003. This initiative has resulted in the
recycling of 6 million metric tonnes of waste between 2003 and 2007, increasing the country’s recycling rate by 14 percent and
creating economic benefits equivalent to US$1.6 billion.

Waste management is one of ten economic sectors highlighted in UNEP’s Green Economy Report, launched in February 2011. The
report highlights enormous opportunities for turning land-based waste – the major contributor to marine debris – into a more
economically valuable resource. The value of the waste-to-energy market, for example, which was estimated at US$20 billion in 2008
is projected to grow by 30 percent by 2014.

The scaling-up of a transition to a low carbon, more resource-efficient Green Economy is one of two key pillars of the United Nations
Sustainable Development conference to be held in Brazil next year. Also known as Rio+20, the conference aims to secure renewed
political commitment for sustainable development and address new and emerging challenges – twenty years after the landmark Earth
Summit in Rio de Janeiro.

Media contacts

Bryan Coll UNEP Newsdesk/Nairobi
Tel. [phone] or [phone],

Elisabeth Guilbaud-Cox Head of Communications,
UNEP Regional Office for North America
Tel. [phone]

Carey Morishige NOAA Marine Debris Program, Honolulu, HI
Tel. [phone]
Education Portal


Learning about plastics
Take a look around you! Chances are that you will find at least one thing made of plastic material. Plastics are used everywhere these
days. They help to make our lives easier, safer, more convenient, and more enjoyable. Plastics provide an environmentally sound and
cost-effective solution for many design challenges and technology breakthroughs. Think about the clothes we wear, the houses we
live in, and how we travel. Think also about our leisure pursuits, the televisions we watch, the computers we use and the CDs we listen
to. Whether we are shopping in a supermarket, having major surgery or merely brushing our teeth, plastics are part of our lives!

Plastics in your life!
From electrical appliances, to medical equipment, packaging, automobiles and space travel, plastics are an essential
part of our lives. Why? Because plastics are versatile, lightweight, safe, durable, and cost efficient!

Versatile!
Plastics can be formed into an enormous variety of complex shapes and facilitate design solutions in thousands of
applications. They are rigid or flexible, solid or porous. Just think of the difference between a telephone, a bottle and
a plastics bag to see the sort of variety that exists.

80. Lightweight!
Compared with other materials plastics are very light.
This provides a number of advantages:
Less raw material consumed
Less energy in production
Easier handling/carrying
Less fuel in transport
Less air pollution in transport


Safe!
Plastics provide hygienic and protective solutions. Although they are lightweight, plastics are also extremely strong, which means they
can be used in the most demanding of situations. As they are shatterproof and can be made almost unbreakable, plastics are widely
used in areas where safety is of utmost importance - e.g. food and drink packaging and healthcare. Many of the new safety features in
modern cars rely heavily on plastics.




Durable!
Plastics provide durable and tough solutions. They do not corrode or decompose with the passage of time. Durability and weather
resistance means they are ideal for long-life applications like building and construction, keeping maintenance to a minimum - e.g.
exterior or underground cables and pipes. Plastics can absorb impact through knocks and bumps, making them ideal for the exterior
parts of lighter cars. The use of engineering plastics has become essential in many critical automotive applications.

Cost efficient!
Plastics reduce production and supply-chain costs in several ways. They reduce energy used in manufacture and enable complex
shapes to replace multi-components assemblies. High-speed form-fill-seal packaging lines increase factory throughputs and avoid
wasteful operations such as moving empty containers. Plastics' light weight reduces fuel consumption during transport.
The ABC of polyethylene


What is polyethylene?
Polyethylene is the most produced plastic in the world, with which everyone daily comes into contact. From its early days it has been
considered a real asset in the world of the materials, although at first its value was only proven as insulation of electrical wiring. At
present the power of polyethylene is its discrete reliability, its obvious solidity and its almost unlimited uses. We are so used to this
modern material, it has become something common and everyday, and we tend to take it for granted.
Polyethylene can be processed into soft and flexible as well as into tough, hard and strong products. It can be found in articles of all
kind of dimensions, from the simplest to the most complex shapes. It is used in everyday appliances, packaging, pipes and toys. Who
doesn’t daily use products like cling-foil, squeeze bottle or garbage bag? Without noticing we buy a lot of products in the shop that
are packaged in polyethylene. And when we leave the shop, our purchases are put into a carrier bag… from polyethylene. Without

81. realizing it, our existence has become a lot safer as a large part of our pipes; tubes and fuel tanks are made of the solid and reliable
polyethylene.
In whatever shape polyethylene is used, there is complete agreement in the excellent characteristics of this material. Polyethylene is a
good insulator, it resists caustic materials, it is almost unbreakable and is environment-friendly. Polyethylene is reliable under every
circumstance and it can easily deal with tropical temperatures as well as the frosty cold of the polar circle. This tough material is hard
wearing. Yet it is remarkably light and it can be processed into all kind of articles without any problem.
The qualities of polyethylene can be summarized into three words: it is strong, it is safe and it is versatile.
The raw material: from naphtha to polyethylene
Naphtha is extracted from crude oil. Naphtha is another word for petroleum. By strongly heating up ("crack”) the naphtha, ethylene is
released. In a factory this ethylene is transformed into polyethylene. The word polyethylene means: "a lot of ethylene parts”. These
invisible tiny ethylene parts form the building blocks for polyethylene during the production. If we could look into the material during
this process, we would see that these building blocks thread together into strings. Once these strings are ready, they look like
branches.
The raw material: where do the granules come from?
The ethylene enters the factory as a gas. When the gas is transformed into polyethylene it looks like a warm, fluid pulp. Before it
solidifies, the pulp is pushed through a plate with small holes in a constant stream. The solidifying polyethylene strings that come out
at the other end are immediately cut into small pieces by a rotating knife. The result is a mass of white, transparent granules that look
a lot like coarse hail. These granules will go to companies as raw material, where they are melted and processed into all kinds of
products.
Basic features: density and liquidity
During production polyethylene can already be given a certain characteristic. One can choose for a stiffer or for a more elastic type.
These features don’t only determine what kind of things can be manufactured from polyethylene, but also how easily it can be done.
Whether polyethylene has a stiff or elastic character depends on the "density” of the material and on the "liquidity” in its melted form.
The density and liquidity also largely depend on the amount of pressure that is applied during the production of polyethylene. The
result of a "low” or on the other hand a "high” pressure is as follows:
When producing polyethylene at low pressure it gets a high density. The invisible small substance particles form "straight”,
robust and tightly packed branches. The result is "dense” polyethylene, with a firm and stiff structure that can be compared
with a bundle of straight branches that cannot be pressed further.
Manufacturing polyethylene at high pressure on the other hand leads to a low density. The particles form a crisscross of
branches and side branches with, literally, no "line” whatsoever. The weight of this less "dense” polyethylene is lighter. It sticks
together more loosely and can be compared to a bundle of sticks of young and elastic wood with a lot of side branches that
are also branched off. When you press on such a bundle and let go of it, it bounces back into shape. So elasticity right from
the beginning.
Whether polyethylene has a liquid character or not depends on the so-called "melting index”. This technical word indicates
how slowly – or how quickly – the melted mass flows through a gap. It is not surprising that the "dense”, solid polyethylene
flows slowly and with difficulty, as it has a stiff and tough character. The "less dense” and looser polyethylene flows much
easier. When it is solidified, it feels more flexible and it is more elastic.
Three main types
By making polyethylene more or less "dense” in the factory, there is a suitable type of material available for every application. In
practice one of the following types is used in 90% of the applications.
LDPE: "low density” polyethylene
The oldest type. A soft, tough and flexible polyethylene type, used for strong, flexible consumer items, like screw caps and lids. For a
long time already, it is also used as insulation material. At present the most popular application is foil, from which carrier bags,

82. packaging material and agricultural plastic are made. During the high water levels in Holland in the last years, the tough strong LDPE
foil served as an improvised reinforcement for the dikes.
HDPE: "high density” polyethylene
This is the sturdiest and most inflexible type. Its sturdy and somewhat tough character can be used for a large range of applications.
For example the well-known gft-container and a number of everyday domestic products like bottles, clothes pegs and the handle of a
washing-up brush. Although HDPE is quite heavy, it can also be used for paper-thin foil that is extremely light and feels crispy. All of
us use this type of foil daily; examples are sandwich bags, pedal bin bags or packaging for vegetables, fruit or meats.
LLDPE: a mixture of both previous-mentioned types
With this polyethylene one can go into every direction. It has some features from both of the previous-mentioned types. Both flexible
and sturdy products are made from it. LLDPE is generally used in mixtures with one of the previously mentioned materials. Amongst
others, even thinner foils can be produced. It is also used for multi-layer packaging. LLDPE is extremely tough and inflexible. These
features can be used for the production of larger items, like covers, storage bins and some types of containers.
New developments
The development of new types of polyethylene, adapted to modern needs and made possible because of new production techniques,
clearly shows that time doesn’t stand still.
A leading hit amongst the new materials is UHMWPE. This polyethylene is really hardwearing and can resist higher
temperatures. This makes it extremely suitable for applications whereby the utmost is required from the material, like gear
wheels, gaskets, bearings, filters, cutting boards and hammers.
The latest is the so-called metallocene (metalloceen) polyethylene. This material has spectacular features because of its very
regular pattern of branches and side branches. A special type is the plastomeres (plastomeren). The distinctive feature of this
polyethylene is its extremely low density, which makes it very tough. Next to this, it is as clear as glass. In practice, these
materials are often used as reinforcement for other plastics.
Processing polyethylene into products – how is it done?
For most of the processing methods the polyethylene granules are put - via a funnel - into a cylinder where they are heated. Inside
this cylinder a rotating screw presses the melted mass through an opening at the end, after which the polyethylene can be processed
into different products, before it cools off and solidifies. The cylinder with the screw expressing the melted material is called an
extruder. The principle of the extruder can be compared to that of a sausage mill. From melted polyethylene objects in many different
models can be made, whether they are hollow of massive, large or small. Garden chairs, screw tops, doorknobs or squeeze bottles…
the most diverse shapes and dimensions are possible. During the pressing the material can also be flattened into a sheet or stretched
into foil.
The making of molded products
Injection moulds (usually called injection molding). At the end of the extruder a measured quantity of melted polyethylene is
pressed into a cooled mould. The content solidifies, the mould opens… and the ready-made product is ejected. This method
is suitable for large and small products, like tops, covers, handles, garden furniture, buckets and gft-containers.
Blow moulds. At the end of the extruder a measured quantity of polyethylene is "put through” and closed off on one side in
the shape of a tube. Through the tube opening the polyethylene is blown against the mould side, using compressed air. It
immediately solidifies and is than - ready-made – ejected from the mould. This is the designated manner to make bottles.
Rotation moulds. This is a good method for large hollow objects, like containers or toilet booths. The polyethylene is put into
a mould as a powder. The mould rotates inside a big hot oven until the powder is melted and an even side is formed. After
cooling off the product is finished.
The making of foil

83. Blow foil. The melted material is pressed through the opening of the mould using compressed air and rises as a trunk of foil.
After cooling off mills flatten the foil to a double layer after which it is rolled up and ready for further processing. This method
is very suitable to make foil for bin bags and carrier bags.
Surface foil. The melted material is pressed through a very narrow opening. This results into one single layer of very thin foil
that is rolled up immediately after cooling off. This foil can, in contrast with the blow foil, only be stretched into one direction.
Surface foil is often used to stick on layers of other material.
The making of multi-layer foil
Polyethylene foil is very suitable for using in combination with layers of paper, aluminum or other plastics. It is usually used to extra
strengthen the food packaging, to be able to print on them and to ensure that the content remains fresher for a longer period. There
are three types of multi-layer foil:
Laminated foil. This is glued on aluminum, paper or other plastic as a layer. An example is the well-known coffee packaging.
Coating. Melted polyethylene is directly pressed onto a layer of aluminum or paper. Such a coated layer is amongst others
used for photo paper and packaging for products containing oil or fat.
Coex foil. Apart from polyethylene this foil can consist of one or more layers of other plastics. In contrast with the laminated
foil, all layers of melted material are pressed together, they jointly solidify and become an indestructible foil. An example of
this multi-layer foil is cheese packaging.
The making of sheets
This is done in the same manner as with surface foil, only the opening, through which the material is pressed, is wider and in
accordance with the desired thickness of the sheet. Polyethylene sheets are often used to make relief shapes. For large, straight
pieces, for example side parts, the shapes in the sheet are made with a vacuum machine (vacuumtrekker). For smaller objects, where
each groove of the relief has to be visible, a stamp is used.
The making of foam applications for insulation
For a long time already polyethylene is a recognized insulation material, both for electricity and warmth. The foam effect is reached by
adding a foam substance or a gas to the melted polyethylene. The material will than get a cell structure that makes it very suitable for
warmth insulation. The foamed, warm mass is pressed out off the extruder via a window or tube profile, it cools off immediately and
is cut to size.
Additions
Polyethylene can sometimes be processed as it is – natural – but most of the time it will need something extra to make it more
suitable for certain applications. Substances are added to prevent objects, which are exposed to the open air, from eroding or fading.
Sometimes a substance is added that makes the foil even smoother or a substance that prevents the foils from sticking together.
Often substances are added that prevents the inflammability. Coloring substances are frequently added. In all cases it are useful and
necessary additions.
Polyethylene and the environment
Polyethylene is one of the most environment-friendly materials, since:
It is an efficient raw material. Per year, not even one percent of the total crude oil and natural gas is used for the global
production of polyethylene.
The manufacturing of polyethylene is relatively clean and efficient: the emission of harmful substances is minimal and there is
hardly any waste.
Polyethylene is extremely suitable for recycling. It is a thermoplastic material, which means that it can be melted unlimited
times and new products can be made with it. At present, many carrier bags and bin bags are made from recycled
polyethylene.
If polyethylene is collected after use and cannot be processed again, it supplies high-quality fuel for power supply.

84. Polyethylene: today’s and tomorrow’s material
It is beyond dispute that polyethylene is indispensable in the current world. It obtained a permanent and undisputed position on the
materials market. What other material provided so many useful innovations in the field of insulation and packaging?
The question, how to store or transport our valuable food, water and energy without loss or decay – and in the safest possible manner
–, is a lot easier to answer since polyethylene is used. It is impossible to imagine life today without polyethylene foils, coatings and
cable insulation as well as without the more extensive range of strong, light packaging and domestic applications. Because of the
superior features of polyethylene, these products cannot be realized in a better and cheaper manner using other materials.
Tomorrow, undoubtedly, we will demand more stringent requirements from our products than we do today. Polyethylene is the
material that can endure the strictest test in the field of durability, safety, hygiene and environmental friendliness. Everything seems to
indicate that we can expect a lot more from this valuable material in the future.