02 Blood, Tissue Fluid and Lymph

1. Blood, Tissue Fluid and Blood, Tissue Fluid and
LymphLymph
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2. Blood plasmaBlood plasma
Pale yellow liquid consisting of a variety of Pale yellow liquid consisting of a variety of
substances (10%) dissolved in water (90%)substances (10%) dissolved in water (90%)

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3. Tissue fluidTissue fluid
Almost identical in Almost identical in
composition to blood composition to blood
plasma except fewer plasma except fewer
protein molecules, no protein molecules, no
red blood cells and red blood cells and
some white blood cellsome white blood cell
The amount depends The amount depends
on 2 opposing on 2 opposing
pressurespressures
–Blood pressure at Blood pressure at
arterial end of capillary arterial end of capillary
–osmosisosmosis
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4. Tissue fluid (cont)Tissue fluid (cont)
Importance:Importance:
–Exchanges of materials between cells and the bloodExchanges of materials between cells and the blood
–Provides optimum environment in which cells can Provides optimum environment in which cells can
workwork
–HomeostasisHomeostasis – maintenance of a constant internal – maintenance of a constant internal
environment (regulation of glucose concentration, environment (regulation of glucose concentration,
water, pH, metabolic wastes and temperature)/takes water, pH, metabolic wastes and temperature)/takes
place to maintain the composition of tissue fluid at a place to maintain the composition of tissue fluid at a
constant levelconstant level
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5. LymphLymph
10% of tissue fluid are collected and returned to blood 10% of tissue fluid are collected and returned to blood
system through system through lymph vesselslymph vessels and and lymphaticslymphatics
Lymphatics – tiny, blind-ending vessels with valves (wide Lymphatics – tiny, blind-ending vessels with valves (wide
enough to allow large protein molecules to pass enough to allow large protein molecules to pass
through), found in almost all tissuesthrough), found in almost all tissues
OedemaOedema – build up of tissue fluid due to imbalance of – build up of tissue fluid due to imbalance of
protein and rate of loss from plasma with concentration protein and rate of loss from plasma with concentration
and rate of loss from tissue fluidand rate of loss from tissue fluid
LymphLymph – fluid inside lymphatics identical to tissue fluid – fluid inside lymphatics identical to tissue fluid
Lymph nodesLymph nodes – intervals along lymph vessels which is – intervals along lymph vessels which is
involved in protection against disease involved in protection against disease
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6. OedemaOedema
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7. Lymph (cont)Lymph (cont)
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Largest
lymph vessel

9. Red colour caused by the pigment haemoglobin Red colour caused by the pigment haemoglobin
(globular protein)(globular protein)
Haemoglobin – transports oxygen from lungs to Haemoglobin – transports oxygen from lungs to
respiring tissuesrespiring tissues
Formed in bone marrow (liver; humerus, femur; Formed in bone marrow (liver; humerus, femur;
skull, ribs, pelvis, vertebrae)skull, ribs, pelvis, vertebrae)
Eventually rupture within some ‘tight spot’ in the Eventually rupture within some ‘tight spot’ in the
circulatory system, often inside the spleencirculatory system, often inside the spleen
Red blood cells (erythrocytes)Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
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11. Red blood cells (cont)Red blood cells (cont)
The structure is unusual in 3 ways:The structure is unusual in 3 ways:
i) Red blood cells are very small i) Red blood cells are very small
(diameter=7(diameter=7μμm) – haemoglobin/capillariesm) – haemoglobin/capillaries
ii) Red blood cells are shaped like a biconcave ii) Red blood cells are shaped like a biconcave
disc – surface area to volume ratiodisc – surface area to volume ratio
iii) Red blood cells have no nucleus, no iii) Red blood cells have no nucleus, no
mitochondria and no endoplasmic reticulum – mitochondria and no endoplasmic reticulum –
more haemoglobinmore haemoglobin
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12. White blood cells (leucocytes)White blood cells (leucocytes)
Made in bone marrowMade in bone marrow
Distinguished from red blood cells:Distinguished from red blood cells:
–White blood cells all have nucleusWhite blood cells all have nucleus
–White blood cells are mostly larger (except White blood cells are mostly larger (except
lymphocytes)lymphocytes)
–White blood cells are either spherical or irregular in White blood cells are either spherical or irregular in
shapeshape
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13. White blood cellsWhite blood cells
PhagocytesPhagocytes – cells that destroy invading – cells that destroy invading
microorganisms by phagocytosis (lobed microorganisms by phagocytosis (lobed
nuclei and granular cytoplasm)nuclei and granular cytoplasm)
LymphocytesLymphocytes – destroy microorganisms – destroy microorganisms
by secreting chemicals called antibodies by secreting chemicals called antibodies
which attach to and destroy the invading which attach to and destroy the invading
cells (smaller, large round nucleus and cells (smaller, large round nucleus and
small amount of cytoplasm)small amount of cytoplasm)
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14. White blood cellsWhite blood cells
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15. Types of WBCs:Types of WBCs:
i) i) granulargranular white blood cells include: white blood cells include:
–neutrophilsneutrophils (50 - 70% of WBCs) - (50 - 70% of WBCs) - phagocytosisphagocytosis (bacteria & (bacteria &
cellular debris); very important in inflammation cellular debris); very important in inflammation
–eosinophilseosinophils (1 - 4%) - (1 - 4%) - help break down blood clots & kill help break down blood clots & kill
parasites parasites
–basophilsbasophils (less than 1%) - (less than 1%) - synthesize & store histamine (a synthesize & store histamine (a
substance released during inflammation) & heparin (an substance released during inflammation) & heparin (an
anticoagulant); functions(s) remain unclear anticoagulant); functions(s) remain unclear
ii) ii) agranularagranular (or non-granular) white blood cells include: (or non-granular) white blood cells include:
–lymphocyteslymphocytes (25 - 40%) - (25 - 40%) - immune response (including immune response (including
production of antibodies) production of antibodies)
–monocytes monocytes (2 - 8%) - (2 - 8%) - phagocytosis (typically as macrophages in phagocytosis (typically as macrophages in
tissues of the liver, spleen, lungs, & lymph nodes) tissues of the liver, spleen, lungs, & lymph nodes)
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17. Thrombocytes (platelets) Thrombocytes (platelets) - bits of broken up - bits of broken up
blood cells that help clot the blood when we cut blood cells that help clot the blood when we cut
ourselves and bleed. When we bleed, platelets, ourselves and bleed. When we bleed, platelets,
chemicals and substances called clotting proteins chemicals and substances called clotting proteins
(prothrombin) help to form an insoluble 'plug' to (prothrombin) help to form an insoluble 'plug' to
seal off the bleeding point. seal off the bleeding point.
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18. Some related diseasesSome related diseases
AnemiaAnemia
Lymphatic filariasisLymphatic filariasis
HemophiliaHemophilia
AIDSAIDS
LeukemiaLeukemia
Thalassemia Thalassemia
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19. Oxygen is transported around the body Oxygen is transported around the body
inside red blood cells in combination with inside red blood cells in combination with
the protein haemoglobinthe protein haemoglobin
 Hb + 4OHb + 4O
22 HbO HbO
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haemoglobin oxygen oxyhaemoglobinhaemoglobin oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
HaemoglobinHaemoglobin
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85% CO85% CO
22 is transported by the blood is transported by the blood
through hydrogencarbonate ions, HCOthrough hydrogencarbonate ions, HCO
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--
, ,
after dissociation of dissolved COafter dissociation of dissolved CO
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5% CO5% CO
22 dissolve in blood plasma without dissolve in blood plasma without
dissociationdissociation
10% CO10% CO
22 diffuse into red blood cells, diffuse into red blood cells,
combining directly with the terminal amine combining directly with the terminal amine
groups (-NHgroups (-NH
22) of some of the haemoglobin ) of some of the haemoglobin
molecules (molecules (carbamino-haemoglobincarbamino-haemoglobin))
When blood reaches lungs, the reactions When blood reaches lungs, the reactions
go into reversego into reverse

22. The haemoglobin dissociation curveThe haemoglobin dissociation curve
Haemoglobin performs the task of Haemoglobin performs the task of picking uppicking up
and and releasingreleasing oxygen very well oxygen very well
Investigate how haemoglobin behaves:Investigate how haemoglobin behaves:
–Samples extracted from blood and exposed to Samples extracted from blood and exposed to
different concentrations (different concentrations (partial pressurespartial pressures) of ) of
oxygenoxygen
–Amount of oxygen that combines with each sample of Amount of oxygen that combines with each sample of
haemoglobin is measuredhaemoglobin is measured
–Maximum amount of oxygen given a value of 100% Maximum amount of oxygen given a value of 100%
((saturatedsaturated))
–Amounts at lower oxygen partial pressures are Amounts at lower oxygen partial pressures are
expressed as a percentage of the maximum value expressed as a percentage of the maximum value
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23. The percentage saturation of each sample The percentage saturation of each sample
can be plotted against the partial pressure can be plotted against the partial pressure
of oxygen to obtain the curve of oxygen to obtain the curve
The shape of the haemoglobin dissociation curve can be The shape of the haemoglobin dissociation curve can be
explained by the behaviour of a haemoglobin molecule explained by the behaviour of a haemoglobin molecule
as it combines with or loses oxygen moleculesas it combines with or loses oxygen molecules
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24. Amount of oxygen that haemoglobin carries is affected Amount of oxygen that haemoglobin carries is affected
not only by the partial pressure of not only by the partial pressure of oxygenoxygen, but also by , but also by
the partial pressure of the partial pressure of carbon dioxidecarbon dioxide
carbonic anhydrasecarbonic anhydrase
 COCO
22 + H + H
22O HO H
22COCO
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carbon dioxide water carbonic acidcarbon dioxide water carbonic acid
The carbonic acid dissociates:The carbonic acid dissociates:
HH
22COCO
33 H H
++
+ HCO + HCO
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--
carbonic acid hydrogen ion hydrogencarbonate ioncarbonic acid hydrogen ion hydrogencarbonate ion
Haemoglobin readily combines with these hydrogen ions, Haemoglobin readily combines with these hydrogen ions,
forming haemoglobinic acid, HHb (releasing oxygen)forming haemoglobinic acid, HHb (releasing oxygen)
The Bohr shiftThe Bohr shift
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25. By removing the hydrogen ions from solution, By removing the hydrogen ions from solution,
haemoglobin helps to maintain the pH of the haemoglobin helps to maintain the pH of the
blood close to neutral (blood close to neutral (bufferbuffer))
Bohr effectBohr effect – the presence of high partial – the presence of high partial
pressure of carbon dioxide causes haemoglobin pressure of carbon dioxide causes haemoglobin
to release oxygento release oxygen
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26. The partial pressure of oxygen in the The partial pressure of oxygen in the
fetus’ blood is only a little lower than that fetus’ blood is only a little lower than that
in its mother’s bloodin its mother’s blood
Fetal haemoglobin combines more readily Fetal haemoglobin combines more readily
with oxygen than adult haemoglobin with oxygen than adult haemoglobin
((higher affinityhigher affinity for oxygen) for oxygen)
Dissociation curve lies Dissociation curve lies aboveabove the curve for the curve for
adult haemoglobinadult haemoglobin
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Fetal haemoglobinFetal haemoglobin

27. Red pigment which combines reversibly with oxygenRed pigment which combines reversibly with oxygen
Found inside cells in some tissues of the body (muscle Found inside cells in some tissues of the body (muscle
cells)cells)
Made up of only 1 polypeptide, 1 haem group and can Made up of only 1 polypeptide, 1 haem group and can
combine with 1 oxygen moleculecombine with 1 oxygen molecule
The oxymyoglobin molecule is very stable and will not The oxymyoglobin molecule is very stable and will not
release its oxygen unless partial pressure of oxygen release its oxygen unless partial pressure of oxygen
around it is very lowaround it is very low
Myoglobin has a higher percentage of saturation with Myoglobin has a higher percentage of saturation with
oxygen than haemoglobinoxygen than haemoglobin
Acts as an Acts as an oxygen storageoxygen storage
The oxygen held by the myoglobin is a reserve, to be The oxygen held by the myoglobin is a reserve, to be
used up only in conditions of particularly great oxygen used up only in conditions of particularly great oxygen
demanddemand
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Myoglobin Myoglobin

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30. At sea level: At sea level:
–Partial pressure of OPartial pressure of O
22 in atmosphere = 20kPa in atmosphere = 20kPa
–Partial pressure of OPartial pressure of O
22 in an alveolus = 13kPa in an alveolus = 13kPa
–Haemoglobin almost completely saturated with Haemoglobin almost completely saturated with
oxygenoxygen
At 6500m:At 6500m:
–Partial pressure of OPartial pressure of O
22 in atmosphere = 10kPa in atmosphere = 10kPa
–Partial pressure of OPartial pressure of O
22 in an alveolus = 5.3kPa in an alveolus = 5.3kPa
–Haemoglobin only about 70% saturated in lungsHaemoglobin only about 70% saturated in lungs
Altitude sickness:Altitude sickness:
–Increase in the rate and depth of breathingIncrease in the rate and depth of breathing
–General feeling of dizziness and weakness (nausea)General feeling of dizziness and weakness (nausea)
–Arterioles in the brains dilate (fluids begins to leak Arterioles in the brains dilate (fluids begins to leak
into brain tissues causing disorientation and into into brain tissues causing disorientation and into
lungs)lungs)
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High altitudeHigh altitude

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High altitudeHigh altitude

32. Changes that take place as body Changes that take place as body
acclimatises:acclimatises:
–Number of red blood cells Number of red blood cells
increases (40-50% to 50-70%)increases (40-50% to 50-70%)
Adaptations to low-oxygen Adaptations to low-oxygen
environments:environments:
–Broad chests (larger lung Broad chests (larger lung
capacities)capacities)
–Larger hearts (especially right Larger hearts (especially right
side that pumps blood to the side that pumps blood to the
lungs)lungs)
–More haemoglobin in blood More haemoglobin in blood
(increasing efficiency of oxygen (increasing efficiency of oxygen
transport)transport)
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33. CO combines with the haem groups in the CO combines with the haem groups in the
haemoglobin molecules forming haemoglobin molecules forming
carboxyhaemoglobincarboxyhaemoglobin
Haemoglobin combines with CO 250 times more Haemoglobin combines with CO 250 times more
readily than it does with Oreadily than it does with O
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Carboxyhaemoglobin is a very stable compoundCarboxyhaemoglobin is a very stable compound
Low concentrations of CO (0.1%) in the air can Low concentrations of CO (0.1%) in the air can
cause death by asphyxiationcause death by asphyxiation
Treatment: administration of a mixture of pure Treatment: administration of a mixture of pure
oxygen and carbon dioxideoxygen and carbon dioxide
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Carbon monoxideCarbon monoxide

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