02_BOE_M1_Biomolecules.pdf notes engineering

Biology for engineering

1. BIOMOLECULES
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS
MODULE - 1
BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS

2. WHAT IS A BIOMOLECULE?
✓Biomolecules Are Molecules That Are Essential
For Life Processes In Living Organisms.
✓They Encompass A Wide Range Of Molecules,
Including Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins,
Nucleic Acids & Various Other Small Molecules.
✓Each Class Of Biomolecules Plays Crucial Roles
In Biological Processes.

3. BIOMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES LIPIDS
PROTEINS NUCLEIC ACIDS
VITAMINS
HORMONES
ENZYMES

4. CARBOHYDRATES
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS

5. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
✓Carbohydrates Are Organic
Molecules Composed Of Carbon,
Hydrogen & Oxygen Atoms,
Typically In The Ratio Of 1:2:1.
✓They Serve As A Primary Source
Of Energy For Living Organisms
& Play Essential Structural &
Functional Roles In Cells.

6. ENERGY SOURCE:
•Carbohydrates Are The Primary Energy Source
For Organisms.
•When Broken Down Through Cellular
Respiration, Carbohydrates Are Converted Into
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), The Molecule
Used By Cells To Store & Transfer Energy.
•Glucose, A Simple Sugar, Is The Most
Commonly Utilized Carbohydrate For Energy
Production In Cells.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

7. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT:
•Carbohydrates Contribute To The Structural
Integrity Of Cells & Tissues.
•In Plants, Cellulose, A Complex
Carbohydrate, Forms The Rigid Cell Walls,
Providing Support & Protection.
•In Animals, Chitin, Another Complex
Carbohydrate, Is A Major Component Of
The Exoskeletons Of Arthropods (Insects &
Crustaceans) & The Cell Walls Of Fungi.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

8. STORAGE OF ENERGY:
•Carbohydrates Serve As Energy Reserves In The Form Of
Glycogen In Animals & Starch In Plants.
•Glycogen Is Stored Primarily In The Liver & Muscles &
Can Be Rapidly Mobilized To Provide Glucose When
Energy Demand Is High, Such As During Exercise Or
Fasting.
•Starch Found In Plant Tissues Such As Roots, Tubers &
Seeds, Serves As A Long Term Energy Storage For Plants.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

9. CELLULAR RECOGNITION & SIGNALLING:
•Carbohydrates Are Involved In Cell-Cell Recognition &
Signalling Processes.
•Glycoproteins, Which Are Proteins With Attached
Carbohydrate Chains (Glycans), Play Crucial Roles In
Cell Recognition, Immune Responses & Cell Adhesion.
•Carbohydrates Molecules On The Surface Of Cells Act
As Antigens, Allowing The Immune System To
Distinguish Between Self & Non-Self Cells.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

10. DIETARY FIBER:
•Some Carbohydrates, Such As Dietary Fibre, Are Not
Digestible By Human Enzymes. Instead, They Provide
Bulk To The Diet & Aid In Digestion & Bowel
Movement.
•Fiber-Rich Foods, Including Fruits, Vegetables, Whole
Grains & Legumes, Promote Gastrointestinal Health &
May Reduce The Risk Of Chronic Diseases Such As
Heart Disease & Type 2 Diabetes.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

11. FUEL FOR BRAIN FUNCTION:
•Glucose Derived From Carbohydrates, Is The Primary
Fuel For The Brain.
•Neurons Require A Continuous Supply Of Glucose To
Maintain Proper Function & Deviations From Normal
Blood Glucose Levels Can Affect Cognitive
Performance.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

12. FLAVUOR & SWEETNESS:
•Carbohydrates Contribute To The Flavour & Sweetness
Of Foods.
•Simple Sugars Like Sucrose (Table Sugar), Fructose
(Found In Fruits) & Lactose (Found In Dairy
Products) Impart Sweetness To Foods & Beverages.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES

13. PROTEINS
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS

14. ✓Proteins Are Complex
Macromolecules Composed Of
Amino Acid Monomers Linked
Together By Peptide Bonds.
✓They Play Diverse & Essential
Roles In Living Organisms,
Contributing To Nearly Every
Biological Process.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

15. STRUCTURAL SUPPORT:
•Proteins Provide Structural Support & Stability To
Cells & Tissues.
•Structural Proteins Such As Collagen, Keratin &
Elastin, Form The Framework Of Connective Tissues,
Hair, Skin & Nails, Providing Strength, Elasticity &
Mechanical Support.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

16. TRANSPORT:
•Some Proteins Function As Carriers Or Channels That
Facilitate The Transport Of Molecules Across Biological
Membranes.
•E.G. Haemoglobin Transports Oxygen From The Lungs
To Tissues, While Membrane Transport Proteins
Facilitate The Movement Of Ions & Small Molecules
Across Cell Membranes.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

17. MUSCLE CONTRACTION :
•Proteins Are Essential Components Of Muscle Tissue &
Are Involved In The Contraction & Relaxation Of
Muscles.
•Actin & Myosin, 2 Proteins Found In Muscle Fibers,
Interact To Generate The Force Required For Muscle
Movement & Locomotion.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

18. IMMUNE RESPONSE:
•Proteins Play Critical Roles In The Immune System By
Recognizing & Defending Against Foreign Invaders
Such As Pathogens (E.g., Viruses, Bacteria) & Toxins.
•Antibodies, Also Known As Immunoglobulins (G, A, M,
E & D), Are Specialized Proteins Produced By Immune
Cells That Bind To Specific Antigens, Marking Them
For Destruction By Other Immune Cells.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

19. CELLULAR SIGNALLING:
•Proteins Serve As Signalling Molecules & Receptors
Involved In Intercellular Communication & Cellular
Response To External Stimuli.
•Signalling Proteins Transmit Signals From Cell
Surface To The Nucleus, Regulating Gene Expression,
Cell Growth, Differentiation & Apoptosis (Programmed
Cell Death).
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

20. HORMONAL REGULATION:
•Some Proteins Function As Hormones, Serving As
Chemical Messengers That Regulate Various
Physiological Processes.
•E.g. Insulin (Regulates Blood Glucose Levels), Growth
Hormone (Stimulates Growth & Development) &
Adrenaline (Mediates The Fight-or-flight Response).
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

21. ENZYMATIC CATALYSIS:
•Proteins Act As Biological Catalysts, Known As
Enzymes, That Accelerate Chemical Reactions By
Lowering The Activation Energy Required For The
Reaction To Occur.
•Enzymes Facilitate A Wide Range Of Biochemical
Reactions, Including Metabolism, DNA Replication,
Protein Synthesis & Cellular Signalling Pathways.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF PROTEINS

22. LIPIDS
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS

23. ✓Lipids Are A Diverse Group Of
Organic Molecules That Are
Insoluble In Water But Soluble In
Organic Solvents Such As
Chloroform, Ether & Acetone.
✓They Serve Various Essential
Functions In Living Organisms &
Are Crucial Components Of Cell
Membranes, Energy Storage
Molecules & Signalling Molecules.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS

24. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
ENERGY STORAGE:
•Lipids Serve As Efficient Energy Storage Molecules In
Organisms.
•Triglycerides, The Most Common Form Of Dietary Fat,
Store Energy In Adipose Tissue (Fat Cells) & Can Be
Broken Down During Metabolism To Release Energy
When Needed.
•Fats Provide More Than Twice The Energy Per Gram
Compared To Carbohydrates Or Proteins, Making Them
A Compact & Long Term Energy Reserve.

25. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
STRUCTURAL COMPONENT:
•Lipids Are Essential Components Of Cell Membranes,
Providing Structural Integrity & Regulating Movement
Of Substances In & Out Of Cells.
•Phospholipids, The Main Constituents Of Cell
Membranes, Form A Lipid Bilayer, Creating A
Selectively Permeable Barrier.

26. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
INSULATION & THERMAL REGULATION:
•Lipids, Particularly Adipose Tissue, Serve As Insulation
Against Heat Loss & Provide Protection To Vital
Organs In The Body.
•Subcutaneous Fat Acts As An Insulating Layer
Beneath The Skin, Helping To Maintain Body
Temperature & Protect Against Cold Temperatures.

27. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
PROTECTION & CUSHIONING:
•Lipids Cushion & Protect Vital Organs In The Body By
Surrounding Them With Adipose Tissue.
•This Adipose Padding Helps To Prevent Mechanical
Damage & Provides Shock Absorption.
•E.g. Adipose Tissue Surrounding The Kidneys, Heart &
Eyes Protects These Organs From Physical Trauma.

28. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
HORMONE SYNTHESIS:
•Lipids Play A Crucial Role In The Synthesis Of Steroid
Hormones, Including Cortisol, Aldosterone, Oestrogen,
Progesterone & Testosterone.
•Steroid Hormones Are Derived From Cholesterol &
Regulate Various Physiological Processes Such As
Metabolism, Growth, Development & Reproduction.

29. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
CELL SIGNALING:
•Lipids Serve As Signalling Molecules That Mediate
Cellular Communication & Regulate Physiological
Processes.
•Lipid Derived Signalling Molecules, Such As
Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes & Sphingolipids, Act As
Hormones, Neurotransmitters & Modulators Of
Inflammation, Immune Responses & Cell Growth.

30. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
ABSORPTION OF FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS:
•Lipids Aid In The Absorption & Transport Of Fat
Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E & K) In The Body.
•Dietary Fats Facilitate The Absorption Of These
Vitamins From The Digestive Tract & Their Delivery To
Various Tissues Where They Perform Essential
Functions In Vision, Bone Health, Antioxidant Defence
& Blood Clotting.

31. PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF LIPIDS
WATER REPELLENCY & WATERPROOFING:
•Lipids With Hydrophobic Properties, Such As Waxes &
Oils, Provide Waterproofing & Protection To The Skin,
Fur, Feathers & Outer Surfaces Of Plants.
•Waxes Form A Protective Coating On Leaves, Fruits &
Insect Exoskeletons, Reducing Water Loss & Providing
Defence Against Pathogens & Environmental Stressors.

32. NUCLEIC ACIDS
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS

33. ✓Nucleic Acids Are Macromolecules
Found In All Living Organisms,
Including DNA (Deoxyribonucleic
Acid) & RNA (Ribonucleic Acid).
✓They Are Composed Of Nucleotide
Monomers, Which Consist Of A
Phosphate Group, A Sugar
Molecule (Deoxyribose In DNA &
Ribose In RNA), & A Nitrogenous
Base.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

34. GENETIC INFORMATION STORAGE:
•Nucleic Acids, Particularly DNA, Serve As The Primary
Storage Molecule For Genetic Information In Cells.
•The Sequence Of Nucleotide Bases Along The DNA
Molecule Contains The Instructions For Building &
Maintaining An Organism.
•The Specific Sequence Of Bases Encodes The
Information Necessary For Protein Synthesis, Cell
Function & Inheritance Of Traits From One Generation
To The Next.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

35. TRANSMISSION OF GENETIC INFORMATION :
•During Cell Division, DNA Is Replicated To Ensure That
Each Daughter Cell Receives An Identical Copy Of The
Genetic Information.
•This Process Allows For The Transmission Of Genetic
Traits From Parent To Offspring & The Maintenance Of
Genetic Continuity Within Populations.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

36. GENE EXPRESSION:
•Nucleic Acids Play A Central Role In The Process Of
Gene Expression, Whereby The Information Encoded In
DNA Is Transcribed Into RNA & Then Translated Into
Proteins.
•RNA Molecules, Including Messenger RNA (mRNA),
Transfer RNA (tRNA) & Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Are
Involved In Various Steps Of Protein Synthesis, Including
Transcription, Translation & Protein Assembly.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

37. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
•mRNA Carries The Genetic Code From DNA To The
Ribosomes, Where It Serves As A Template For Protein
Synthesis. The Sequence Of Nucleotides In mRNA Determines
The Order Of Amino Acids In A Protein.
•tRNA Molecules Bind To Specific Amino Acids & Transport
Them To The Ribosome, Where They Are Assembled Into A
Polypeptide Chain According To The mRNA Template.
•rRNA, Along With Proteins, Forms The Structural & Catalytic
Core Of Ribosomes Responsible For Protein Synthesis.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

38. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION:
•Nucleic Acids, Particularly RNA Molecules, Participate
In The Regulation Of Gene Expression By Controlling
The Timing, Location & Level Of Protein Production In
Cells.
•Various Mechanisms, Including Transcriptional
Regulation, Post-Transcriptional Modification & RNA
Interference, Modulate The Activity Of Genes & Ensure
Appropriate Responses To Internal & External Stimuli.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

39. INFORMATION TRANSFER IN VIRUSES:
•In Viruses, Nucleic Acids (Either DNA Or RNA) Contain
The Genetic Information Necessary For Viral
Replication & Propagation.
•Viral Nucleic Acids Hijack Host Cellular Machinery To
Replicate & Produce Viral Progeny.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

40. IMPORTANCE OF
VITAMINS

41. ✓Vitamins Are Essential Organic Compounds That Body
Requires In Small Amounts To Maintain Health &
Sustain Various Physiological Functions.
✓They Play Critical Roles In Metabolism, Growth,
Development, Immune Function & Overall Well-being.
IMPORTANCE OF VITAMINS

42. ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS:
•Vitamins Are Considered Essential Nutrients Because
They Cannot Be Synthesized In Sufficient Quantities By
The Body & Must Be Obtained From The Diet.
•There Are 13 Essential Vitamins Classified Into 2
Groups:
▪Fat-Soluble Vitamins (A, D, E & K)
▪Water-Soluble Vitamins (B-Complex Vitamins &
Vitamin C).
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

43. COFACTORS FOR ENZYMES:
•Many Vitamins Serve As Cofactors Or Coenzymes For
Enzymes Involved In Various Metabolic Pathways.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

44. ANTIOXIDANT ACTIVITY:
•Some Vitamins, Such As Vitamins C & E, Have
Antioxidant Properties, Meaning They Can Neutralize
Harmful Free Radicals & Reduce Oxidative Damage To
Cells & Tissues.
•Antioxidant Vitamins Help Protect Against Oxidative
Stress, Inflammation & Age Related Diseases By
Scavenging Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) &
Preventing Oxidative Damage To DNA, Proteins &
Lipids.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

45. CELLULAR FUNCTION & STRUCTURE :
•Certain Vitamins Are Essential For Maintaining The
Structure & Function Of Cells, Tissues & Organs.
•E.g. Vitamin A Is Necessary For Vision, Immune
Function & Skin Health; Vitamin D Is Important For
Calcium Absorption & Bone Health; & Vitamin K Is
Required For Blood Clotting & Bone Metabolism.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

46. REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION :
•Vitamins Can Modulate Gene Expression By
Influencing The Activity Of Transcription Factors,
Enzymes & Signalling Pathways.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

47. IMMUNE FUNCTION :
•Several Vitamins Play Key Roles In Supporting Immune
Function & Defence Against Infections.
•Vitamin C Enhances The Function Of Immune Cells,
Such As T-cells & Phagocytes & Promotes The
Production Of Antibodies; Vitamin D Modulates
Immune Responses & Reduces Inflammation; &
Vitamin E Supports Antioxidant Defence Mechanisms.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

48. COLLAGEN SYNTHESIS :
•Vitamin C Is Essential For The Synthesis Of Collagen, A
Structural Protein That Provides Strength & Elasticity
To Connective Tissues, Skin, Bones & Blood Vessels.
•Deficiency Of Vitamin C Leads To Impaired Collagen
Synthesis, Resulting In Weakened Blood Vessels, Poor
Wound Healing & Scurvy.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

49. NEUROTRANSMITTER SYNTHESIS :
•B-Complex Vitamins, Including Thiamine (B1),
Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Pyridoxine (B6) &
Cobalamin (B12), Are Involved In The Synthesis Of
Neurotransmitters & The Maintenance Of Nervous
System Function.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF VITAMINS

50. IMPORTANCE OF
HORMONES

51. IMPORTANCE OF HORMONES
✓Hormones Are Signalling Molecules Produced By
Glands Or Cells In The Endocrine System That
Regulate Various Physiological Processes & Maintain
Homeostasis Within The Body.
✓They Are Released Into The Bloodstream & Act On
Target Cells Or Tissues, Exerting Specific Effects
Through Binding To Hormone Receptors.

52. CHEMICAL MESSENGERS:
•Hormones Are Chemical Messengers That Transmit
Signals Between Cells & Organs, Coordinating &
Regulating Diverse Physiological Functions.
•They Are Produced In Specialized Endocrine Glands,
Such As The Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Adrenal
Glands, Pancreas & Gonads, As Well As In Various
Tissues & Organs.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

53. REGULATION OF METABOLISM:
•Hormones Play Essential Roles In Regulating
Metabolism, The Process By Which The Body Converts
Nutrients Into Energy & Builds & Repairs Tissues.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

54. CONTROL OF GROWTH & DEVELOPMENT:
•Hormones Are Critical For Growth, Development &
Maturation Processes Throughout Life, From
Embryonic Development To Adulthood.
•Growth Hormone, Secreted By The Pituitary Gland,
Stimulates Growth & Cell Proliferation, Particularly
During Childhood & Adolescence.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

55. REPRODUCTION & SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT:
•Hormones Play Key Roles In Regulating Reproductive
Processes & Sexual Development, Including
Gametogenesis (Sperm & Egg Production), Puberty &
Fertility.
•Gonadal Hormones Such As Estrogen, Progesterone &
Testosterone Influence The Development Of Secondary
Sexual Characteristics, Reproductive Function &
Sexual Behaviour.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

56. STRESS RESPONSE:
•Hormones Are Involved In The Body’s Response To
Stressors, Whether Physical, Psychological Or
Environmental.
•The Adrenal Glands Release Hormones Such As Cortisol
& Adrenaline In Response To Stress, Activating The
Fight-or-Flight Response & Mobilizing Energy Reserves
To Cope With The Stressor.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

57. HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION:
•Hormones Help Maintain Homeostasis; Internal
Balance Of The Body’s Physiological Processes, By
Regulating Variables Such As Blood Glucose Levels,
Electrolyte Balance, Blood Pressure & Body
Temperature.
•E.g. Thyroid Hormones Influence Metabolic Rate &
Body Temperature, While Aldosterone Regulates Sodium
& Potassium Levels In The Blood & Extracellular Fluid.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

58. IMMUNE FUNCTION:
•Some Hormones, Such As Cytokines & Thymosin, Play
Roles In Regulating Immune Responses &
Inflammation, Contributing To The Body’s Defence
Against Pathogens & Foreign Invaders.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

59. BEHAVIORAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS:
•Hormones Influence Mood, Emotions, Behaviour &
Cognitive Functions, Contributing To Psychological
Well-Being & Mental Health.
•E.g. Neurotransmitters & Neuropeptides Act As
Hormones Within The Nervous System, Regulating
Mood, Appetite, Sleep & Stress Responses.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF HORMONES

60. IMPORTANCE OF
ENZYMES

61. IMPORTANCE OF ENZYMES
✓Enzymes Are Specialized Proteins That Catalyse
Biochemical Reactions By Increasing The Rate Of
Reaction Without Being Consumed In The Process.
✓They Play Essential Roles In Nearly All Biological
Processes & Are Known As Nature’s Catalysts.

62. CATALYTIC ACTIVITY:
•Enzymes Accelerate Chemical Reactions By Lowering
The Activation Energy Required For The Reaction To
Occur.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

63. SPECIFICITY:
•Enzymes Exhibit High Specificity For Their Substrates,
Recognizing & Binding To Specific Molecules Based On
Complementary Shapes & Chemical Properties.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

64. SUBSTRATE BINDING & CATALYSIS:
•Enzyme-Substrate Interactions Occur Through A Lock-
and-Key Or Induced-Fit Mechanism, Where The
Enzyme Undergoes Conformational Changes Upon
Substrate Binding To Enhance Catalytic Activity.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

65. REGULATION:
•Enzyme Activity Is Tightly Regulated To Maintain
Cellular Homeostasis & Respond To Changes In The
Internal & External Environment.
•Regulation Can Occur Through Various Mechanisms,
Including Allosteric Regulation, Covalent Modification
& Feedback Inhibition.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

66. P
H
& TEMPERATURE SENSITIVITY:
•Enzyme Activity Is Influenced By Factors Such As P
H
&
Temperature. Each Enzyme Has An Optimal P
H
&
Temperature Range At Which It Exhibits Maximum
Activity.
•Deviations From The Optimal P
H
Or Temperature Can
Denature The Enzyme, Altering Its Structure &
Impairing Its Catalytic Function.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

67. COENZYMES & COFACTORS:
•Many Enzymes Require Non-Protein Molecules Called
Coenzymes Or Cofactors To Function Properly.
•Coenzymes Are Organic Molecules Derived From
Vitamins, While Cofactors Can Be Inorganic Ions Or
Small Organic Molecules.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

68. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE:
•Enzymes Are Indispensable For Numerous Biological
Processes, Including Metabolism, DNA Replication,
Protein Synthesis, Signal Transduction & Cellular
Regulation.
•They Contribute To The Efficient Utilization Of
Nutrients, The Conversion Of Energy, The Synthesis &
Breakdown Of Biomolecules & The Maintenance Of
Cellular Homeostasis.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

69. INDUSTRIAL & BIOTECHNOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS :
•Enzymes Have Widespread Applications In Various
Industries, Including Food & Beverage Production,
Pharmaceuticals, Textiles & Bioremediation.
•Enzymes Are Used As Catalysts In Industrial Processes
To Enhance Efficiency, Reduce Energy Consumption &
Minimize Environmental Impact.
PROPERTIES & FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

70. Any Query?