2011 ch 5

Discussion in this chapter focuses on consciousness and altered states of consciousness. We look at sleep and dreaming, hypnosis, meditation, and the effects of illicit drugs.

2. Chapter 5:Chapter 5:
States of States of
ConsciousnessConsciousness

3. What is What is
Consciousness?Consciousness?
Awareness of internal or external events or statesAwareness of internal or external events or states
More than a simple state of awareness.More than a simple state of awareness.
Difficult to define.Difficult to define.
•Processes involved in ConsciousnessProcesses involved in Consciousness
1. Attention1. Attention
2. Intentionality2. Intentionality
3. Subjectivity3. Subjectivity
4. Perception4. Perception
5. Learning & Memory5. Learning & Memory
6. Emotions6. Emotions
7. Associations7. Associations
8. Awareness8. Awareness
9. Arousal of the Nervous System9. Arousal of the Nervous System

4. The Brain’s JobThe Brain’s Job
Consciousness is a Consciousness is a
process going on process going on
in the brain.in the brain.
Most of the Most of the
brain’s functioning brain’s functioning
is for survival.is for survival.
Very little of the functioning of the Very little of the functioning of the
brain is devoted to consciousness.brain is devoted to consciousness.

5. Altered States of ConsciousnessAltered States of Consciousness
A Fundamental &
Qualitative Shift in Mental
Functioning which brings
about a Distinctly Different
Organizational Pattern of
Subjective Experience
Awareness is constantly shifting
•Altered States
Drugs, alcohol, sleep, daydreaming,
hypnosis, meditation, etc.
Daydreaming & fantasy
Not sure of the value.
There is an escape value.
The problem occurs when daydreaming
takes over your life.

6. Sleep DeprivationSleep Deprivation
Problems encounteredProblems encountered
30% - 50% of students fall asleep in
class at least 1 time a week.
Losing 1-2 hours of sleep each night
produces attention problems, slows
reaction time, produces unpredictable
behavior, judgmental errors, & lowers
productivity & decision-making ability.
Can lead to a psychosis.
•How do you know if How do you know if
you’re getting enough you’re getting enough
sleep?sleep?
Being put in a darkened room & you
immediately fall asleep is the main
symptom of chronic sleep loss.
You can reduce sleep loss by taking
short naps during the day.

7. Sleep PatternsSleep Patterns
REM sleep is called REM sleep is called
“Paradoxical Sleep”“Paradoxical Sleep”
Brain activity, heart rate, & blood Brain activity, heart rate, & blood
pressure resemble being awake.pressure resemble being awake.
85% relationship between REM & 85% relationship between REM &
dreams.dreams.
•Cycling through the Cycling through the
stagesstages
Stage 1 is light sleep with slow Stage 1 is light sleep with slow
brain waves.brain waves.
Stages 2 & 3 are more relaxed with Stages 2 & 3 are more relaxed with
slower brain waves and no dreams.slower brain waves and no dreams.
Stage 4 is deep sleep.Stage 4 is deep sleep.

8. Dual Process Hypothesis of SleepDual Process Hypothesis of Sleep
•Two kinds of sleepTwo kinds of sleep
–Non-REM (NREM) SleepNon-REM (NREM) Sleep
•Occurs during stages 1, 2, 3, and 4
–Rapid Eye Movement (REM):Rapid Eye Movement (REM):
•EEG patterns resemble those waking
•Associated with dreaming
•Body is very still during REM sleep
–Cycle between both while sleepingCycle between both while sleeping

9. Dual Process Dual Process
Hypothesis of SleepHypothesis of Sleep
•REM sleep and REM sleep and
dreamingdreaming
–People awakened during People awakened during
REM report dreaming 85% of REM report dreaming 85% of
time.time.
–Dreams during REM have a Dreams during REM have a
more “dream-like” quality more “dream-like” quality
than those of NREMthan those of NREM
–Imagery and Emotion brain Imagery and Emotion brain
centers become more active centers become more active
than in NREM dreamsthan in NREM dreams
–Physical arousal occurs Physical arousal occurs
during dreamingduring dreaming
–Body is stillBody is still

10. Sleep Disturbances:
Insomnia
•Difficulty in getting to sleep or Difficulty in getting to sleep or
staying asleep, or waking earlystaying asleep, or waking early
•Temporary insomniaTemporary insomnia
–Brief period of sleeplessnessBrief period of sleeplessness
–Caused by worry, stress, and Caused by worry, stress, and
excitement.excitement.
–Creates cycle of frustration Creates cycle of frustration
–Avoid fighting it; EX: Read a Avoid fighting it; EX: Read a
book until you’re struggling book until you’re struggling
to stay awake.to stay awake.
•Chronic insomniaChronic insomnia
–Insomnia lasting more than Insomnia lasting more than
three weeksthree weeks

11. Sleep Disturbances: Sleep Disturbances:
InsomniaInsomnia
•B ehavioral R emedies for B ehavioral R emedies for
I nsomniaI nsomnia
–Stimulus controlStimulus control
–Sleep restrictionSleep restriction
–Paradoxical intentionParadoxical intention
–RelaxationRelaxation
–ExerciseExercise
–Controlling food Controlling food
intakeintake
–Avoiding stimulantsAvoiding stimulants

12. Sleep Disturbances:
Sleepwalking, Sleeptalking, & Sleepsex
•S le e pw a lking
(S omna mbulis m)
:
–Walking or wandering while
asleep
–Occurs in NREM sleep
during Stages 3 and 4
•S le e pta lking :
–Speaking while asleep
–Occurs in NREM sleep
•S le e ps e x
–Sexsomnia

13. Sleep Disturbances:Sleep Disturbances:
Nightmares & Night TerrorsNightmares & Night Terrors
•NightmareNightmare
–Bad dreams Bad dreams
–Occur during REM sleep Occur during REM sleep
–Imagery rehearsal may Imagery rehearsal may
help eliminate nightmareshelp eliminate nightmares
•Night TerrorNight Terror
–Total panic attack; Total panic attack;
hallucination of frightening hallucination of frightening
imagesimages
–Occur during NREM (Stage Occur during NREM (Stage
4)4)
–Little of episode is Little of episode is
remembered upon wakingremembered upon waking

14. S leep D isturbances: S leep A pneaS leep D isturbances: S leep A pnea
•Interrupted breathing Interrupted breathing
during sleepduring sleep
–Breathing stops 20 Breathing stops 20
seconds – 2 minutesseconds – 2 minutes
–Symptoms:Symptoms:
•Gasping or snortingGasping or snorting
•Snoring loudly Snoring loudly
•Gulping airGulping air
–Breathing may stop and Breathing may stop and
start hundreds of times start hundreds of times
per nightper night

15. Sleep Disturbances: Sleep Apnea
•Caused by
–Disruption of signals
from brain to
diaphragm
–Blockage of nasal
passages
•Apnea can be
treated by
–Surgery
–Weight loss
–Breathing mask

16. S leep D isturbances: S leep A pnea
•Sudden Infant Death
Syndrome (SIDS)
–Also known as Crib Death
–Sudden, unexplained death
of healthy infant
–SIDS babies have a weak
arousal reflex;
•Prevents them from
changing positions
and resuming
breathing after an
apnea episode
•Back sleeping is best
position

17. Dreams
•Most people dream 4-5 times per
night
•Dreams are spaced approximately
90 minutes apart
•First dream is about 10 minutes;
last is about 30 minutes
•REM Rebound
–Extra rapid eye movement sleep following
REM sleep deprivation

18. Theories of DreamsTheories of Dreams
FreudFreud
Dreams represent unfulfilled wishes &
reflect manifest & latent motives.
They are expressions of primitive,
amoral desires.
•JungJung
Dreams are one way that the
unconscious expresses itself.
In dreams, this expression is
archetypal and analogical.
They can give you guidance toward
individuation.
What is the difference in how
Freud and Jung would interpret
this dream symbol ?

19. Theories of DreamsTheories of Dreams
Activation-Activation-
Synthesis TheorySynthesis Theory
Dreams are the by-products of the Dreams are the by-products of the
mind’s attempt to make sense of mind’s attempt to make sense of
the spontaneous changes in the the spontaneous changes in the
physiological activity generated by physiological activity generated by
the pons during REM sleep.the pons during REM sleep.
The cerebral cortex is trying to The cerebral cortex is trying to
make sense out of the random make sense out of the random
electrical discharges coming from electrical discharges coming from
the brain stem during REM sleep.the brain stem during REM sleep.

20. Theories of Dreams
Neurocognitive Neurocognitive
(Information (Information
Processing)TheoryProcessing)Theory
Dreams are a “time-out” to decide Dreams are a “time-out” to decide
which information dealt with during which information dealt with during
the day should be filed in LTM.the day should be filed in LTM.
Support comes from brain scans & Support comes from brain scans &
through interfering with REM sleep.through interfering with REM sleep.
Disrupting REM sleep disrupts the Disrupting REM sleep disrupts the
memory & newly learned material.memory & newly learned material.
Scans show that specific areas active Scans show that specific areas active
during learning are also active during during learning are also active during
dreams.dreams.

21. Theories of Dreams
Emotional Emotional
Processing Processing
TheoryTheory
Dreams integrate emotionally Dreams integrate emotionally
significant material into significant material into
previous experiences.previous experiences.
We work through emotional We work through emotional
problems during dreaming.problems during dreaming.
Dreams are an extension of Dreams are an extension of
our waking life & deal with our waking life & deal with
conscious concerns.conscious concerns.
The limbic system is highly The limbic system is highly
active during dreaming.active during dreaming.
Comparing Dream Comparing Dream
TheoriesTheories

22. HypnosisHypnosis
What is hypnosis?
An altered state of An altered state of
consciousness with consciousness with
heightened heightened
suggestibility.suggestibility.
Mesmer & animal Mesmer & animal
magnetism.magnetism.
It is NOT a state of sleep.It is NOT a state of sleep.
The EEG pattern is the same The EEG pattern is the same
as being awake.as being awake.
The body is relaxed & the The body is relaxed & the
mind is alert.mind is alert.

23. Hypnosis: TheoriesHypnosis: Theories
•State Theory State Theory
(Hilgard)(Hilgard)
–Hypnosis causes Hypnosis causes
dissociative state or dissociative state or
“split” in awareness“split” in awareness
•One part that acts as if it is One part that acts as if it is
unaware of eventsunaware of events
•Hidden observerHidden observer
–Detached part of Detached part of
hypnotized person’s hypnotized person’s
awareness that awareness that
silently observes silently observes
eventsevents

24. H ypnosis: Theories
•Nonstate Theorists
–Hypnosis is a blend of
conformity, relaxation,
imagination,
obedience, and role-
playing
–Suggestions alter
sensation, perceptions,
thoughts, feelings,
behaviors

25. Hypnotic Induction Hypnotic Induction
ProceduresProcedures
Authoritaria
n
The hypnotist orders the hypnosis.The hypnotist orders the hypnosis.
Personality variables are important Personality variables are important
here.here.
•Permissive
Hypnotist lets the subject do what Hypnotist lets the subject do what
s/he wants to do.s/he wants to do.
Wording is very important because Wording is very important because
the subject takes what is said the subject takes what is said
literally.literally.

26. Misconceptions about HypnosisMisconceptions about Hypnosis
You can be made to do You can be made to do
anything the hypnotist anything the hypnotist
wants.wants.
You’re totally You’re totally
unconscious.unconscious.
You’ll fall over because You’ll fall over because
you’re so relaxed.you’re so relaxed.
You have to be in a You have to be in a
really deep state for really deep state for
suggestion to work.suggestion to work.
You can be made to go You can be made to go
as deep as the as deep as the
hypnotist wants.hypnotist wants.
The hypnotist is in The hypnotist is in
control of you.control of you.
You can be made to You can be made to
act like a chicken.act like a chicken.
If you’re left alone in If you’re left alone in
hypnosis, you’ll be hypnosis, you’ll be
stuck there for the stuck there for the
rest of your life.rest of your life.
The hypnotist basically The hypnotist basically
bores you into bores you into
hypnosis.hypnosis.
People who aren’t very People who aren’t very
bright make the best bright make the best
subject.subject.

27. MeditationMeditation
•Mental exercise designed to produce Mental exercise designed to produce
relaxation or heightened awarenessrelaxation or heightened awareness
•Focuses attentionFocuses attention
•Interrupts typical flow of thoughts, Interrupts typical flow of thoughts,
worries, and analysisworries, and analysis
•Daily use of meditation report less Daily use of meditation report less
physical tension and anxietyphysical tension and anxiety

28. MeditationMeditation
What is
meditation?
Directed Directed
concentrationconcentration
It’s focusing the mind It’s focusing the mind
around a single around a single
thought, object, or thought, object, or
activity producing a activity producing a
state of deep state of deep
peacefulness combined peacefulness combined
with a heightened with a heightened
sense of awareness.sense of awareness.

29. Basic Meditation ProceduresBasic Meditation Procedures
Structured Structured
MeditationsMeditations
Carefully defined in all Carefully defined in all
its inner activities & its inner activities &
what you’re working what you’re working
toward.toward.
Lotus Meditation & Lotus Meditation &
Breath Counting are Breath Counting are
examples.examples.
Unstructured Unstructured
MeditationsMeditations
There are different There are different
purposes in these purposes in these
meditations.meditations.
You must think about a You must think about a
subject & stay with it & subject & stay with it &
your feelings about it. your feelings about it.
The purpose is to The purpose is to
loosen & free your loosen & free your
personality structure in personality structure in
a particular area for a particular area for
growth in that area.growth in that area.

30. Types of MeditationsTypes of Meditations
Path through the Path through the
IntellectIntellect
You must first reach an intellectual You must first reach an intellectual
understanding of the Physical & understanding of the Physical &
Metaphysical Realities & the ways Metaphysical Realities & the ways
these Realities perceive & relate to these Realities perceive & relate to
the world.the world.
Then, through a series of Then, through a series of
meditations, this understanding is meditations, this understanding is
deepened & your personality deepened & your personality
structure is strengthened.structure is strengthened.
Jnana Yoga & Chabad Chasidism

31. Types of MeditationsTypes of Meditations
Path through the Path through the
EmotionsEmotions
The most widely used.The most widely used.
Structured meditations loosen your Structured meditations loosen your
feelings & expand your ability to feelings & expand your ability to
relate to others, to care, & to love.relate to others, to care, & to love.
The basic theory: the more free, The basic theory: the more free,
untroubled, & complete you are, untroubled, & complete you are,
the more you have overcome the the more you have overcome the
cultural processes that stunt growth cultural processes that stunt growth
& the better able you are in & the better able you are in
relating to others.relating to others.
You eventually learn there is no You eventually learn there is no
separation between yourself and separation between yourself and
the rest of the universe.the rest of the universe.
Christian Monasticism & Bhakti
Yoga

32. Types of MeditationsTypes of Meditations
The Path through The Path through
the Bodythe Body
You become aware of your body & You become aware of your body &
bodily movements & heighten this bodily movements & heighten this
awareness through practice until awareness through practice until
during the period of meditation, during the period of meditation,
this awareness completely fills your this awareness completely fills your
field of consciousness excluding all field of consciousness excluding all
else.else.
Hatha Yoga, T’ai Ch’i, & the Hatha Yoga, T’ai Ch’i, & the
Dervish dances of the SufiDervish dances of the Sufi

33. Types of MeditationsTypes of Meditations
The Path of ActionThe Path of Action
You learn how to “be” & to
perceive & to relate to the world
during the performance of a
particular type of skill.
The long, hard practices of the
discipline strengthens the
personality.
The concentration is on the
performance & nothing else.
The real goal is your growth as a
person.
Zen Archery, Aikido, Karate, &
Kung fu

35. The The PPlleeaassuurree Circuit Circuit

36. The DepressantsThe Depressants
AlcoholAlcohol
# 1 Drug problem in the U.S.
Binge drinking on campus is a
“tradition”.
Heavy, chronic use harms every
organ in the body.
The leading cause of liver & kidney
disease.
Leads to cardiovascular disease
and sexual dysfunction.
Destroys neurons and can lead to
Korsakoff’s Syndrome.
There are social problems
associated with use.
A complex syndrome combining
social, personal, psychological and
genetic mechanisms.

37. SPECT Scan of the Brain

38. The DepressantsThe Depressants
BarbituratesBarbiturates
“Downers” “Sleeping Pills”
General effects are similar to
alcohol.
Causes dependence.
•OpiatesOpiates
Chemically, they resemble the
endorphins.
Regular use leads to tolerance
& can create physical
dependence.
Withdrawals include severe
cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, &
convulsive kicking.

39. SPECT Scan of the Brain

40. The StimulantsThe Stimulants
CaffeineCaffeine
It is natural in coffee, tea, & cocoa, It is natural in coffee, tea, & cocoa,
& used in many beverages & OTC & used in many beverages & OTC
medications.medications.
Maintains wakefulness & alertness Maintains wakefulness & alertness
but its effects are illusory.but its effects are illusory.
It interferes with many prescribed It interferes with many prescribed
medications & aggravates side medications & aggravates side
effects of many psychiatric drugs.effects of many psychiatric drugs.

41. The StimulantsThe Stimulants
NicotineNicotine
TheThe most dangerousmost dangerous & addictive& addictive
drugdrug in use.in use.
4 ½ times4 ½ times more addictingmore addicting than than
heroin.heroin.
Chemical properties similar toChemical properties similar to
cocaine, amphetamines, & cocaine, amphetamines, &
morphinemorphine..
Affects the neurotransmitters Affects the neurotransmitters
norepinephrine, dopamine, norepinephrine, dopamine,
epinephrine & serotonin.epinephrine & serotonin.
Withdrawals can continue for Withdrawals can continue for
weeks & cravings can occur for weeks & cravings can occur for
months & years.months & years.

42. SPECT Scan of the Brain

43. The StimulantsThe Stimulants
AmphetaminesAmphetamines
“Uppers”
Resemble epinephrine.
Relieves fatigue (“pep pill”).
Suppresses the appetite.
Increases alertness & gives
feelings of competence & well-
being.
“Crash” produces exhaustion &
depression.
They are habit forming.
High doses produce personality
change, paranoia, homicidal &
suicidal thoughts, & violent
behavior.
Amphetamine psychosis
resembles paranoid
schizophrenia.

44. The StimulantsThe Stimulants
•Methamphetamine is a Methamphetamine is a
powerful form of powerful form of
amphetamine.amphetamine.
•Short-term recreational Short-term recreational
use of methamphetamine use of methamphetamine
destroys dopamine destroys dopamine
receptors in the brain.receptors in the brain.
•High doses of High doses of
methamphetamine methamphetamine
damages axon terminals damages axon terminals
with dopamine & with dopamine &
serotonin neurons.serotonin neurons.

45. SPECT Scan of the Brain

46. The StimulantsThe Stimulants
•CocaineCocaine
Popular at the turn of the 20Popular at the turn of the 20
thth

century in many OTC drugs.century in many OTC drugs.
Was cheap & became expensive in Was cheap & became expensive in
the 1970s.the 1970s.
Blocks the reabsorption of Blocks the reabsorption of
dopamine making the high longer dopamine making the high longer
& more intense.& more intense.

47. SPECT Scan of the Brain

48. PPssyycchheeddeelliiccss
LSD, psilocybin, LSD, psilocybin,
mescaline, peyote, mescaline, peyote,
& PCP& PCP
Causes shifts in perception.
Used by shamans in natural forms.
LSD was synthesized in 1943 from
psilocybin.
Predrug personality is important as
to the outcome.
There are no withdrawals, but a
tolerance is built up.

49. MarijuanaMarijuana
Generally classified Generally classified
as an hallucinogenas an hallucinogen
Most frequently used illegal drug
in the U.S. & 4
th
most popular with
students.
Slightly hallucinogenic.
Taken mainly for its relaxing
qualities.
Has physiological effects & does
damage to the respiratory &
cardiovascular system.
It is 16 X more carcinogenic than
tobacco.

50. SPECT Scan of the Brain

51. EEccssttaassy y (MDMA)(MDMA)
Main Effects:
Inhibits serotonin reuptake thus
inducing release of serotonin &
induces release of dopamine
Early studies Early studies
indicated Ecstasy indicated Ecstasy
destroyed destroyed
dopamine dopamine
receptors.receptors.
Ecstasy actually affects
serotonin receptors.
Not known if the affect is
permanent.
•Studies RetractedStudies Retracted
Accidentally,
methamphetamine was injected
instead of MDMA.
Most of those who died while on
MDMA were also taking other
drugs.

52. Explaining Abuse & Explaining Abuse &
AddictionAddiction
3 Main Factors3 Main Factors
1. Biological Factors
Genetic predispositions
Inheritance of personality factors & the body’s ability to tolerate the drug.
2. Psychological Factors
Learning processes in the family (e.g. handling of stressful situations).
Expectations of feeling better.
Attitudes & beliefs about drugs, alcohol, etc.
3. Socio-culture Factors
The social & cultural setting itself.
The culture’s view of certain drugs.

53. SPECT Scan of the Brain