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1. THE CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES FTC 1

2. Basic Concepts: Definition of Child and Adolescent Learners Meaning and Principles of Human Growth and Development, Approaches on Human Development and Stages of Human Development Theories of Human Development TABLE OF CONTENTS TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION

3. TOPIC NO. 1 BASIC CONCEPTS: DEFINITION OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

4. Identify the different basic concepts in child and adolescent learners. Explain the basic concepts related to child and adolescent learners. Apply the concepts in real-life situations. OBJECTIVES

5. SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT How will I define child and adolescent?

6. According to UNESCO, UNICEF and WHO, a child is a person 18 years or younger unless national law defines a person to be an adult at earlier age. However, in their guideline when a person falls into the 10 to 19 age category they are referred to as an adolescent. WHAT IS THE MEANING OF "CHILD"?

7. : a young person especially between infancy and puberty. : a person not yet of the age of majority. : an unborn or recently born person -Merriam-Websters DEFINITION OF CHILD

8. WHAT IS ADOLESCENT? According to WHO, adolescence is a period of life with specific health and developmental needs and rights. It is also a time to develop knowledge and skills, learn to manage emotions and relationships, and acquire attributes and abilities that will be important for enjoying the adolescent years and assuming adult roles.

9. According to UNESCO, adolescence is a distinct tage that marks the transition between childhood and adulthood. The Swiss developmental psychologist Jean Piaget described adolescence as the period during which individuals' cognitive abilities fully mature. According to Piaget, the transition from late childhood to adolescence is marked by the attainment of formal operational thought, the hallmark of which is abstract reasoning. WHAT IS ADOLESCENT?

10. According to UNICEF, during adolescence (ages 10 - 19), girls and boys begin to interact with the world in ne ways - taking chances, learning skills and experiencing unfamiliar emotions. WHAT IS ADOLESCENT?

11. ARE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT THE SAME?

12. Growth and Development Growth is defined as the development of a person in weight, age, size, and habits. GROWTH On the other hand, development is defined as the process wherein a person's growth is visible in relation to the physical, environmental, and social factors. DEVELOPMENT Growth is a process that focuses on quantitative improvement. For instance, a child visibly grows in weight and height. GROWTH Development focuses on both qualitative and quantitative refinement. For instance, a child's IQ increases with the growing age. DEVELOPMENT

13. Growth and Development Growth can be considered as physical growth that is seen from one stage to another. GROWTH On the other hand, development is considered as a gradual change in skill-sets, behaviour, habits, etc. DEVELOPMENT Growth is an external process. GROWTH Development is an internal process. DEVELOPMENT

14. NATURE What are these? NURTURE

15. NATURE Nature vs Nuture Nature refers to all of the genes and hereditary factors that influence who we are—from our physical appearance to our personality characteristics Nurture refers to all the environmental variables that impact who we are, including our early childhood experiences, how we were raised, our social relationships, and our surrounding culture. Do genetic or environmental factors have a greater influence on your behavior? Do inherited traits or life experiences play a greater role in shaping your personality? NURTURE

16. nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development. Some philosophers such as Plato and Descartes suggested that certain things are inborn, or that they occur naturally regardless of environmental influences. Nativists take the position that all or most behaviors and characteristics are the results of inheritance. Other well-known thinkers such as John Locke believed in what is known as tabula rasa, which suggests that the mind begins as a blank slate. According to this notion, everything that we are and all of our knowledge is determined by our experience. Empiricists take the position that all or most behaviors and characteristics re The sult from learning. Behaviorism is a good example of a theory rooted in empiricism. The behaviorists believe that all actions and behaviors are the results of conditioning. Theorists such as John B. Watson believed that people could be trained to do and become anything, regardless of their genetic background.

17. Perfect pitch is the ability to detect the pitch of a musical tone without any reference. Researchers have found that this ability tends to run in families and believe that it might be tied to a single gene. However, they've also discovered that possessing the gene alone is not enough to develop this ability. Instead, musical training during early childhood is necessary to allow this inherited ability to manifest itself. EXAMPLE

18. Think about how children become adults. Is there a predictable pattern they follow regarding thought and language and social development? Do children go through gradual changes or are they abrupt changes?

19. The continuity view says that change is gradual. Children become more skillful in thinking, talking or acting much the same way as they get taller. CONTINUITY The discontinuity view sees development as more abrupt-a succession of changes that produce different behaviors in different age-specific life periods called stages. Biological changes provide the potential for these changes. DISCONTINUITY CONTINUITY VS. DISCONTINUITY

20. Stability implies personality traits present during infancy endure throughout the lifespan. In contrast, change theorists argue that personalities are modified by interactions with family, experiences at school, and acculturation. STABILITY VS CHANGE

21. TOPIC NO. 2 MEANING AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AND APPROACHES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

22. Objectives Define human development. Identify the principles of human development Differentiate the approaches on human development. Describe the stages of human development.

23. It refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the lifespan. WHAT IS HUMAN DEVELOPMENT?

24. PSYCHOSOCIAL Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social relationships. COGNITIVE Cognitive development involves learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. PHYSICAL Physical development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses, motor skills, and health and wellness. WHAT TYPES OF DEVELOPMENT ARE INVOLVED IN EACH OF THESE THREE DOMAINS, OR AREAS, OF LIFE?

25. Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that pediatricians consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing within normative ranges of physical development. We may also be aware of changes in children’s fine and gross motor skills, as well as their increasing coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. But we may not realize that physical development also involves brain development, which not only enables childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between emotions and planning in adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in infancy or childhood. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important at every age and stage across the lifespan. PHYSICAL DOMAIN

26. If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder how they learn so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language development. Then as we compare young children to those in middle childhood, there appear to be huge differences in their ability to think logically about the concrete world around them. Cognitive development includes mental processes, thinking, learning, and understanding, and it doesn’t stop in childhood. Adolescents develop the ability to think logically about the abstract world (and may like to debate matters with adults as they exercise their new cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as does practical intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain development and the brain’s ability to change and compensate for losses is significant to cognitive functions across the lifespan, too. COGNITIVE DOMAIN

27. Development in this domain involves what’s going on both psychologically and socially. Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers, as temperament and attachment are significant. As the social world expands and the child grows psychologically, different types of play and interactions with other children and teachers become important. Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships. Peers become more important for adolescents, who are exploring new roles and forming their own identities. Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage, having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into adulthood. Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar (and some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting, romance, divorce, remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders, becoming grandparents and great grandparents, retirement, new careers, coping with losses, and death and dying. PSYCHOSOCIAL DOMAIN

28. PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

29. Development is Continuous Development is G radual Development is Sequential Rate of Development Varies Person to Person Development Proceeds from General to Specific Most Traits are Correlated in Development Growth and Development is a Product of Both Heredity and Environment Development is Predictable Development There is a Constant Interaction Between All Factors of Development

30. The process of growth and development continues from the conception till the individual reaches maturity. Development of both physical and mental traits continues gradually until these traits reach their maximum growth. It goes on continuously throughout life. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not end. DEVELOPMENT IS CONTINUOUS:

31. It does not come all on a sudden. It is also cumulative in nature. DEVELOPMENT IS GRADUAL:

32. Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or orderly. Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the same for all individuals. The child crawls before he creeps, stands before he walks and babbles before he talks. DEVELOPMENT IS SEQUENTIAL:

33. Rate of development is not uniform. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. There are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. RATE OF DEVELOPMENT VARIES PERSON TO PERSON:

34. Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activity always precedes specific activity. For example, the fetus moves its whole body but is incapable of making specific responses. With respect to emotional behaviour infants approach strange and unusual objects with some sort of general fear response. DEVELOPMENT PROCEEDS FROM GENERAL TO SPECIFIC:

35. Generally, it is seen that the child whose mental development is above average, is also superior in so many other aspects like health, sociability and special aptitudes. MOST TRAITS ARE CORRELATED IN DEVELOPMENT:

36. Development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Both are responsible for human growth and development. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IS A PRODUCT OF BOTH HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT:

37. The difference in physiological and psychological potentialities can ‘ be predicated by observation and psychological tests. DEVELOPMENT IS PREDICTABLE:

38. Development brings about both structural and functional changes. DEVELOPMENT:

39. Development in one area is highly related to development in other areas. For example, a child who has a good health can be active socially and intellectually. THERE IS A CONSTANT INTERACTION BETWEEN ALL FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT:

40. WHAT ARE THE APPROACHES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT? WHAT IS THEIR SIGNIFICANCE?

41. The traditional approach to the study of development emphasizes extensive change from birth to adolescence (especially during infancy), little or no change in adulthood, and decline in old age. - Suzanne has a son. She has watched him grow from infancy through childhood and now in adulthood. She has often said that he developed mostly in childhood as she hasn’t seen much change in him after that. Her beliefs are most consistent with what approach? Traditional approach. - It was commonly believed that people mainly develop in childhood, stay pretty much the same during adulthood, and then begin to “decline” in old age. This describes which theory of development? Traditional approach. TRADITIONAL APPROACH: Two Approaches on Human Development

42. Emphasizes developmental change throughout adulthood as well as childhood. - Matt is a good student that has taken Dr. Yarab’s Lifespan psychology class. He recognizes that although it is easiest to see that people develop a great deal physically in childhood, he also recognizes that we develop in many ways all throughout life. He has learned that the lifespan theory of development describes the way that development actually takes place. LIFE-SPAN APPROACH: Two Approaches on Human Development

43. Life-Span Perspective: The belief that development occurs throughout life is central to the life-span perspective. The life-span perspective should be thought of as lifelong, multidimensional, multidirectional, plastic, multidisciplinary, and contextual, and involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. LIFE-SPAN APPROACH: Two Approaches on Human Development

44. - Development is Lifelong - Development is Multidimensional. - Development is Multidirectional - Development is Plastic - Development is Multidisciplinary - Development is Contextual (1) normative age-graded influences; (2) normative history graded influences; and (3) non-normative life events. - Development involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation capacities LIFE-SPAN PERSPECTIVE

45. SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT Think about the lifespan and make a list of what you would consider the basic periods of development. How many periods or stages are on your list?

46. Perhaps you have three: childhood, adulthood, and old age. Or maybe four: infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Developmentalists often break the lifespan into eight stages:

47. Stages of Human Development PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD EARLY CHILDHOOD

48. Stages of Human Development MIDDLE CHILDHOOD ADOLESCENCE EARLY ADULTHOOD

49. Stages of Human Development MIDDLE ADULTHOOD LATE ADULTHOOD

50. Conception occurs and development begins. There are three stages of prenatal development: germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. All of the major structures of the body are forming and the health of the mother is of primary concern. There are various approaches to labor, delivery, and childbirth, with potential complications of pregnancy and delivery, as well as risks and complications with newborns, but also advances in tests, technology, and medicine. The influences of nature (e.g., genetics) and nurture (e.g., nutrition and teratogens, which are environmental factors during pregnancy that can lead to birth defects) are evident. Evolutionary psychology, along with studies of twins and adoptions, help us understand the interplay of factors and the relative influences of nature and nurture on human development. PRENATAL STAGE

51. The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with many involuntary reflexes and a keen sense of hearing but poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time. Caregivers similarly transform their roles from those who manage feeding and sleep schedules to constantly moving guides and safety inspectors for mobile, energetic children. Brain development happens at a remarkable rate, as does physical growth and language development. Infants have their own temperaments and approaches to play. Interactions with primary caregivers (and others) undergo changes influenced by possible separation anxiety and the development of attachment styles. Social and cultural issues center around breastfeeding or formula-feeding, sleeping in cribs or in the bed with parents, toilet training, and whether or not to get vaccinations. INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD

52. Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years, consisting of the years that follow toddlerhood and precede formal schooling, roughly from around ages 2 to 5 or 6. As a preschooler, the child is busy learning language (with amazing growth in vocabulary), is gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not come quickly, however, and preschoolers may initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space and distance, such as demonstrating how long something will take by holding out their two index fingers several inches apart. A toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing something that brings the disapproval of others. EARLY CHILDHOOD

53. The ages of 6-11 comprise middle childhood and much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others. Schools participate in this process by comparing students and making these comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. The brain reaches its adult size around age seven, but it continues to develop. Growth rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. Children also begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with friends and fellow students; same-sex friendships are particularly salient during this period. MIDDLE CHILDHOOD

54. Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty; timing may vary by gender, cohort, and culture. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted infections that can have lifelong consequences. Research on brain development helps us understand teen risk-taking and impulsive behavior. A major developmental task during adolescence involves establishing one’s own identity. Teens typically struggle to become more independent from their parents. Peers become more important, as teens strive for a sense of belonging and acceptance; mixed-sex peer groups become more common. New roles and responsibilities are explored, which may involve dating, driving, taking on a part-time job, and planning for future academics. ADOLESCENCE

55. Late teens, twenties, and thirties are often thought of as early adulthood. It is a time when we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into making choices that will help one earn the status of a full adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are the primary concerns at this stage of life. In recent decades, it has been noted that young adults are taking longer to “grow up.” They are waiting longer to move out of their parents’ homes, finish their formal education, take on work/careers, get married, and have children. One psychologist, Jeffrey Arnett, has proposed that there is a new stage of development after adolescence and before early adulthood, called “emerging adulthood,” from 18 to 25 (or even 29) when individuals are still exploring their identities and don’t quite feel like adults yet. Cohort, culture, time in history, the economy, and socioeconomic status may be key factors in when youth take on adult roles. EARLY ADULTHOOD

56. The late thirties (or age 40) through the mid-60s are referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in which physiological aging that began earlier becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. Referred to as the sandwich generation, middle-aged adults may be in the middle of taking care of their children and also taking care of their aging parents. While caring about others and the future, middle-aged adults may also be questioning their own mortality, goals, and commitments, though not necessarily experiencing a “mid-life crisis.” MIDDLE ADULTHOOD

57. This period of the lifespan, late adulthood, has increased in the last 100 years, particularly in industrialized countries, as average life expectancy has increased. Late adulthood covers a wide age range with a lot of variation, so it is helpful to divide it into categories such as the “young old” (65-74 years old), “old old” (75-84 years old), and “oldest old” (85+ years old). The young old are similar to middle-aged adults; possibly still working, married, relatively healthy, and active. The old old have some health problems and challenges with daily living activities; the oldest old are often frail and in need of long term care. However, many factors are involved and a better way to appreciate the diversity of older adults is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is experiencing optimal aging, normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and disease than others of the same age). LATE ADULTHOOD

58. TOPIC NO. 3 THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

59. Presentations are communication tools that can be demonstrations, lectures, speeches, reports, and more. Most of the time, they’re presented before an audience. Enumerate the theories of human development. Explain the different theories of human development. Apply the theories in real-life situations. OBJECTIVES

60. SOMETHING TO THINK ABOUT Describe your own development. In what ways have you changed over your lifetime? What characteristics have remained the same?

61. Jean Piaget developed his cognitive-development theory based on the idea that children actively construct knowledge as they explore and manipulate the world aroun them. The four stages of Piaget's theory of cognitive development correspond with the age of the child; they include the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages. COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY JEAN PIAGET

62. The sensorimotor stage occurs from birth to age 2. It is characterized by the idea that infants “think” by manipulating the world around them. This is done by using all five senses: seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, and smelling. Children figure out ways to elicit responses by “doing”, such as pulling a lever on a music box to hear a sound, placing a block in a bucket and pulling it back out, or throwing an object to see what happens. Between 5 and 8 months old, the child develops object permanence, which is the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists. For example, a child learns that even though his mother leaves the room, she has not ceased to exist; similarly, a ball does not disappear because a bucket is placed over it. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

63. By the end of this stage, children are able to engage in what Piaget termed deferred imitation. This involves the ability to reproduce or repeat a previously-witnessed action later on; rather than copying it right away, the child is able to produce a mental representation of it and repeat the behavior later on. By 24 months, infants are able to imitate behaviors after a delay of up to three months. SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

64. The preoperational stage occurs from age 2 to age 7. During this stage, children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play. A child’s arms might become airplane wings as she zooms around the room, or a child with a stick might become a brave knight with a sword. Language development and make-believe play begin during this stage. Logical thinking is still not present, so children cannot rationalize or understand more complex ideas. Children at this stage are very egocentric, meaning they focus on themselves and how actions will impact them, rather than others. They are not able to take on the perspective of others, and they think that everyone sees, thinks, and feels just like they do. PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

65. The concrete operational stage occurs from age 7 to age 11. It is characterized by the idea that children’s reasoning becomes focused and logical. Children demonstrate a logical understanding of conservation principles, the ability to recognize that key properties of a substance do not change even as their physical appearance may be altered. For example, a child who understands the principles of conservation will recognize that identical quantities of liquid will remain the same despite the size of the container in which they are poured. Children who do not yet grasp conservation and logical thinking will believe that the taller or larger glass must contain more liquid. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

66. Children begin to organize objects by classes and subclasses, and they can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction and multiplication is the opposite of division. They still think in very linear ways and can only conceptualize ideas that can be observed directly—they have not yet mastered abstract thinking. By the end of this stage, children will develop true mental operations and master the concepts of reversibility, transitivity, and assimilation. Reversibility is the idea that something can be changed back to its original state after it has been altered (for example, pouring water back and forth between two differently shaped glasses and still having the same amount of water). Transitivity is the concept of relation—for example, if A is related to B and B is related to C, then A must also be related to C. Finally, assimilation is the absorption of new ideas, information, or experiences into a person’s existing cognitive structure, or what they already know or understand of the world. Piaget determined that in this stage, children are able to incorporate inductive reasoning, which involves drawing inferences from observations in order to make a generalization. In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order to try to predict the outcome of an event. CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

67. The formal operational stage occurs from age 11 to adulthood. It is characterized by the idea that children develop the ability to think in abstract ways. This enables children to engage in the problem-solving method of developing a hypothesis and reasoning their way to plausible solutions. Children can think of abstract concepts and have the ability to combine various ideas to create new ones. By the end of this stage, children have developed logical and systematic thinking, are capable of deductive reasoning, and can create hypothetical ideas to explain various concepts. FORMAL OPERATIONAL

68. Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development based on Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ERIK ERIKSON

69. Trust vs. Mistrust From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of shame. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

70. I nitiative vs. Guilt Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt. Industry vs. Inferiority During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

71. Ide ntity vs. Role Confusion In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problemsand other people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults. Intimacy vs. Isolation People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

72. Ge nerativity vs. Stagnation Whe n people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing to the next generation, oft en through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-improvement. Integrity vs. Despair From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. desp air. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair. PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

73. Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD

74. Freud proposed that personality development in childhood takes place during five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. During each stage sexual energy (libido) is expressed in different ways and through different parts of the body. PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT SIGMUND FREUD

75. What are the impacts of theories on understanding human development? Why are theories of human development needed? How would you describe your development now base from the theories you have learned?