558410_Semantik. english education pptx

semantics

1. Sentence Semantic 2: Participants Hanin Robbi Rodhiyya Gigih Widi M Nada Dewi Ferianti Dian Indah Silfia

2. A. Introduction : Classifying Participants How to examine some of the semantic options through which speakers may characterize the entities involved in the situation. 2 The notion of thematic roles

3. 3 Gina raised the car with a jack . Entities Action Specific role : Gina is the entity responsible for initiating and carrying out the action The car is acted upon and has its position changed by the action the jack is the means by which Gina is able to cause the action

4. Thematic Roles AGENT the entity which is aware of the action or state described by the predicate but which is not in control of the action or state, e.g.: 1. Kevin felt ill. 2. Mary saw the smoke. 3. Lorcan heard the door shut. EXPERIENCER the entity undergoing the effect of some action, often undergoing some change in state, e.g. 1. Enda cut back these bushes . 2. The sun melted the ice . PATIENT the entity which is moved by an action, or whose location is described, e.g. 1. Roberto passed the ball wide. 2. The book is in the library. THEME the entity for whose benefit the action was performed, e.g. 1 . Robert filled in the form for his grandmother . 2 . They baked me a cake. BENEFICIARY 4 From the extensive literature we can extract a list of thematic roles like the following (where the relevant role bearing nominal is in bold) : the initiator of some action, capable of acting with volition, e.g. 1. David cooked the rashers. 2. The fox jumped out of the ditch.

5. INSTRUMENT the entity from which something moves, either literally as in 1or metaphorically as in 2: 1 . The plane came back from Kinshasa . 2 . We got the idea from a French magazine SOURCE the place in which something is situated or takes place, e.g. 1 . The monster was hiding under the bed . 2 . The band played in a marquee . LOCATION the entity toward which something moves , either literally as in 1 or metaphorically as in 2: 1 . Sheila handed her license to the policeman . 2 . Pat told the joke to his friends . GOAL the entity causing an effect (usually psychological) in the EXPERIENCER, e.g. 1 . John didn’t like the cool breeze. 2 . The noise frightened the passengers STIMULUS 5 the means by which an action is performed or something comes about, e.g. 1 . She cleaned the wound with an antiseptic wipe . 2 . They signed the treaty with the same pen .

6. Therefore from the first example we can see; 6 Gina raised the car with a jack . AGENT THEME INSTRUMENT

7. B . Gramatical Relation and Thematic Roles AGENTS Subjects PATIENTS and THEMES Direct Objects INSTRUMENTS Prepositional phrases 7 Ursula broke the ice with a pickaxe Agent Patient Instrument

8. 2 basic situation Where the speaker choose to alter the usual matching between roles and grammatical relations ( Ex:The book is in the library) A. where roles are simply omitted , and the grammatical relations shift to react to this. B 8

9. Ex : a. Ursula broke the ice with a pickaxe Agent Patient Instrument b. The pickaxe broke the ice Instrument c. The ice broke Patient

10. Universal Subject Hierarchy The leftmost elements are the preferred, most basic and expected subjects, while moving rightward along the string guves us less expected subject Going from right to left: if a language allows the location role to be subject, we expect that it allows those roles to the left. 10 Agent> Recipient/Beneficiary> Theme/Patient> Instrument> Location

11. LOCATION She received a demand for unpaid tax The building suffered a direct hit THEME The thief stole the wallet Fred jumped out of the plane AGENT I forgot the address Your cat is hungry EXPERIENCER The key opened the lock The scalpel made a very clean cut INSTRUMENT 11 This cottage sleeps five adults The table seats eight RECIPIENT Joan fell off the yacht The arrow flew through the air

12. C. Verbs and Thematic Role Grids Thematic role grid (theta-grid) put V: <Agent, theme, location> John put the book on the shelf Agent Theme Location

13. Not all nominals in a sentence are arguments of a verb and thus specified in verbal theta grids in the lexicon. [ s Roland [ vp put [ np the book] [ pp in the bedroom] ] ] the square brackets in (a) reflect the fact that while in the bedroom is an argument of the verb put, explaining why it cannot be omitted b. [ s Roland [ vp read [ np the book]] [ pp in the bedroom] ] it is not an argumentof the verb read, on the other hand, which can form a sentence without it

14. D. Problems with Thematic Roles Identifying individual thematic roles for each verb Delimiting particular roles 14

15. PATIENT Example 15 E ntity affected by the action of the verb. Dixon (1991), reveal that both the type of “affectedness” and the role of the INSTRUMENT vary between verb types. a. John touched the lamp with his toe. b. The captain rubbed the cricket ball with dirt. c. Henry squeezed the rubber duck in his hands. d. Alison smashed the ice cube with her heel.

16. THE QUESTIONS WHICH FACE SEMANTICISTS D o the differences between the affectedness of the PATIENT reduce the usefulness of this label, or can the differences be explained in some way? 16 ? ? H ow do we define theta-roles in general? And what semantic basis do we have for characterizing roles?

17. Dowty (1991) proposes a solution where theta-roles are not semantic primitives but are defined in terms of entailments of the predicate. Dowty proposes that we view the roles not as discrete and bounded categories but instead as prototypes : Proto-Agent and Proto-Patient a ) volitional involvement in the event or state b) sentience (and/or perception) c) causing an event or change of state in another participant d) movement (relative to the position of another participant) Properties of the Agent Proto-Role ( Dowty 1991: 572): a) undergoes change of state b) incremental theme c) causally affected by another participant d) stationary relative to movement of another participant Properties of the Patient Proto-Role ( Dowty 1991: 572): 17

18. John cleaned the house John in this sentence would include all four of the entailments: volition, sentience, causation and movement . John fainted and dropped the vase By contrast John as an argument of drop in this sentence would involve no volition. Some arguments might have more of the entailments than others For Example : 5

19. CAUSATION The water boiled . intransitive form where the one argument is an entity undergoing a change of state Helen boiled the water . transitive form which adds a causer role (AGENT) intransitive form & transitive form 01 02 03 19 The importance of causation to thematic role selection if we look at the English causative inchoative verb alternation. In this alternation the same verb can occur in an intransitive form where the one argument is an entity undergoing a change of state or a transitive form which adds a causer role. The ice melted. The sun melted the ice. a non- volitional cause (or FORCE) Non-volitional cause The door opened . The key opened the door . As an instrument As an instrument

20. ? How the semantic frame for an event is profiled by the verb and its thematic roles ? Some writers have characterized the expression of causation in language as a selective merging of sub-events: for example Talmy (2000, 2: 271) uses the term causal chain windowing to describe the speaker’s portrayal of the sub-events. Speakers have a number of options in characterizing the connection between these sub-events, for example in portraying the unity of the cause and effect between the events 20

21. The lexical causative in ( b) implies, depending on context, that the speaker stopped the car in the normal way that this is done, perhaps by as a driver braking or by some other direct action. The versions in (c) and (d) are often termed periphrastic causatives because they employ two verbs in a complex clause construction. The version with make in (c) suggests that the speaker caused the car to stop in an unusual way or perhaps had to overcome resistance, while (d) with have implies the presence of other implicit actors in the event 21 In English, we can compare the inchoative with the causatives from the example below: The car stopped. I stopped the car. I made the car stop. I had the car stopped.

22. E . Voice 22

23. Passive Voice The grammatical category of voice affords speakers some flexibility in viewing thematic roles. Many languages allow an opposition between passive voice and active voice. a. Billy groomed the horses b. The horses were groomed Example

24. There are other lexical and syntactic strategies that alter different perspective . The house in front of the cliff  T he cliff stood behind the house What Joan bought was a Ferrari  I t was Joan who bought the Ferrari. Example

25. Comparing Passive Constructions Across Languages Many languages have their own passive-type constructions, they sometimes have more than one passive constructions, just like in English. Example: a. Marry was shot on purpose. b. Marry got shot on purpose.

26. Other languages have a special type of passive, often called as impersonal passive which doesn’t allow the AGENT to be mentioned in the sentence, just like in Irish. Example: Thug siad Siobh’an abhaile inniu . brought they Joan home today “They brought Joan home today.” Tugadh Siobh’an abhaile inniu . brought-IMPERS Joan home today. “Joan was brought home today.”

27. Middle Voice Middle voice or middle forms emphasize that the subject of the verb is affected by the action described by the verb. Neuters Bodily Activity and Emotions Reflexives Autobenefactives

28. Neuters Intransitives This type of middle is where the subject undergoes a non-volitional process or change of state. Examples : So namati dan.d.am. he-NOM bends-3sg ACTIVE stick-ACC “He bends the stick.” Namate dan.d.ah . . bends-3sg MIDDLE stick-NOM “The stick bends.”

29. Bodily Activity and Emotions In some languages the verb occurs in a middle voice when the activity involves the body or emotions of the subject. These would seem to be clear cases of affectedness since the subject is so overtly involved. Somali (Saeed 1999) fadhiis - o “sit down” baroor - o “mourn, wail” For Example :

30. Reflexives In some languages the middle is used where the subject’s action affects the subject himself, or a possession or body part of the subject. Example: Lo’u-omai . wash-1sg.MIDDLE “I wash myself.” 30

31. Autobenefactives This type of middle is used to signify that the action of the subject is done for his or her own benefit. Examples: hair-o moiran . take-1sg-ACTIVE share “I take a share.” hari-oumai moiran . take-1sg-MIDDLE share “I take a share for myself.”

32. F. Noun Clause 32

33. Classifiers Noun classifiers are morphemes or lexical words that code characteristics of the referent of the noun, allowing the speaker to classify the referent according to a system of semantic/conceptual categories. They may show up grammatically in different guises. Some, termed noun classifiers , occur with nouns. Types of Classifiers: Inherent Nature Classifiers Functional Classifiers

34. Noun Classes Noun classes are agreement-based noun systems that seem, at least historically, to be based on semantic classifications somewhat similar to those we have seen for classifiers. One famous example occurs in the Bantu languages of Africa, where nouns belong to.

35. Differences between Noun Classes and Classifiers NOUN CLASSES CLASSIFIERS SIZE Small finite set Large number REALIZATION Closed grammatical system Free forms SCOPE Marking is never entirely within the noun word Never any references outside the noun phrase

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