Advances in breeding of Brinjalautomotive

automotive brinjal

1. 2n= 24 Advances in BREEDING OF BRINJAL

2. Geographic origin and distribution Brinjal is considered a native to India In 1886 De Candolle, regarded it as a native of Asia Vavilov (1928) was of the opinion that its centre of origin was in the Indo-Burma region

3. Taxonomy Genus Solanum comprises approximately 2000 species which include both tuber bearing and non tuber bearing forms Important edible species under non tuber bearing forms are S. melongena , S. torvum , S. nigrum and S. macrocarpon , S. ferox and S.aethiopicum Solanum sp used in native medicines - S. melongena var . insanum , S. incanum , S. indicum , S. viarum

4. Edible species Solanum torvum Used for its small clustered fruits for culinary purpose and for drying Resistance to fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt It is a resistant root stock for grafting cultivated S. melongena S. macrocarpon and S. aethiopicum Grown for edible fruits and leaves Solanum nigrum Small clustered acidic fruits are also edible and are harvested at ripening stage when it turns purple in colour In Tamil nadu this species is cultivated for use as a leaf vegetable

5. Solanum is a large species. Among the 22 Indian species, there is a group of 5 related ones, all prickly and diploids with 2n = 2x = 24, namely melongena, coagulans , xanthocarpum , indicum and maccanni Closest wild relative of Solanum melongena is Solanum incanum Solanum incanum produces fertile hybrids in crosses with S.melongena

6. Based on growth habit and fruit shape, four botanical varieties are reported under S. melongena S.melongena var. esculentum - large round fruited cultivars S.melongena var. serpentinum – long fruited & slender S. melongena var. depressum – early & dwarf & small cultivars S.melongena var. insanum – wild and prickly plants with small fruits Taxonomy

7. BOTANY Flowers are bisexual, pentamerous and are solitary or in 2-7 flowered cyme Calyx is persistent and spiny or non spiny Corolla is lobed with different shapes and purple, light pink or white coloured Stamens are free and form a loose cone surrounding the style Ovary is bilocular with many ovules Heterostyly is very common Fruit is a berry with wide variation in shape, colour and size Fruit shape may be long, oval, round, ovoid, cylindrical or elongated Fruit colour may be nearly black, different shapes of purple, white, green or variegated

8. Floral biology and pollination Though a self pollinated crop , cross pollination to varying degree has been reported in brinjal (CP- up to 29%) Cross pollination is due to its heteromorphic flower structure and is mainly done by honey bees and bumble bees Opening of flower and dehiscence of anthers takes place at 6 - 7.30 am during summer and is delayed up to 11 am during winter Flowering depends on climatic factors and high temperature and humidity in the morning hasten flower opening and dehiscence of anthers In addition to climatic factors, fertility level of the soil also influences flower initiation and development

9. HETEROSTYLY IN BRINJAL According to Krishnamoorthy and Subramanian (1954) there are 4 types of flowers in brinjal depending upon the length of styles ( Heterostyly ) Long styled with big sized ovary (stigma above anthers) Medium styled with medium sized ovary-stigma &anther same level Pseudo short styled with rudimentary ovary True short styled with very rudimentary ovary Fruit set in long styled flowers ranges from 60 to 70% whereas in medium styled flowers it is 12.5 to 55.6% Short styled and pseudo short styled flowers act as male flowers and there is no fruit Fruit set No Fruit set

10. Adaptations a) For self pollination Bisexual nature of flowers Nearness of anther and stigma Simultaneous maturity of androecium and gynoecium Long styled nature and downward position of flowers. b) For cross pollination Delay in anther dehiscence Closed anther condition Prolonged receptivity of stigma Different in style length (heterostyly) Often cross pollinated

11. Breeding objectives High yield Earliness Fruit shape, size and color as consumer preference Low proportion of seed Less amount of glyco -alkaloids Fruit colour retention in summer Slow browning Plant ideotype (erect, compact and branching) Better quality(Thickness, texture and flavour ) Glossiness Lower solanine content Soft flesh Upright sturdy erect plant free from lodging Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum) Phomopsis blight Root knot nematode ( Meloidogyne sp.) Jassids Little leaf Shoot & fruit borer ( Leucinodes arbonalis ) High and low temperature tolerance Tolerance to frost injury Tolerance to salinity, alkalinity

12. Different breeding methods Pure line selection Pedigree method Bulk method Modified pedigree (single seed descent) Combination of bulk and pedigree methods Back-crossing Heterosis breeding

13. The relative efficiency of different methods of selection Progenies developed through single-plant selection and mass selection were superior to those developed through pure-line and single-seed descent methods of selection for earliness and productive characters. Among selection methods, single-seed descent was effective to raise level of resistance considerably against bacterial wilt of brinjal (Sankar,1984)

14. Single plant selection An elite single plant is identified from population based on the desirable characters Controlled selfing is done to ensure complete self-pollination. Seeds are extracted from selfed fruits and thus progeny is progressed to generations till complete homogeneity is achieved Popular varieties, viz . Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Cluster, Pusa Purple Round, Pant Samrat, Arka Shirish, Arka Kusumkar , Arka Sheel , Punjab Neelum and Swetha are evolved through this method

15. Pedigree selection Pedigree method is a system of breeding in which individual plants are selected in segregating generations from a cross on the basis of their desirability judged individually and on the basis of a pedigree record This method is followed when character under improvement is governed both by non-additive and additive gene action Pusa Kranti, PH 4, Pant Rituraj, Pusa Uttam, Pusa Bindu, Pusa Upkar , Pusa Bhairav , Arka Nidhi and Vaishali have been evolved through this method

16. Heterosis breeding In India, the first attempt to hybridize eggplant have been made by Rao in 1934 The magnitude of heterosis varied with the crosses, environment and parents Significantly high estimates of heterosis were recorded for yield, number of fruits, fruit weight and prolonged fruiting period

17. Exploitation of Heterosis Better exploitation of heterosis due to hardy nature of crop Comparatively large size of flowers Large number of seeds in a single fruit enabling production of a large number of F 1 seeds with a single act of pollination Hand emasculation and pollination are followed in the hybrid seed production of brinjal

18. Emasculation and Pollination 18

19. The main methods of F 1 hybrid production Hand emasculation and pollination Popova et al. (1976) reported the use of male sterility for hybrid production in brinjal A variety ' Blackey ' is reported male sterile Inducing male sterility through use of growth-regulators and gametocides Both genic and cytoplasmic male-sterility systems have been identified in eggplant ( Isshiki and Kawajiri , 2002) Cytoplasmic male-sterile eggplants resulted from the transfer of S . melongena chromosomes into S . violaceum cytoplasm

20. Obtained almost complete sterility (90-98%) for 5-12 days following aqueous sprays of Maleic hydrazide at 100 ppm, NAA at 50 ppm or 2,4-D at 20 ppm on Pusa Purple Long and Pusa Purple Round grown in winter and summer seasons respectively Maleic hydrazide was more effective than 2,4-D or NAA The sprays were given before or at the time of flower-bud initiation (Choudhury and George,1962)

21. Mutation Breeding Yadav et al. (2008) conducted a study to induce variations in a brinjal cultivar Guchha The dry brinjal seeds (9% moisture content) were treated with 20, 30, 40 and 50 kr doses of gamma-rays The number of primary branches per plant, petiole length, total number of flowers and total number of fruits/plant were gradually decreased with increase in gamma-ray doses The total number of flowers and total number of fruits (except at 50 kr ) improved compared to that in the control

22. Nishio et al. (1984) classified 11 Solanum species into 3 groups on the basis of their interspecific compatibility Group I Group II Group III S. melongena S. integrifolium S. indicum S. incanum S. gilo S. mimosum S. macrocarpum S. nodiflorum S. toruum S.sysimbrifolium Cross c ompatible within group Cross c ompatible within group Cross incompatible Group II x Group I Cross compatible Group I x Group II Cross incompatible Distant Hybridization

23. Qualitative genes in brinjal Trait Genetics Hypocotyl colour Monogenic Purple dominant over green Stem colour Monogenic Purple dominant over green Spines Monogenic Presence of spines dominant over absence Plant height Monogenic Tall dominant over dwarf Fruit colour Trigenic Purple dominant over green, Green dominant over white Fruit size Monogenic Large dominant to small Fruit shape Trigenic Elongated dominant over round, Round dominant over oval Bearing habit Monogenic Clustering dominant over solitary fruiting Fruit flesh colour Monogenic Green dominant over white Male sterility Digenic ms 1 and ms 2 Style erectness Monogenic Incurved dominant over straight Bacterial wilt Monogenic Single dominant gene for resistance ( Chadda and Kalloo , 1993)

24. The present study was carried out at Vegetable Research Station, ARI, Rajendranagar , Hyderabad, Telangana State, India during kharif (June-October, 2014), rabi (October-February, 2014-15) and Summer (February-May, 2015) to assess the performance of genotypes in terms of yield as well as quality across seasons under wide range of environments through phenotypic stability studies Thirty brinjal genotypes were evaluated for yield and quality parameters under three environments comprising of three different seasons The portioning of environments + (genotypes x environments) mean squares showed that environments (linear) differed significantly and were quite diverse with regards to their effect on the performance of the genotypes for fruit yield and quality traits

25. Character association and path co-efficient analysis studies on yield and attributing characters in brinjal Strong positive correlation of primary branches per plant, days to final harvest, flowers per cluster, fruits per cluster, fruit length, average fruit weight and fruits per plant with fruit yield However, a significant negative correlation of fruit yield per plant was observed with days to 50% flowering The path analysis study revealed that the fruit length is the most important yield determinant, because of its high direct effect and indirectly influence the yield through primary branches per plant, days to final harvest, fruits per cluster, average fruit weight and fruits per plant Fruits per plant is the another most important yield determinant thus, these characters should be given importance in selection programme for yield improvement in brinjal Sivakumar et al ., 2016

26. Utilization of crop wild relatives in eggplant pre-breeding for adaptation to climate change Interspecific hybrids have been obtained with all wild species evaluated, except with S. sisymbriifolium For the interspecific hybrids with the species S. torvum and S. elaeagnifolium , which have resistance to many diseases ( S. torvum ) and tolerance to drought (S. elaeagnifolium ), embryo rescue was needed Interspecific hybrids have been backcrossed to the cultivated parents and first backcross generations have been obtained with nine species from the primary and secondary gene pools ( Prohens et al. 2016 )

27. Sources of resistance Stresses Source of resistance Bacterial wilt Solanum melongena var. incanum , Solanum torvum , Solanum integrifolium , Cipaye , Aroman , Gowok , SM 6, SM 141 Phomopsis fruit rot Solanum macrocarpon, Solanum gilo , Solanum integrifolium , Muktakeshi , Bargan Epilachna beetle Solanum nigrum , Solanum sisymbrifolium , Solanum torvum , Solanum mammosum , Solanum khasianum , Pusa Purple Round, Apple Green Flesh Drought Solanum macrocarpum , Solanum gilo , Atabekil , SM-19, SM-1 Shoot and fruit borer Solanum khasianum , Solanum xanthocarpum , Solanum sisymbrifolium , Solanum integrifolium , White Long, Thorn Pendy , Black Pendy , H 407 Early blight Pusa Purple Cluster Anthracnose Ping Tung, Long Red Verticillium wilt Solanum indicum , PI 164941, PI 174362 Root-knot nematode Solanum sisymbrifolium , Solanum torvum , K alyanpur T2, Long Bangalore Salt JC-1, RAH-51, Pragati , Pusa Bindu , CO-1 High t emperature R34, PH4 Little leaf Solanum gilo , Solanum integrifolium , Pusa Purple Round, Swati

28. Breeding for diseases and pests Bacterial wilt: Resistant varieties: Dingras Multiple Purple, Sinampiro , Pusa Purple Cluster, Singnath , Annamalai, Bholanath, Green Star, Blue Star, Haritha Pure line selection: Swarna Shyamali , Swarna Shree, Swarna Pratibha Pedigree method: Swarna Shobha Pedigree and back cross: Arka Keshav, Arka Nidhi, Arka Neelkanth, Swarna Mani, Surya, Swetha, Arka Anand, Neelima, Swarna Ajay 30

29. 2. Nematodes: Varieties: Vijaya and Black Beauty 3. Phomopsis blight: Varieties: Florida Market, Florida Beauty, Swarna Shakthi, Swarna Ajay and Pusa Bhairav 4. Shoot and fruit borer: Varieties: Annamalai, Pant Samrat, Bhagyamati , Arka Kusumakar , Banana Giant, White Long, Thorn Pendy , Black Pendy and Pusa Purple Cluster 5. Jassid : Varieties: Annamalai, Pant Smarat , Manjari Gota , Dorli , Pusa Purple Long, Pusa Purple Cluster and AM-62 31

30. Breeding for shoot and fruit borer resistance in brinjal Heterosis values should be negative for getting fruit borer tolerant hybrids through heterosis breeding The two parents with lesser incidence resulting in a hybrid with least incidence might be due to complementation of genes for bringing down the incidence of fruit borer. In EP 104 x APAU Bagmathi , the overdominance of APAU Bagmathi work here results in a hybrid with lesser infestation of fruit borer Varieties Arka Kusumakar , Pant Rituraj , Neelum Long, Pusa Kranti and Pusa Purple Long were less infested (18.33 to 35.47 per cent) (Prabhu et al ., 2008)

31. Abiotic stress Drought tolerance Solanum macrocarpon, Solanum gilo species are tolerant to drought. SM-19 and SM-1 varieties are tolerant, SM- 30 moderately tolerant. Salinity tolerance Varieties - JC-1 RAH-51 Pragati Pusa Bindu CO-1

32. Fruits and shoot borer ( Leucinodes orbonalis ) being the most destructive pest in brinjal crop, efforts have been made to develop insect resistance brinjal varieties by incorporating cry1Ac gene in brinjal from a bacterium mainly Bacillus thuringiensis , commonly known as Bt brinjal The Bt brinjal developed by Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Company Limited Bt brinjal incorporates the  cry1Ac  gene expressing insecticidal protein to confer resistance against FSB When ingested by the larvae, the Bt protein is activated in the insect’s alkaline gut and binds to the gut wall, which breaks down, allowing the Bt spores to invade the insect’s body cavity The FSB larvae dies a few days later Bt Brinjal

33. Special features Cultivar Resistant to Phomopsis fruit rot Pusa Bhairav , Swarna Shakthi , Swarna Ajay, Pusa Anupam , Azad Kranti , Pant Samrat Resistant to bacterial wilt Sinampiro ( Phillipines ), Arka Nidhi , Surya, Swetha , Haritha , Utkal Tarini , Swarna Prathiba , Swarna Shyamali , Arka Anand, Swarna Shobha , Pusa Purple Cluster, Pant Samrat , Arka Neelkanth , Arka Keshav , Arka Unnathi , Arka Avinash , Arka Harshitha Resistant to shoot and fruit borer Pusa Purple Round, Punjab Barsati , Punjab Sadabahar Bicolour variety Kalpataru , Vaishali High yielding varieties Arka Navneet , Arka Anand, Arka Unnathi , Arka Harshitha , Arka Avinash Pickle making Pusa Anupam Bharta making Punjab Bahar , BH-2, Swarna Shree Ratoon crop Punjab Sadabahar , Annamalai Red colour fruit Aruna 36

34. F1 hybrids Small fruited- MHB10, ABH-2, Hybrid-2, Arura Round fruited – Pusa hybrid seeds, NDB- Hybrid-1. Long fruited – Pusa Hybrid-5, Pant Hybrid-1, ARU-1, Arka Navaneet

35. Biotechnology Interspecific hybridization using embryo rescue in eggplant, through embryo rescue developed hybrids with S. torvum and S. sisymbrifolium . Organogenesis has been successfully achieved in cultivated and wild varieties as well as their hybrids. Shoot regeneration from hypocotyl segments of S. melongena and the F1 hybrids in presence of cytokinins , kinetin and zeatin. Somatic embryogenesis (SE) in eggplant has been reported from stems, hypocotyl, leaves, cell suspension, isolated protoplasts and roots. Somatic embryogenic response in eggplant was also genotype-dependent.

36. Anther culture have mostly been conducted for cultivated eggplant with goal of obtaining double haploid parents for conventional breeding. The double haploid plants have been successfully used in conventional breeding programmes to obtain pure lines faster than selfed inbreds. Double haploid plants are homozygous at all loci, and this may help to study the genetic basis of quantitative traits by overcoming the problems associated with the environmental variations.

37. Plant regeneration from protoplasts has been achieved in both cultivated and wild species of eggplant. The protoplast culture and somatic hybridization would be useful in overcoming the pre- and post-fertilization breeding barriers encountered during conventional breeding. Protoplast cultures are excellent means for understanding cytological and ultra-structural changes during cell growth and differentiation, behavioural patterns of plastids and mitochondria.

38. Markers An eggplant RFLP genetic linkage map for qualitative and quantitative traits has been constructed from an F2 segregating population derived from an interspecific cross with S. linnaeanum . Markers linked to eggplant fruit shape and colour was identified in a molecular linkage map based on RAPD and AFLP. The application of molecular assisted selection (MAS) may also be applied in breeding of eggplant. The markers can function as probes for the disease resistant traits.

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