Advances in meat of meat and meat products
VanathiAyyakkannu
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66 slides
Mar 12, 2025
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About This Presentation
Includes advances in meat packaging
Slide Content
INTRODUCTION
•The quest to preserve and extend the consumable longevity of meat and meat
products is one which is pursued with as much enthusiasm and energy today
as it has been over the last several hundred years.
•While many approaches have been used to accomplish these objectives,
packaging is paramount among them. In fact, most of the approaches used to
bring about muscle food preservation are quite limited in the absence of
utilizing suitable packaging technologies.
•The quest to preserve and extend the consumable longevity of meat and meat
products is one which is pursued with as much enthusiasm and energy today
as it has been over the last several hundred years.
•While many approaches have been used to accomplish these objectives,
packaging is paramount among them. In fact, most of the approaches used to
bring about muscle food preservation are quite limited in the absence of
utilizing suitable packaging technologies.
Cont..
•Modern-day consumers, take it as a given that when purchasing muscle-
based food products in their local supermarket that they are buying quality,
safety and stability as integral product components, but consumers will have
their own specific product demands which will be comprised of issues such as:
value-for-money, nutritional requirements, information and convenience.
• Consequently, packaging plays the pivotal role in coping with all of these
situations and demands.
•Many packaging systems currently exist for use with muscle-based food
products, each one with its own unique attributes and potential for application,
from short-term storage (about one week) employing overwrapping, to longer-
term modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) storage (about two to six weeks),
to very long-term storage (weeks to months) using a host of approaches to
providing gasless packaging systems often employing vacuum to do so.
•Modern-day consumers, take it as a given that when purchasing muscle-
based food products in their local supermarket that they are buying quality,
safety and stability as integral product components, but consumers will have
their own specific product demands which will be comprised of issues such as:
value-for-money, nutritional requirements, information and convenience.
• Consequently, packaging plays the pivotal role in coping with all of these
situations and demands.
•Many packaging systems currently exist for use with muscle-based food
products, each one with its own unique attributes and potential for application,
from short-term storage (about one week) employing overwrapping, to longer-
term modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) storage (about two to six weeks),
to very long-term storage (weeks to months) using a host of approaches to
providing gasless packaging systems often employing vacuum to do so.
Cont..
•These packaging systems are usually employed singly, but can be combined
in different ways (like overwrapped products being held under bulk gas flushed
conditions, a commercial approach called mother packing).
•While the formats described above might suggest regimented and set
approaches to packaging muscle food products in centralized meat, packaging
plants, nothing could be further from the truth.
•The packaging of muscle-based food products is a dynamic process which is
constantly evolving.
•These packaging systems are usually employed singly, but can be combined
in different ways (like overwrapped products being held under bulk gas flushed
conditions, a commercial approach called mother packing).
•While the formats described above might suggest regimented and set
approaches to packaging muscle food products in centralized meat, packaging
plants, nothing could be further from the truth.
•The packaging of muscle-based food products is a dynamic process which is
constantly evolving.
FUNCTIONS OF PACKAGING
To protect the food against physical damage and chemical change
during storage and transport (Dallyn and Shorten, 1998)
To avoid the contamination of the food product by microorganisms,
chemicals, dirt, dust, etc.
To prevent or delay microbial spoilage.
To reduce weight loss
To present the product to the consumer in an attractive manner
To permit some enzymatic activity to improve tenderness (Brody,
1997)
To protect the food against physical damage and chemical change
during storage and transport (Dallyn and Shorten, 1998)
To avoid the contamination of the food product by microorganisms,
chemicals, dirt, dust, etc.
To prevent or delay microbial spoilage.
To reduce weight loss
To present the product to the consumer in an attractive manner
To permit some enzymatic activity to improve tenderness (Brody,
1997)
MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING (MAP)
•Modified Atmosphere Packaging is an extremely important packaging
technique used extensively for the distribution, storage and display of meat
products in markets with a controlled cold distribution chain (Sivertsvik, et al;
2002).
•The principle of MAP is to replace the normal atmosphere by a gas mixture
that is suited to the food in question.
•Packing meat and meat products under modified atmospheres can retard
microbiological spoilage and prevent discolourations of the meat.
•The gas combinations added comprise carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen.
Argon, Carbon Monoxide, Helium were also tried with limited success.
•Modified Atmosphere Packaging is an extremely important packaging
technique used extensively for the distribution, storage and display of meat
products in markets with a controlled cold distribution chain (Sivertsvik, et al;
2002).
•The principle of MAP is to replace the normal atmosphere by a gas mixture
that is suited to the food in question.
•Packing meat and meat products under modified atmospheres can retard
microbiological spoilage and prevent discolourations of the meat.
•The gas combinations added comprise carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen.
Argon, Carbon Monoxide, Helium were also tried with limited success.
MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE PACKAGING (MAP)
CARBON DIOXIDE
•Generally higher the CO
2
concentration, longer is the durability of the perishable
food.
•High carbon dioxide levels (10–80%) are desirable for foods such as meat and
poultry in order to inhibit surface microbial growth and extend shelf life.
•However fat and water absorb CO
2
gases very easily and excessive CO
2
concentrations cause quality failures regarding taste, colour.
•If CO
2
is intended to regulate the growth of bacteria, at least 20% CO
2
concentration is recommended.
•Carbondioxide
checks the activities of many
micro-organisms.
•It primarily inhibits the growth and metabolism
of aerobic spoilage bacteria and in doing so,
may allow other bacteria such as lactic acid
bacteria to predominate.
•The lactic acid bacteria cause spoilage only
after extended periods.
•Generally higher the CO
2
concentration, longer is the durability of the perishable
food.
•High carbon dioxide levels (10–80%) are desirable for foods such as meat and
poultry in order to inhibit surface microbial growth and extend shelf life.
•However fat and water absorb CO
2
gases very easily and excessive CO
2
concentrations cause quality failures regarding taste, colour.
•If CO
2
is intended to regulate the growth of bacteria, at least 20% CO
2
concentration is recommended.
•Carbondioxide
checks the activities of many
micro-organisms.
•It primarily inhibits the growth and metabolism
of aerobic spoilage bacteria and in doing so,
may allow other bacteria such as lactic acid
bacteria to predominate.
•The lactic acid bacteria cause spoilage only
after extended periods.
NITROGEN
•Nitrogen is used as an inert filler gas.
•It provides no benefit to the product in terms of bactericidal or bacteriostatic
effects but helps maintain the structural integrity and shape of the package when
carbon dioxide is absorbed into the meat (Bell and Bourke, 1996).
•The use of nitrogen has no direct effect on meat colour.
•Nitrogen is used as an inert filler gas.
•It provides no benefit to the product in terms of bactericidal or bacteriostatic
effects but helps maintain the structural integrity and shape of the package when
carbon dioxide is absorbed into the meat (Bell and Bourke, 1996).
•The use of nitrogen has no direct effect on meat colour.
OXYGEN
•Oxygen ensures that the meat remains red thus keeps the natural colour of the
perishable food.
•It also inhibits the growth of anaerobic microorganisms but at the same time favours
the growth of aerobic bacteria.
•These gases must be combined in such a way to achieve the right balance of desired
meat colour (consumer acceptance) and food safety.
•As such, gas combinations for red meat will comprise oxygen, while that for pre-
cooked meat only of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
•The atmosphere within an MAP pack may alter during storage due to reactions
between components of the atmosphere and the product and/or due to transmission
of gases in or out of the pack through the packaging film (Stiles, 1991).
•Typically fresh red meats are stored in modified atmosphere packages containing
80% O
2: 20% CO
2 and cooked meats are stored in 70% N
2: 30% CO
2 (Smiddy et al;
2002).
•Oxygen ensures that the meat remains red thus keeps the natural colour of the
perishable food.
•It also inhibits the growth of anaerobic microorganisms but at the same time favours
the growth of aerobic bacteria.
•These gases must be combined in such a way to achieve the right balance of desired
meat colour (consumer acceptance) and food safety.
•As such, gas combinations for red meat will comprise oxygen, while that for pre-
cooked meat only of carbon dioxide and nitrogen.
•The atmosphere within an MAP pack may alter during storage due to reactions
between components of the atmosphere and the product and/or due to transmission
of gases in or out of the pack through the packaging film (Stiles, 1991).
•Typically fresh red meats are stored in modified atmosphere packages containing
80% O
2: 20% CO
2 and cooked meats are stored in 70% N
2: 30% CO
2 (Smiddy et al;
2002).
High O2 MAP
•It involves packaging of fresh red meat under high concentrations of O
2 to retard
methmyoglobin (browning) formation.
•High concentrations of O
2 are used to increase the amount of oxymyoglobin at
and beneath the surface of the meat tissue and a bright red colour.
•Since this high O
2 concentration favours the growth of aerobic spoilage
organisms, their growth rate can be reduced by the addition of moderate
amounts of CO
2
to the gas mixtures.
•When the CO
2
content of a gas mixture exceeds 20%, the rate of growth of the
microbial population is approximately halved.
•It involves packaging of fresh red meat under high concentrations of O
2 to retard
methmyoglobin (browning) formation.
•High concentrations of O
2 are used to increase the amount of oxymyoglobin at
and beneath the surface of the meat tissue and a bright red colour.
•Since this high O
2 concentration favours the growth of aerobic spoilage
organisms, their growth rate can be reduced by the addition of moderate
amounts of CO
2
to the gas mixtures.
•When the CO
2
content of a gas mixture exceeds 20%, the rate of growth of the
microbial population is approximately halved.
Cont..
•Therefore, an atmosphere of around 80% O
2
and at least 20% CO
2
is beneficial
for both microbiological quality and meat colour. Generally for fresh meat,
atmospheric mixtures of 70-80% O
2 and 20-30% CO
2 are used (Eilert, 2005).
•The use of high O
2 MAP is suitable for products that are to be held for short
periods of time and in which a bright red colour is most desirable throughout the
display life. Temperature control is critical to the success of this application.
• Poor control will lead to growth of spoilage organisms and premature browning
of the meat.
•Disadvantages of High O
2 MAP include accelerated lipid oxidation and off-odour
development (Jaysingh et al., 2002)
•Therefore, an atmosphere of around 80% O
2
and at least 20% CO
2
is beneficial
for both microbiological quality and meat colour. Generally for fresh meat,
atmospheric mixtures of 70-80% O
2 and 20-30% CO
2 are used (Eilert, 2005).
•The use of high O
2 MAP is suitable for products that are to be held for short
periods of time and in which a bright red colour is most desirable throughout the
display life. Temperature control is critical to the success of this application.
• Poor control will lead to growth of spoilage organisms and premature browning
of the meat.
•Disadvantages of High O
2 MAP include accelerated lipid oxidation and off-odour
development (Jaysingh et al., 2002)
Low O2 MAP
•It is mainly used for the products that are to be transported long distances or
stored for several weeks.
• Gas mixtures used in this type of MAP will often contain greater than 65% CO
2
with the residual as nitrogen.
•The retail cuts can be placed in pre-formed plastic trays and after air has been
replaced with the gas mixture, a dual-layer film is applied to seal the pack.
•This process allows retail meat cuts to be stored for much longer periods of time
prior to display than high O
2 MAP.
•The dual layer film consists of a
peelable O
2
impermeable film that
when removed after the packs of
product have been stored, exposes an
O
2 permeable film that allows the meat
to ‘bloom’.
•It is mainly used for the products that are to be transported long distances or
stored for several weeks.
• Gas mixtures used in this type of MAP will often contain greater than 65% CO
2
with the residual as nitrogen.
•The retail cuts can be placed in pre-formed plastic trays and after air has been
replaced with the gas mixture, a dual-layer film is applied to seal the pack.
•This process allows retail meat cuts to be stored for much longer periods of time
prior to display than high O
2 MAP.
•The dual layer film consists of a
peelable O
2
impermeable film that
when removed after the packs of
product have been stored, exposes an
O
2 permeable film that allows the meat
to ‘bloom’.
ANAEROBIC PACKAGING
Low-Oxygen Packaging of Fresh Meat with Carbon Monoxide
•The most recent meat packaging technology is anaerobic (essentially no oxygen)
MAP with low levels (0.4%) of CO, 20 to 30% CO
2
and the remainder 70% nitrogen
also called as Carbon Monoxide Modified Atmosphere Packaging (CO-MAP).
•This packaging method offers several advantages over high-oxygen MAP including
desirable red color stability, better flavor acceptability, no oxidized flavors
(Jayasingh et al., 2002) decreased growth of spoilage organisms and pathogenic
bacteria due to combined effects of anaerobic conditions, refrigeration, and
elevated CO
2
(Doyle and Ma, 2007),
• Increased tenderness due to less protein oxidation in an anaerobic environment
(Lund, et al., 2007).
•While its disadvantages include negative image of CO by consumers because it is
a potentially hazardous gas and concern that products might look fresh even
though bacterial levels are high and the product is spoiled.
Low-Oxygen Packaging of Fresh Meat with Carbon Monoxide
•The most recent meat packaging technology is anaerobic (essentially no oxygen)
MAP with low levels (0.4%) of CO, 20 to 30% CO
2
and the remainder 70% nitrogen
also called as Carbon Monoxide Modified Atmosphere Packaging (CO-MAP).
•This packaging method offers several advantages over high-oxygen MAP including
desirable red color stability, better flavor acceptability, no oxidized flavors
(Jayasingh et al., 2002) decreased growth of spoilage organisms and pathogenic
bacteria due to combined effects of anaerobic conditions, refrigeration, and
elevated CO
2
(Doyle and Ma, 2007),
• Increased tenderness due to less protein oxidation in an anaerobic environment
(Lund, et al., 2007).
•While its disadvantages include negative image of CO by consumers because it is
a potentially hazardous gas and concern that products might look fresh even
though bacterial levels are high and the product is spoiled.
ADVANTAGES OF MAP
Longer durability and shelf life of perishable food / Decrease of spoilage
Reduces the growth of microorganisms
The natural colour of the product is preserved
The need to use preserving agents is reduced if not eliminated
The product retains its vitamin content, taste and fat content.
Longer durability and shelf life of perishable food / Decrease of spoilage
Reduces the growth of microorganisms
The natural colour of the product is preserved
The need to use preserving agents is reduced if not eliminated
The product retains its vitamin content, taste and fat content.
ADVANCED PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES
•Due to the diversity of product characteristics and basic meat packaging
demands and applications, any packaging technologies which will offer product
and quality control in more economic and diverse manner will be useful.
•Two such packaging approaches
currently exist and can be divided
into two distinct categories; active
packaging technologies and
intelligent packaging technologies.
•Due to the diversity of product characteristics and basic meat packaging
demands and applications, any packaging technologies which will offer product
and quality control in more economic and diverse manner will be useful.
•Two such packaging approaches
currently exist and can be divided
into two distinct categories; active
packaging technologies and
intelligent packaging technologies.
ACTIVE PACKAGING
•Active packaging refers to the incorporation of additives into packaging systems
(whether loose within the pack, attached to the inside of packaging materials or
incorporated within the packaging materials themselves) with the aim of
maintaining or extending meat product quality and shelf-life.
•Active packaging has been defined as packaging, which ‘changes the condition
of the packed food to extend shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties,
while maintaining the quality of packaged food’ (Ahvenainen, 2003).
• As per Hutton, 2003, Packaging may be termed active when it performs some
desired role in food preservation other than providing an inert barrier to external
conditions.
•Active packaging systems include use of oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide
scavengers and emitters, moisture control agents and anti-microbial packaging
technologies.
•Active packaging refers to the incorporation of additives into packaging systems
(whether loose within the pack, attached to the inside of packaging materials or
incorporated within the packaging materials themselves) with the aim of
maintaining or extending meat product quality and shelf-life.
•Active packaging has been defined as packaging, which ‘changes the condition
of the packed food to extend shelf-life or to improve safety or sensory properties,
while maintaining the quality of packaged food’ (Ahvenainen, 2003).
• As per Hutton, 2003, Packaging may be termed active when it performs some
desired role in food preservation other than providing an inert barrier to external
conditions.
•Active packaging systems include use of oxygen scavengers, carbon dioxide
scavengers and emitters, moisture control agents and anti-microbial packaging
technologies.
ACTIVE PACKAGING
Thus these additives enhance the preservation function of the primary packaging
system.
Examples of active packaging applications for use within the food industry
Absorbing/scavenging properties
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene, flavours,
Releasing/emitting propertiescarbon dioxide, antioxidants, sulphur dioxide,
flavours, Ethanol
Removing properties food component removal: lactose, cholesterol
Temperature control Insulating materials, self-heating and self-cooling
packaging, microwave susceptors and modifiers,
Microbial and quality controlAntimicrobial
films
Thus these additives enhance the preservation function of the primary packaging
system.
Examples of active packaging applications for use within the food industry
Absorbing/scavenging properties
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, moisture, ethylene, flavours,
Releasing/emitting propertiescarbon dioxide, antioxidants, sulphur dioxide,
flavours, Ethanol
Removing properties food component removal: lactose, cholesterol
Temperature control Insulating materials, self-heating and self-cooling
packaging, microwave susceptors and modifiers,
Microbial and quality controlAntimicrobial
films
OXYGEN SCAVENGERS
•High levels of oxygen present in food packages may facilitate microbial growth,
off flavours, off odours development, colour changes and nutritional losses
thereby causing significant reduction in the shelf life of foods.
•Therefore, control of oxygen levels in food packages is important to limit the rate
of such deteriorative and spoilage reactions in foods.
•Since vacuum packaging do not always facilitate complete removal of oxygen;
these O
2 scavengers helps to absorbs the residual O
2 after packaging thus
Oxygen absorbing systems provide an alternative to vacuum and gas flushing
technologies as a means of improving product quality and shelf life (Ozdemir
and Floros, 2004) also it minimizes quality changes in oxygen sensitive foods
(Vermeiren et al., 1999)
•Existing oxygen scavenging technologies utilize one or more of the following
concepts: iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation, photosensitive dye
oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g. glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase),
(Floros et al.,1997).The majority of currently commercially available oxy- gen
scavengers are based on the principle of iron oxidation (Smith et al., 1990).
•High levels of oxygen present in food packages may facilitate microbial growth,
off flavours, off odours development, colour changes and nutritional losses
thereby causing significant reduction in the shelf life of foods.
•Therefore, control of oxygen levels in food packages is important to limit the rate
of such deteriorative and spoilage reactions in foods.
•Since vacuum packaging do not always facilitate complete removal of oxygen;
these O
2 scavengers helps to absorbs the residual O
2 after packaging thus
Oxygen absorbing systems provide an alternative to vacuum and gas flushing
technologies as a means of improving product quality and shelf life (Ozdemir
and Floros, 2004) also it minimizes quality changes in oxygen sensitive foods
(Vermeiren et al., 1999)
•Existing oxygen scavenging technologies utilize one or more of the following
concepts: iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation, photosensitive dye
oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g. glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase),
(Floros et al.,1997).The majority of currently commercially available oxy- gen
scavengers are based on the principle of iron oxidation (Smith et al., 1990).
Cont..
•Existing oxygen scavenging technologies utilize one or more of the following
concepts: iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation, photosensitive dye
oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g. glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase), (Floros
et al.,1997).
•The oxygen scavengers can be in the form of a sachet, label, film (incorporation of
scavenging agent into the packaging film), card, closure liner or concentrate
(Suppakul et al., 2003) which can reduce the oxygen levels to less than 1%.
•The majority of currently commercially
available oxy- gen scavengers are based on
the principle of iron oxidation (Smith et al.,
1990).
•Existing oxygen scavenging technologies utilize one or more of the following
concepts: iron powder oxidation, ascorbic acid oxidation, photosensitive dye
oxidation, enzymatic oxidation (e.g. glucose oxidase and alcohol oxidase), (Floros
et al.,1997).
•The oxygen scavengers can be in the form of a sachet, label, film (incorporation of
scavenging agent into the packaging film), card, closure liner or concentrate
(Suppakul et al., 2003) which can reduce the oxygen levels to less than 1%.
•The majority of currently commercially
available oxy- gen scavengers are based on
the principle of iron oxidation (Smith et al.,
1990).
Cont..
•According to Gill and McGinnis (1995) discoloration can be prevented in ground
beef if large numbers of oxygen scavengers are used in each pack to bring
residual oxygen to <10 ppm within 2 h at a storage temperature of 1.5 °C.
•The inclusion of oxygen scavengers (Ageless
SS200) in master packs flushed
with 50% CO
2
:50% N
2
significantly improved the colour stability of M. longissimus
dorsi and M. psoas major, relative to controls (Allen et al., 1996, Tewari et al;
2001).
•Martı´nez et al (2006) reported that fresh pork sausages when stored in 20%
CO
2:80% N
2 plus an oxygen scavenger (AgelessFX-40) for up to 20 days at 2 ± 1
°C, reduces psychrotrophic aerobic counts and an extended shelf-life in terms of
colour and lipid stability.
•According to Gill and McGinnis (1995) discoloration can be prevented in ground
beef if large numbers of oxygen scavengers are used in each pack to bring
residual oxygen to <10 ppm within 2 h at a storage temperature of 1.5 °C.
•The inclusion of oxygen scavengers (Ageless
SS200) in master packs flushed
with 50% CO
2
:50% N
2
significantly improved the colour stability of M. longissimus
dorsi and M. psoas major, relative to controls (Allen et al., 1996, Tewari et al;
2001).
•Martı´nez et al (2006) reported that fresh pork sausages when stored in 20%
CO
2:80% N
2 plus an oxygen scavenger (AgelessFX-40) for up to 20 days at 2 ± 1
°C, reduces psychrotrophic aerobic counts and an extended shelf-life in terms of
colour and lipid stability.
Cont..
•An alternative to sachets involves the incorporation of the oxygen scavenger into
the packaging structure itself.
•This minimizes negative consumer responses; it also eliminates the risk of
accidental rupture of the sachets and accidental consumption of their contents
(Suppakul et al., 2003).
•Cryovac (OS2000) a polymer-based UV light-activated oxygen scavenging film
which is structurally composed of an oxygen scavenger layer extruded into a
multilayer film, can reduce headspace oxygen levels from 1% to ppm levels in 4 –
10 days, comparable with oxygen scavenging sachet.
• These scavenging films have applications in a wide variety of food products
including dried or smoked meat products and processed meats (Butler, 2002).
•An alternative to sachets involves the incorporation of the oxygen scavenger into
the packaging structure itself.
•This minimizes negative consumer responses; it also eliminates the risk of
accidental rupture of the sachets and accidental consumption of their contents
(Suppakul et al., 2003).
•Cryovac (OS2000) a polymer-based UV light-activated oxygen scavenging film
which is structurally composed of an oxygen scavenger layer extruded into a
multilayer film, can reduce headspace oxygen levels from 1% to ppm levels in 4 –
10 days, comparable with oxygen scavenging sachet.
• These scavenging films have applications in a wide variety of food products
including dried or smoked meat products and processed meats (Butler, 2002).
CARBON DIOXIDE SCAVENGERS AND
EMITTERS
•Since the function of carbon dioxide is to suppress microbial growth. Therefore, a
carbon dioxide generating system can be viewed as a technique complimentary to
oxygen scavenging (Suppakul et al., 2003).
•Carbon dioxide emitter systems are based on either ferrous carbonate or a mixture of
ascorbic acid and sodium bicarbonate (Rooney, 1995).
•This package consists of a standard MAP tray but has a perforated false bottom
under which a porous sachet containing sodium bicarbonate/ascorbate is positioned.
•When juice exudates from the packaged meat drips onto the sachet, carbon dioxide is
emitted, thus replacing any carbon dioxide absorbed by the meat and preventing
package collapse.
•The inhibition of spoilage bacteria utilizing this active packaging technology may
reduce bacterial competition and thus permits growth and toxin production by non
proteolytic C. botulinum or the growth of other pathogenic bacteria (Sivertsvik, 2002).
•Carbon dioxide absorbers (sachets), consisting of either calcium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide, or potassium hydroxide, calcium oxide and silica gel may be used
to remove carbon dioxide during storage in order to prevent bursting of the package.
EMITTERS
•Since the function of carbon dioxide is to suppress microbial growth. Therefore, a
carbon dioxide generating system can be viewed as a technique complimentary to
oxygen scavenging (Suppakul et al., 2003).
•Carbon dioxide emitter systems are based on either ferrous carbonate or a mixture of
ascorbic acid and sodium bicarbonate (Rooney, 1995).
•This package consists of a standard MAP tray but has a perforated false bottom
under which a porous sachet containing sodium bicarbonate/ascorbate is positioned.
•When juice exudates from the packaged meat drips onto the sachet, carbon dioxide is
emitted, thus replacing any carbon dioxide absorbed by the meat and preventing
package collapse.
•The inhibition of spoilage bacteria utilizing this active packaging technology may
reduce bacterial competition and thus permits growth and toxin production by non
proteolytic C. botulinum or the growth of other pathogenic bacteria (Sivertsvik, 2002).
•Carbon dioxide absorbers (sachets), consisting of either calcium hydroxide and
sodium hydroxide, or potassium hydroxide, calcium oxide and silica gel may be used
to remove carbon dioxide during storage in order to prevent bursting of the package.
Cont..
•They have been used in packs of dehydrated poultry products and beef jerkey
(Ahvenainen, 2003).
•The classes of antimicrobials listed range from acid anhydride, alcohol,
bacteriocins, chelators, enzymes, organic acids and polysaccharides.
•These antimicrobial agents may be coated, incorporated, immobilized, or surface
modified onto package materials (Suppakul et al., 2003).
•In Japan, Ag-substituted zeolite is the most common antimicrobial agent
incorporated into plastics.
•Ag-ions inhibit a range of metabolic enzymes and have strong antimicrobial
activity (Vermeiren et al., 1999).
•Antimicrobial films can be classified into two types: those that contain an
antimicrobial agent which migrates to the surface of the food and, those which
are effective against surface growth of microorganisms without migration.
•They have been used in packs of dehydrated poultry products and beef jerkey
(Ahvenainen, 2003).
•The classes of antimicrobials listed range from acid anhydride, alcohol,
bacteriocins, chelators, enzymes, organic acids and polysaccharides.
•These antimicrobial agents may be coated, incorporated, immobilized, or surface
modified onto package materials (Suppakul et al., 2003).
•In Japan, Ag-substituted zeolite is the most common antimicrobial agent
incorporated into plastics.
•Ag-ions inhibit a range of metabolic enzymes and have strong antimicrobial
activity (Vermeiren et al., 1999).
•Antimicrobial films can be classified into two types: those that contain an
antimicrobial agent which migrates to the surface of the food and, those which
are effective against surface growth of microorganisms without migration.
COATING OF FILMS WITH ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
•Coating of films with antimicrobial agents can result in effective antimicrobial activity
packaging films such as Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC) and Linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) coated with nisin were effective in reducing S. typhimurium on
the surface of fresh broiler skin and drumsticks (Natrajan and Sheldon 2000).
Incorporation of antimicrobial agents:
•By direct incorporating antimicrobial additives in packaging films, antimicrobial activity
can be achieved.
•Antimicrobial films were prepared by incorporating acetic or propionic acid into a
chitosan matrix, with or without addition of lauric acid or cinnamaldehyde, and were
applied onto bologna, regular cooked ham or pastrami where growth of
Enterobacteriaceae and Serratia liquefaciens (surface-inoculated onto the meat
products) was delayed or completely inhibited as a result of film application (Ouattara
et al., 2000).
•Devlieghere, and Debevere (2002) reported that a 1.0% triclosan film had a
psychrotrophic strong antimicrobial effect in vitro simulated vacuum packaged
conditions against the food pathogen Listeria monocytogenes.
•Coating of films with antimicrobial agents can result in effective antimicrobial activity
packaging films such as Poly Vinyl Chloride(PVC) and Linear low density
polyethylene (LLDPE) coated with nisin were effective in reducing S. typhimurium on
the surface of fresh broiler skin and drumsticks (Natrajan and Sheldon 2000).
Incorporation of antimicrobial agents:
•By direct incorporating antimicrobial additives in packaging films, antimicrobial activity
can be achieved.
•Antimicrobial films were prepared by incorporating acetic or propionic acid into a
chitosan matrix, with or without addition of lauric acid or cinnamaldehyde, and were
applied onto bologna, regular cooked ham or pastrami where growth of
Enterobacteriaceae and Serratia liquefaciens (surface-inoculated onto the meat
products) was delayed or completely inhibited as a result of film application (Ouattara
et al., 2000).
•Devlieghere, and Debevere (2002) reported that a 1.0% triclosan film had a
psychrotrophic strong antimicrobial effect in vitro simulated vacuum packaged
conditions against the food pathogen Listeria monocytogenes.
Cont..
•Ha et al., (2001) examined the effect of grapefruit seed extract (GFSE), a natural
antimicrobial agent, incorporated (0.5% or 1% concentration) by co-extrusion or a
solution-coating process in multi layered polyethylene (PE) films, on the microbial
status and quality (colour (L, a, b), TBARS and pH) of fresh minced beef.
• The co-extruded film with 1% w/w GFSE showed antimicrobial activity against
Metaphycus flavus only, whereas a film coated with 1% GFSE showed activity
against several microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus
and Bacillus subtilis.
•Both types of GFSE-incorporated multilayer PE films reduced the growth of
aerobic and coliform bacteria in minced beef wrapped with film and stored for up
to 18 days at 3 °C, relative to controls.
•Ha et al., (2001) examined the effect of grapefruit seed extract (GFSE), a natural
antimicrobial agent, incorporated (0.5% or 1% concentration) by co-extrusion or a
solution-coating process in multi layered polyethylene (PE) films, on the microbial
status and quality (colour (L, a, b), TBARS and pH) of fresh minced beef.
• The co-extruded film with 1% w/w GFSE showed antimicrobial activity against
Metaphycus flavus only, whereas a film coated with 1% GFSE showed activity
against several microorganisms such as Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus
and Bacillus subtilis.
•Both types of GFSE-incorporated multilayer PE films reduced the growth of
aerobic and coliform bacteria in minced beef wrapped with film and stored for up
to 18 days at 3 °C, relative to controls.
Cont..
•Gennadios et al., (1997) used the edible coatings and films on fresh and frozen
meat and meat products and observed reduced moisture loss and maintenance
of juiciness in them.
•Edible coatings and films prepared from polysaccharides, proteins and lipids
have a variety of advantages such as biodegradability, edibility, biocompatibility,
aesthetic appearance and barrier properties against oxygen and physical stress.
•Edible coatings carrying antioxidants or
antimicrobials can be used for the direct
treatment of meat surfaces.
• Siragusa and Dickson (1993) demonstrated
that alginate coatings containing organic acids
were marginally effective on beef carcasses,
reducing levels of L. monocytogenes, S.
typhimurium and E. coli 0157:H7 by 1.80, 2.11
and 0.74 log cycles, respectively.
•Gennadios et al., (1997) used the edible coatings and films on fresh and frozen
meat and meat products and observed reduced moisture loss and maintenance
of juiciness in them.
•Edible coatings and films prepared from polysaccharides, proteins and lipids
have a variety of advantages such as biodegradability, edibility, biocompatibility,
aesthetic appearance and barrier properties against oxygen and physical stress.
•Edible coatings carrying antioxidants or
antimicrobials can be used for the direct
treatment of meat surfaces.
• Siragusa and Dickson (1993) demonstrated
that alginate coatings containing organic acids
were marginally effective on beef carcasses,
reducing levels of L. monocytogenes, S.
typhimurium and E. coli 0157:H7 by 1.80, 2.11
and 0.74 log cycles, respectively.
Cont..
Immobilization
•Some antimicrobial packaging systems utilize covalently immobilized antimicrobial
substances which suppress microbial growth.
•Immobilization of bacteriocins nisin and lacticin 3147 to packaging material made
up of PE/Polyamide reduced the population of lactic acid bacteria, L. innocua and
S.aureus in hams stored in MAP (60% N
2:40% CO
2) thereby extending product
shelf life Scannell et al., (2000).
Naturally derived antimicrobial agents
•Naturally derived antimicrobial agents represent a lower perceived risk to the
consumer (Nicholson, 1998).
•Skandamis and Nychas (2002) studied the effect of volatiles of oregano essential
oil on the sensory, microbiological and physiochemical attributes of fresh beef
stored at 5 and 15 °C where longer shelf life was observed in samples
supplemented with the volatile compounds of oregano essential oil.
Immobilization
•Some antimicrobial packaging systems utilize covalently immobilized antimicrobial
substances which suppress microbial growth.
•Immobilization of bacteriocins nisin and lacticin 3147 to packaging material made
up of PE/Polyamide reduced the population of lactic acid bacteria, L. innocua and
S.aureus in hams stored in MAP (60% N
2:40% CO
2) thereby extending product
shelf life Scannell et al., (2000).
Naturally derived antimicrobial agents
•Naturally derived antimicrobial agents represent a lower perceived risk to the
consumer (Nicholson, 1998).
•Skandamis and Nychas (2002) studied the effect of volatiles of oregano essential
oil on the sensory, microbiological and physiochemical attributes of fresh beef
stored at 5 and 15 °C where longer shelf life was observed in samples
supplemented with the volatile compounds of oregano essential oil.
POTENTIAL FUTURE APPLICATIONS
•Since consumer demands for ready to eat convenience meals are constantly
increasing, packaging of ready meals in self-heating active packaging is an
important future application.
•Examples of such self heating packaging is microwave susceptors which consist
of aluminium or stainless steel deposited on substrates such as polyester films or
paperboard which serve dry, crisp and ultimately brown microwave food.
•Self heating aluminium or steel cans and containers, currently used by coffee
manufacturers may have applications in the production of ready meals containing
various meats (Ahvenainen, 2003).
•Flavour/odour adsorbers may also have potential in active packaging technology
for muscle foods.
•These adsorber systems are made up of cellulose tri- acetate, acetylated paper,
citric acid, ferrous salt/ascorbate and activated carbon/clays/zeolites which are
useful in removing off odours and flavuors generated as a result of the oxidation
of lipids in packaged food ( Ahvanainen, 2003)
•Since consumer demands for ready to eat convenience meals are constantly
increasing, packaging of ready meals in self-heating active packaging is an
important future application.
•Examples of such self heating packaging is microwave susceptors which consist
of aluminium or stainless steel deposited on substrates such as polyester films or
paperboard which serve dry, crisp and ultimately brown microwave food.
•Self heating aluminium or steel cans and containers, currently used by coffee
manufacturers may have applications in the production of ready meals containing
various meats (Ahvenainen, 2003).
•Flavour/odour adsorbers may also have potential in active packaging technology
for muscle foods.
•These adsorber systems are made up of cellulose tri- acetate, acetylated paper,
citric acid, ferrous salt/ascorbate and activated carbon/clays/zeolites which are
useful in removing off odours and flavuors generated as a result of the oxidation
of lipids in packaged food ( Ahvanainen, 2003)
INTELLIGENT / SMART PACKAGING
•Intelligent packaging systems are those that monitor the condition of packaged
foods to give information regarding the quality of the packaged food during
transport and storage (Ahvanainen, 2003).
•Thus this packaging system senses some properties of the food it encloses or
the environment in which it is kept and which is able to inform the manufacturer,
retailer and consumer of the state of these properties.
•Intelligent packaging mainly involves the use of sensors, indicators and Radio
frequency identification (RFID) Labels.
Examples of intelligent packaging applications for use within the food industry
Tamper evidence and pack integrityVisual oxygen indicator
Indicators of product safety/qualityTime-temperature indicators (TTI’s), gas sensing
devices, microbial growth, pathogen detection
Traceability/anti-theft devicesRadio frequency identification (RFID) Labels, tags,
chips
Product authenticity Holographic images, RFID
•Intelligent packaging systems are those that monitor the condition of packaged
foods to give information regarding the quality of the packaged food during
transport and storage (Ahvanainen, 2003).
•Thus this packaging system senses some properties of the food it encloses or
the environment in which it is kept and which is able to inform the manufacturer,
retailer and consumer of the state of these properties.
•Intelligent packaging mainly involves the use of sensors, indicators and Radio
frequency identification (RFID) Labels.
Examples of intelligent packaging applications for use within the food industry
Tamper evidence and pack integrityVisual oxygen indicator
Indicators of product safety/qualityTime-temperature indicators (TTI’s), gas sensing
devices, microbial growth, pathogen detection
Traceability/anti-theft devicesRadio frequency identification (RFID) Labels, tags,
chips
Product authenticity Holographic images, RFID
INTELLIGENT / SMART PACKAGING
SENSORS
•A sensor is defined as a device used to detect, locate or quantify energy or
matter, giving a signal for the detection or measurement of a physical or chemical
property to which the device responds (Kress-Rogers, 1998).
•An optical sensor approach offers a realistic alternative to Modified Atmosphere
Packaging and Vacuum Packaging.
•A sensor is defined as a device used to detect, locate or quantify energy or
matter, giving a signal for the detection or measurement of a physical or chemical
property to which the device responds (Kress-Rogers, 1998).
•An optical sensor approach offers a realistic alternative to Modified Atmosphere
Packaging and Vacuum Packaging.
Cont..
•Most sensors contain two basic functional units: a receptor and a
transducer. In the receptor, physical or chemical information is transformed
into a form of energy, which may be measured by the transducer.
•The transducer is a device capable of transforming the energy carrying the
physical or chemical information about the sample into a useful analytical
signal.
•There are different types of sensors used in meat industry such as Gas
sensors, Fluoresence-based oxygen sensors, Biosensors etc.
•Most sensors contain two basic functional units: a receptor and a
transducer. In the receptor, physical or chemical information is transformed
into a form of energy, which may be measured by the transducer.
•The transducer is a device capable of transforming the energy carrying the
physical or chemical information about the sample into a useful analytical
signal.
•There are different types of sensors used in meat industry such as Gas
sensors, Fluoresence-based oxygen sensors, Biosensors etc.
GAS SENSORS
•Gas sensors are devices that respond reversibly and quantitatively to the
presence of a gaseous analyte by changing the physical parameters of the
sensor and are monitored by an external device.
•Systems presently available for gas detection include amperometric oxygen
sensors, potentiometric carbon dioxide sensors (Kress-Rogers,1998).
•Recently optical oxygen sensors have been developed which are comprised of a
solid-state material, and operates on the principle of luminescence quenching or
absorbance changes caused by direct contact with the gaseous analyte.
•This solid-state sensor is inert and does not consume analyte or undergo other
chemical reactions (Wolfbeis, 1991).
•Some sensors are developed which senses gaseous analytes such as hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide and amines and thus enhances the quality control
systems through detection of product deterioration or microbial contamination
(Wolfbeis and List, 1995).
•Gas sensors are devices that respond reversibly and quantitatively to the
presence of a gaseous analyte by changing the physical parameters of the
sensor and are monitored by an external device.
•Systems presently available for gas detection include amperometric oxygen
sensors, potentiometric carbon dioxide sensors (Kress-Rogers,1998).
•Recently optical oxygen sensors have been developed which are comprised of a
solid-state material, and operates on the principle of luminescence quenching or
absorbance changes caused by direct contact with the gaseous analyte.
•This solid-state sensor is inert and does not consume analyte or undergo other
chemical reactions (Wolfbeis, 1991).
•Some sensors are developed which senses gaseous analytes such as hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide and amines and thus enhances the quality control
systems through detection of product deterioration or microbial contamination
(Wolfbeis and List, 1995).
FLUORESCENCE-BASED OXYGEN SENSORS
•Flourescence-based oxygen sensors represent the most advanced and promising
systems to date for remote measurement of headspace gases in packaged meat
products.
•The active component of a fluorescence-based oxygen sensor normally consists of a
long-delay fluorescent or phosphorescent dye (Pt-porphyrins) encapsulated in a solid
polymer matrix (polystyrene).
•The dye-polymer coating is applied as a thin film coating on a suitable solid support
(Wolfbeis, 1991).
•Molecular oxygen, present in the packaging headspace, penetrates the sensitive
coating through simple difusion and quenches luminescence by a dynamic, i.e.
collisional mechanism.
•Oxygen is quantified by measuring changes in luminescence parameters from the
oxygen-sensing element in contact with the gas or liquid sample, using a
predetermined calibration.
•The process is reversible and clean; neither the dye nor oxygen is consumed in the
photochemical reactions involved, no by-products are generated and the whole cycle
can be repeated.
•Flourescence-based oxygen sensors represent the most advanced and promising
systems to date for remote measurement of headspace gases in packaged meat
products.
•The active component of a fluorescence-based oxygen sensor normally consists of a
long-delay fluorescent or phosphorescent dye (Pt-porphyrins) encapsulated in a solid
polymer matrix (polystyrene).
•The dye-polymer coating is applied as a thin film coating on a suitable solid support
(Wolfbeis, 1991).
•Molecular oxygen, present in the packaging headspace, penetrates the sensitive
coating through simple difusion and quenches luminescence by a dynamic, i.e.
collisional mechanism.
•Oxygen is quantified by measuring changes in luminescence parameters from the
oxygen-sensing element in contact with the gas or liquid sample, using a
predetermined calibration.
•The process is reversible and clean; neither the dye nor oxygen is consumed in the
photochemical reactions involved, no by-products are generated and the whole cycle
can be repeated.
Cont..
•The polymers with good gas barrier properties such as polyamide, polyethylene
tere- phthalate and PVC are not suitable for oxygen sensing as oxygen
quenching is slow in such media.
•Working range: Most of the sensors works within the range from 0 to 100 kPa of
oxygen, or at least 0–21 kPa (0–21%) with detection limits of 0.01–0.1 kPa
(where, kPa corresponds to percentage oxygen pressure at room temperature
and ambient air pressure)
•Fitzgerald et al,. (2001) examined the potential of platinum based disposable
oxygen sensors as a quality control instrument for vacuum-packed raw and
cooked meat and MA packed sliced ham while O’Mahony et al., (2004) used
fluorescent oxygen sensors printed directly onto the packaging material of sous
vide beef lasagna.
•Each sensor costs less than one cent to produce it (Kerry and Papkovsky,
2002) and has minimal impact on packaged meat production costs.
•The polymers with good gas barrier properties such as polyamide, polyethylene
tere- phthalate and PVC are not suitable for oxygen sensing as oxygen
quenching is slow in such media.
•Working range: Most of the sensors works within the range from 0 to 100 kPa of
oxygen, or at least 0–21 kPa (0–21%) with detection limits of 0.01–0.1 kPa
(where, kPa corresponds to percentage oxygen pressure at room temperature
and ambient air pressure)
•Fitzgerald et al,. (2001) examined the potential of platinum based disposable
oxygen sensors as a quality control instrument for vacuum-packed raw and
cooked meat and MA packed sliced ham while O’Mahony et al., (2004) used
fluorescent oxygen sensors printed directly onto the packaging material of sous
vide beef lasagna.
•Each sensor costs less than one cent to produce it (Kerry and Papkovsky,
2002) and has minimal impact on packaged meat production costs.
INTEGRITY INDICATORS
•These systems provide qualitative or semi-quantitative information through visual
colorimetric changes or through comparison with standard references and can be
used as non-invasive indicator systems as part of an MA package.
• The majority of indicators have been developed for package integrity testing which is
an essential requirement for the maintenance of quality and safety standards in
packaging of meat products.
•With the exception of high oxygen content MA packaging of fresh meat, many foods
are packaged in low (0–2%) oxygen atmospheres.
•In such cases, leaks normally result in a significant increase in oxygen concentration.
•Visual oxygen indicators consisting mainly of a redox dyes have been tested as leak
indicators in MA packaged minced steaks and minced meat pizzas, respectively, and
reported as reliable (Ahvenainen et al., 1997). Disadvantages of such devices
include high sensitivity (0.1% oxygen concentration required for colour change means
indicators are susceptible to residual oxygen in MA packs).
•A visual carbon dioxide indicator system consisting of calcium hydroxide (carbon
dioxide absorber) and a redox indicator dye incorporated in polypropylene resin may
be applicable to certain meat packaging applications (Hong and Park 2000)
•These systems provide qualitative or semi-quantitative information through visual
colorimetric changes or through comparison with standard references and can be
used as non-invasive indicator systems as part of an MA package.
• The majority of indicators have been developed for package integrity testing which is
an essential requirement for the maintenance of quality and safety standards in
packaging of meat products.
•With the exception of high oxygen content MA packaging of fresh meat, many foods
are packaged in low (0–2%) oxygen atmospheres.
•In such cases, leaks normally result in a significant increase in oxygen concentration.
•Visual oxygen indicators consisting mainly of a redox dyes have been tested as leak
indicators in MA packaged minced steaks and minced meat pizzas, respectively, and
reported as reliable (Ahvenainen et al., 1997). Disadvantages of such devices
include high sensitivity (0.1% oxygen concentration required for colour change means
indicators are susceptible to residual oxygen in MA packs).
•A visual carbon dioxide indicator system consisting of calcium hydroxide (carbon
dioxide absorber) and a redox indicator dye incorporated in polypropylene resin may
be applicable to certain meat packaging applications (Hong and Park 2000)
FRESHNESS INDICATORS
•Freshness indicators provide direct product quality information resulting from microbial
growth or chemical changes within a food product.
• Microbiological quality may be determined through reactions between indicators included
within the package and microbial growth metabolites (Smolander, 2003).
•The majority of freshness indicators are based on indicator colour change in response to
microbial metabolites produced during spoilage.
• Dainty (1996) and Nychas et al., (1998) used freshness indicators to determine spoilage
of foods and chemical changes in meat during storage.
•The formation of different potential indicator metabolites in meat products is dependent on
the product type, associated spoilage flora, storage conditions and packaging system.
•Changes in the concentration of organic acids such as n- butyrate, L-lactic acid, D-lactate
and acetic acid during storage offer potential as indicator metabolites for a number of meat
products (Shu, et al; 1993).
•Colour based pH indicators offer potential for use as indicators of these microbial
metabolites.
•Freshness indicators provide direct product quality information resulting from microbial
growth or chemical changes within a food product.
• Microbiological quality may be determined through reactions between indicators included
within the package and microbial growth metabolites (Smolander, 2003).
•The majority of freshness indicators are based on indicator colour change in response to
microbial metabolites produced during spoilage.
• Dainty (1996) and Nychas et al., (1998) used freshness indicators to determine spoilage
of foods and chemical changes in meat during storage.
•The formation of different potential indicator metabolites in meat products is dependent on
the product type, associated spoilage flora, storage conditions and packaging system.
•Changes in the concentration of organic acids such as n- butyrate, L-lactic acid, D-lactate
and acetic acid during storage offer potential as indicator metabolites for a number of meat
products (Shu, et al; 1993).
•Colour based pH indicators offer potential for use as indicators of these microbial
metabolites.
FRESHNESS INDICATORS
•Ethanol, like lactic acid and acetic acid, is an important indicator of fermentative
metabolism of lactic acid bacteria. Randell et al., (1995) reported an increase in the
ethanol concentration of anaerobically MA packaged marinated chicken as a function of
storage time.
•Biogenic amines such as histamine, putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine have been
implicated as indicators of meat product decomposition (Kaniou et al., 2001).
•Carbon dioxide produced during microbial growth can in many instances be indicative of
quality deterioration.
•Hydrogen sulphide, a breakdown product of cysteine, which is produced during the
spoilage of meat and poultry by a number of bacterial species with intense off-flavours.
•It forms a green pigment, sulphmyocin, when bound to myoglobin and this pigment formed
the basis for the development of an agarose-immobilised, myoglobin-based freshness
indicator for unmarinated broiler pieces (Smolander et al., 2002).
•Freshness indicators based on broad-spectrum colour changes have a number of
disadvantages which need to be resolved before widespread commercial application.
•The presence of certain target metabolites is not necessarily an indication of poor quality.
•Ethanol, like lactic acid and acetic acid, is an important indicator of fermentative
metabolism of lactic acid bacteria. Randell et al., (1995) reported an increase in the
ethanol concentration of anaerobically MA packaged marinated chicken as a function of
storage time.
•Biogenic amines such as histamine, putrescine, tyramine and cadaverine have been
implicated as indicators of meat product decomposition (Kaniou et al., 2001).
•Carbon dioxide produced during microbial growth can in many instances be indicative of
quality deterioration.
•Hydrogen sulphide, a breakdown product of cysteine, which is produced during the
spoilage of meat and poultry by a number of bacterial species with intense off-flavours.
•It forms a green pigment, sulphmyocin, when bound to myoglobin and this pigment formed
the basis for the development of an agarose-immobilised, myoglobin-based freshness
indicator for unmarinated broiler pieces (Smolander et al., 2002).
•Freshness indicators based on broad-spectrum colour changes have a number of
disadvantages which need to be resolved before widespread commercial application.
•The presence of certain target metabolites is not necessarily an indication of poor quality.
FRESHNESS INDICATORS
TIME-TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
•A time-temperature indicator or integrator (TTI) may be defined as a device used to
show a measurable, time- temperature dependent change that reflects the full or
partial temperature history of a food product to which it is attached (Taoukis, 2001).
•Operation of TTIs is based on mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or
microbiological change and usually expressed as a visible response in the form of
colour development or colour movement.
•The visible response thus gives a cumulative indication of the storage temperature to
which the TTI has been exposed.
•TTIs are small tags or labels that keep track of time-temperature histories to which a
perishable product is exposed from the point of manufacture to the retail outlet or end-
consumer.
• There are 2 types of TTIs namely Diffusion-based TTIs and Enzymatic TTIs.
•Diffusion-based TTIs are dependent on the diffusion of a coloured fatty acid ester
(indicator substsance) along a porous wick made of high quality blotting paper while
Enzymatic TTIs are based on a colour change induced by a drop in pH resulting from
the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of a lipid substrate.
•A time-temperature indicator or integrator (TTI) may be defined as a device used to
show a measurable, time- temperature dependent change that reflects the full or
partial temperature history of a food product to which it is attached (Taoukis, 2001).
•Operation of TTIs is based on mechanical, chemical, electrochemical, enzymatic or
microbiological change and usually expressed as a visible response in the form of
colour development or colour movement.
•The visible response thus gives a cumulative indication of the storage temperature to
which the TTI has been exposed.
•TTIs are small tags or labels that keep track of time-temperature histories to which a
perishable product is exposed from the point of manufacture to the retail outlet or end-
consumer.
• There are 2 types of TTIs namely Diffusion-based TTIs and Enzymatic TTIs.
•Diffusion-based TTIs are dependent on the diffusion of a coloured fatty acid ester
(indicator substsance) along a porous wick made of high quality blotting paper while
Enzymatic TTIs are based on a colour change induced by a drop in pH resulting from
the controlled enzymatic hydrolysis of a lipid substrate.
TIME-TEMPERATURE INDICATORS
RADIO FREQUENCY IDENTIFICATION TAGS (RFID)
•RFID technology does not fall into either sensor or indicator classification but it
represents a separate electronic information based form of intelligent packaging.
•RFID uses tags affxed to assets (cattle, containers, pallets, etc.) to transmit
accurate, real-time information to a user’s information system.
•RFID is one of the many automatic identification technologies (a group which
includes bar codes) and offers a number of potential benefits to the meat
production, distribution and retail chain.
•These include traceability, inventory management, labour saving costs, security
and promotion of quality and safety (Mousavi et al., 2002).
•RFID tag contains a tiny transponder and antenna that have a unique number or
alphanumerical sequence; the tag responds to signals received from a reader’s
antenna and transmits it’s number back to the reader.
•RFID technology does not fall into either sensor or indicator classification but it
represents a separate electronic information based form of intelligent packaging.
•RFID uses tags affxed to assets (cattle, containers, pallets, etc.) to transmit
accurate, real-time information to a user’s information system.
•RFID is one of the many automatic identification technologies (a group which
includes bar codes) and offers a number of potential benefits to the meat
production, distribution and retail chain.
•These include traceability, inventory management, labour saving costs, security
and promotion of quality and safety (Mousavi et al., 2002).
•RFID tag contains a tiny transponder and antenna that have a unique number or
alphanumerical sequence; the tag responds to signals received from a reader’s
antenna and transmits it’s number back to the reader.
Cont..
•RFID tags have the advantage over barcoding in that tags can be embedded within a
container or package without adversely affecting the data.
•RFID tags can hold simple information (such as identification numbers) for tracking or can
carry more complex information such as temperature and relative humidity data, package
date, nutritional information, cooking instructions etc.
•Common RFID frequencies range from low (125 kHz) to UHF (850–900 MHz) and
microwave frequencies (2.45 GHz). Low frequency tags are cheaper, use less power and
are better able to penetrate non-metallic objects. These tags are most appropriate for use
with meat products.
•RFID tags have the advantage over barcoding in that tags can be embedded within a
container or package without adversely affecting the data.
•RFID tags can hold simple information (such as identification numbers) for tracking or can
carry more complex information such as temperature and relative humidity data, package
date, nutritional information, cooking instructions etc.
•Common RFID frequencies range from low (125 kHz) to UHF (850–900 MHz) and
microwave frequencies (2.45 GHz). Low frequency tags are cheaper, use less power and
are better able to penetrate non-metallic objects. These tags are most appropriate for use
with meat products.
NANOPACKAGING
•This packaging supports the preservation of fresh foods, extending their shelf
life and reducing the packaging waste associated with processed foods at the
same time (Sorrentino et al., 2007; Lee, 2010; Duncan, 2011).
•Nanotechnologies are superior than conventional food processing
technologies with increased shelf life of food products, preventing
contamination, and production of enhanced food quality.
•Nanotechnology is the technology applied in the
manipulation of nanomaterials for several
purposes, which plays a crucial role in the food
and agriculture sectors, contributes to crop
improvement, enhances the food quality and
safety, and promotes human health through novel
and innovative approaches.
•This packaging supports the preservation of fresh foods, extending their shelf
life and reducing the packaging waste associated with processed foods at the
same time (Sorrentino et al., 2007; Lee, 2010; Duncan, 2011).
•Nanotechnologies are superior than conventional food processing
technologies with increased shelf life of food products, preventing
contamination, and production of enhanced food quality.
•Nanotechnology is the technology applied in the
manipulation of nanomaterials for several
purposes, which plays a crucial role in the food
and agriculture sectors, contributes to crop
improvement, enhances the food quality and
safety, and promotes human health through novel
and innovative approaches.
Cont…
•Polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) are the latest materials aimed at improving gas
and water vapour barrier properties, mechanical strength, thermal stability and
chemical stability, recyclability, biodegradability, dimensional stability, heat
resistance and optical clarity.
Depending on their purpose, there are: “improved” nano-packaging, which is used
to improve the packaging properties:
•“Active” nano-packaging, which allows interaction with food and the environment
and plays a dynamic role in food preservation, and “intelligent” or “smart” nano-
packaging which is able to monitor the condition of packaged food or the
environment surrounding the food (Chaudhry and Castle, 2011; Rhim et al.,
2013; Silvestre et al., 2011).
•Polymer nanocomposites (PNCs) are the latest materials aimed at improving gas
and water vapour barrier properties, mechanical strength, thermal stability and
chemical stability, recyclability, biodegradability, dimensional stability, heat
resistance and optical clarity.
Depending on their purpose, there are: “improved” nano-packaging, which is used
to improve the packaging properties:
•“Active” nano-packaging, which allows interaction with food and the environment
and plays a dynamic role in food preservation, and “intelligent” or “smart” nano-
packaging which is able to monitor the condition of packaged food or the
environment surrounding the food (Chaudhry and Castle, 2011; Rhim et al.,
2013; Silvestre et al., 2011).
NANOSENSORS
•Nanoparticles used as nanosensors are able to detect the presence of gasses,
aromas, chemical contaminants or respond to changes in environmental
conditions (Azeredo, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•Excess oxygen is one of the main causes of food deterioration.
•Use of nanosensors allows easy monitoring of the oxygen content of a package
headspace without package destruction, and there are a number of these non-
invasive methods
•One of these methods is photo activated indicator ink for in-package oxygen
detection which is based upon nanosized TiO2 or SnO2 particles and a
methylene blue.
• In response to even minute quantities of oxygen indicator gradually changes
colour.
•Nanoparticles used as nanosensors are able to detect the presence of gasses,
aromas, chemical contaminants or respond to changes in environmental
conditions (Azeredo, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•Excess oxygen is one of the main causes of food deterioration.
•Use of nanosensors allows easy monitoring of the oxygen content of a package
headspace without package destruction, and there are a number of these non-
invasive methods
•One of these methods is photo activated indicator ink for in-package oxygen
detection which is based upon nanosized TiO2 or SnO2 particles and a
methylene blue.
• In response to even minute quantities of oxygen indicator gradually changes
colour.
Cont..
•Sensors may detect presence of some other gases such as gaseous amines,
which are indicators of fish and meat spoilage, in very low concentrations
(Azeredo, 2009; Mills and Hazafy, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•Similar to gases sensor, moisture sensor based on nanotechnology is developed.
•This sensor allows quick and accurate determination of package moisture levels
without invasive sampling.
•Under the influence of humidity polymer, matrix from the packaging swells, which
results in larger degrees of inter-nanoparticle séparation.
•These changes cause sensor strips to reflect or absorb different colours of light
which can be monitored (Duncan, 2011).
•Nanosensors can be used for detection of small organic and inorganic molecules,
as well.
•In this way, the presence of many meats and, in general, food contaminants such
as melamine, pesticide, some protein-based bacterial toxins, etc., can be
determined (Duncan, 2011)
•Sensors may detect presence of some other gases such as gaseous amines,
which are indicators of fish and meat spoilage, in very low concentrations
(Azeredo, 2009; Mills and Hazafy, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•Similar to gases sensor, moisture sensor based on nanotechnology is developed.
•This sensor allows quick and accurate determination of package moisture levels
without invasive sampling.
•Under the influence of humidity polymer, matrix from the packaging swells, which
results in larger degrees of inter-nanoparticle séparation.
•These changes cause sensor strips to reflect or absorb different colours of light
which can be monitored (Duncan, 2011).
•Nanosensors can be used for detection of small organic and inorganic molecules,
as well.
•In this way, the presence of many meats and, in general, food contaminants such
as melamine, pesticide, some protein-based bacterial toxins, etc., can be
determined (Duncan, 2011)
Cont..
•It is important to be able to monitor all of these parameters and any
changes in food product, because the food expiration date is
estimated by industries in consideration of distribution and storage
conditions ideal or in predicted limits, which is not always the case in
practice (Azeredo, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•The mechanism of the antimicrobial activity of antimicrobial
nanocomposite packaging materials based on silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) is still not well explored but it is supposed that packaging
gradually releases Ag ions which result in inhibition of ATP
production and DNA replication.
•Also, it is supposed that Ag ions can directly damage cell membranes
by increasing permeability and cause cell death.
•It is important to be able to monitor all of these parameters and any
changes in food product, because the food expiration date is
estimated by industries in consideration of distribution and storage
conditions ideal or in predicted limits, which is not always the case in
practice (Azeredo, 2009; Duncan, 2011).
•The mechanism of the antimicrobial activity of antimicrobial
nanocomposite packaging materials based on silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs) is still not well explored but it is supposed that packaging
gradually releases Ag ions which result in inhibition of ATP
production and DNA replication.
•Also, it is supposed that Ag ions can directly damage cell membranes
by increasing permeability and cause cell death.
Cont..
•Antibacterial properties of ZnO nanoparticles were evaluated against
Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry
meat, have found ZnO to be highly effective against both bacteria (Akbar
and Anal, 2013).
•Based on immunological assays (antibody antigen interactions), but they
have different optical and electrical properties which is why their use reduces
incubation and measurement times required for accurate detection and
improve selectivity.
•Antibacterial properties of ZnO nanoparticles were evaluated against
Salmonella Typhimurium and Staphylococcus aureus in ready-to-eat poultry
meat, have found ZnO to be highly effective against both bacteria (Akbar
and Anal, 2013).
•Based on immunological assays (antibody antigen interactions), but they
have different optical and electrical properties which is why their use reduces
incubation and measurement times required for accurate detection and
improve selectivity.
NANOLAMINATE
•Nanolaminate used to cover food consists of more than one layer, and the
materials are in the nanoscale (Weiss et al., 2006).
•Layer by layer (LbL) deposition techniques could be used to cover food
which has surface charges (Kotov, 2003).
• An advantage of the LbL technique is that the thickness of the coating can
be regulated with precision (1 to 100 nm) (Weiss et al., 2006).
•Along with serving as a barrier for gas or moisture, they can also carry
antioxidants and antimicrobials.
•However, it is important to note that the properties of these edible coatings
depended on the characteristics of the nanomaterials used in the layers
(Weiss et al., 2006).
•Nanolaminate used to cover food consists of more than one layer, and the
materials are in the nanoscale (Weiss et al., 2006).
•Layer by layer (LbL) deposition techniques could be used to cover food
which has surface charges (Kotov, 2003).
• An advantage of the LbL technique is that the thickness of the coating can
be regulated with precision (1 to 100 nm) (Weiss et al., 2006).
•Along with serving as a barrier for gas or moisture, they can also carry
antioxidants and antimicrobials.
•However, it is important to note that the properties of these edible coatings
depended on the characteristics of the nanomaterials used in the layers
(Weiss et al., 2006).
USE OF BIO-POLYMERS IN MEAT PACKAGING
•Polyethylene or co-polymer based materials are the most well-known packaging
materials which have been in use by the food industry for over 50 years.
•Limitations of using these plastic materials are reliance on petroleum products for
their production and their non-degradability, thus causing environmental
problems.
•Nowadays, food packaging has been impacted by notable changes in food
distribution, including globalization of the food supply, consumer trends for more
fresh and convenient foods, as well a desire for safer and better quality foods.
•Also, consumers are demanding about food packaging materials be more
natural, disposable, potentially biodegradable, as well as recyclable (Lopez-
Rubio et al., 2004).
•To meet the growing demand of recyclable or natural packaging materials and
consumer demands for safer and better quality foods, new and novel food-grade
packaging materials or technologies have been developed.
•Polyethylene or co-polymer based materials are the most well-known packaging
materials which have been in use by the food industry for over 50 years.
•Limitations of using these plastic materials are reliance on petroleum products for
their production and their non-degradability, thus causing environmental
problems.
•Nowadays, food packaging has been impacted by notable changes in food
distribution, including globalization of the food supply, consumer trends for more
fresh and convenient foods, as well a desire for safer and better quality foods.
•Also, consumers are demanding about food packaging materials be more
natural, disposable, potentially biodegradable, as well as recyclable (Lopez-
Rubio et al., 2004).
•To meet the growing demand of recyclable or natural packaging materials and
consumer demands for safer and better quality foods, new and novel food-grade
packaging materials or technologies have been developed.
Cont..
•Examples of these packaging materials include bio-based polymers, bioplastic or
biopolymer packaging products made from raw materials originating from agricultural
or marine sources (Cha and Chinnan, 2004).
•Bio-based polymers or biopolymers are developed from renewable resources
(Comstock et al., 2004).
•Examples of renewable resources used in the manufacture of these types of polymers
include polysaccharides (i.e. starch, alginates, pectin, carrageenans, chitosan/chitin),
proteins (casein, whey, collagen, gelatin, corn, soy, wheat, etc.), and lipids (fats,
waxes, or oils, etc.); (Comstock et al., 2004).
•Polymers, such as polylactate (PLA) or polyesters, also may be synthesized from
biologically-derived monomers, while microorganisms also can produce polymers
such as cellulose, xanthan, curlan, or pullulan (Kandemir et al., 2005).
•Comstock et al; 2004 further categorized biopolymers based on the ability to be
compostable or biodegradable. Bio-polymers can be processed similarly as of
petroleum-based plastics in sheets, by extrusion, spinning, injection molding, or
thermoforming.
•Examples of these packaging materials include bio-based polymers, bioplastic or
biopolymer packaging products made from raw materials originating from agricultural
or marine sources (Cha and Chinnan, 2004).
•Bio-based polymers or biopolymers are developed from renewable resources
(Comstock et al., 2004).
•Examples of renewable resources used in the manufacture of these types of polymers
include polysaccharides (i.e. starch, alginates, pectin, carrageenans, chitosan/chitin),
proteins (casein, whey, collagen, gelatin, corn, soy, wheat, etc.), and lipids (fats,
waxes, or oils, etc.); (Comstock et al., 2004).
•Polymers, such as polylactate (PLA) or polyesters, also may be synthesized from
biologically-derived monomers, while microorganisms also can produce polymers
such as cellulose, xanthan, curlan, or pullulan (Kandemir et al., 2005).
•Comstock et al; 2004 further categorized biopolymers based on the ability to be
compostable or biodegradable. Bio-polymers can be processed similarly as of
petroleum-based plastics in sheets, by extrusion, spinning, injection molding, or
thermoforming.
Cont..
•Bio-based polymers are also available in the form of edible films and coatings
which offer various advantages such as edibility, biocompatibility, aesthetic
appearance and barrier properties (Han, 2000).
•The application of edible films to muscle foods is accomplished by indirect or
direct application. For direct application, can be done by foaming, dipping,
spraying, casting, brushing, wrapping, or rolling (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•For foam applications, a foaming agent may be added to the coating or
compressed air blown into the applicator tank.
•Then, the edible foam is applied to the muscle food by flaps or brushes as it
moves over rollers.
•Dipping or submerging the muscle food into a tank of the emulsion may work
best, especially when applying several coats, when smoothing out irregular
surfaces, or when costs need to be controlled (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•Bio-based polymers are also available in the form of edible films and coatings
which offer various advantages such as edibility, biocompatibility, aesthetic
appearance and barrier properties (Han, 2000).
•The application of edible films to muscle foods is accomplished by indirect or
direct application. For direct application, can be done by foaming, dipping,
spraying, casting, brushing, wrapping, or rolling (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•For foam applications, a foaming agent may be added to the coating or
compressed air blown into the applicator tank.
•Then, the edible foam is applied to the muscle food by flaps or brushes as it
moves over rollers.
•Dipping or submerging the muscle food into a tank of the emulsion may work
best, especially when applying several coats, when smoothing out irregular
surfaces, or when costs need to be controlled (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
Cont..
•After dipping, the excess coating usually drips off and the remaining material is
allowed to set or solidify on the muscle food.
• In some cases, a heated air drier may be applied to speed up the setting process
or to remove excess water.
•When a thinner, more uniform edible film is required for certain surfaces, films may
be best applied by spraying.
•After dipping, the excess coating usually drips off and the remaining material is
allowed to set or solidify on the muscle food.
• In some cases, a heated air drier may be applied to speed up the setting process
or to remove excess water.
•When a thinner, more uniform edible film is required for certain surfaces, films may
be best applied by spraying.
POLYSACCHARIDE FILMS
•These are made from starch, alginate, cellulose ethers, chitosan, carageenan, or
pectins and impart hardness, crispness, compactness, thickening quality,
viscosity, adhesiveness and gel-forming ability to a variety of film (Baldwin et al.,
1995).
•Polysaccharide-derived films exhibit excellent gas permeability properties,
resulting in desirable modified atmospheres that enhance the shelf life of the
product without creating anaerobic conditions.
•Additionally, polysaccharide films and coatings can be used to extend the shelf-
life of muscle foods by preventing dehydration, oxidative rancidity, and surface
browning (Nisperos-Carriedo, 1994).
•When applied to wrapped meat products and subjected to smoking and steam,
the polysaccharide film actually dissolves and becomes integrated into the meat
surface. Meats treated with the polysaccharide film in this manner exhibited
higher yields, improved structure and texture, and reduced moisture loss (Labell,
1991)
•These are made from starch, alginate, cellulose ethers, chitosan, carageenan, or
pectins and impart hardness, crispness, compactness, thickening quality,
viscosity, adhesiveness and gel-forming ability to a variety of film (Baldwin et al.,
1995).
•Polysaccharide-derived films exhibit excellent gas permeability properties,
resulting in desirable modified atmospheres that enhance the shelf life of the
product without creating anaerobic conditions.
•Additionally, polysaccharide films and coatings can be used to extend the shelf-
life of muscle foods by preventing dehydration, oxidative rancidity, and surface
browning (Nisperos-Carriedo, 1994).
•When applied to wrapped meat products and subjected to smoking and steam,
the polysaccharide film actually dissolves and becomes integrated into the meat
surface. Meats treated with the polysaccharide film in this manner exhibited
higher yields, improved structure and texture, and reduced moisture loss (Labell,
1991)
STARCH FILMS
•are non-toxic, biologically absorbable, semi-permeable to carbon dioxide, and
resistant to passage of oxygen (Nisperos-Carriedo; 1994).
•Starch films containing High amylose concentration are flexible, oxygen impermeable,
oil resistant, heat-sealable, and water soluble (Gennadios et al., 1997).
•These films can resist the migration of moisture into the meat or poultry product
during storage thus lowers the a
w within the package and retard microbial growth,
reduces drip loss from meat products (Wong et al., 1994).
•Alginates are derived from seaweed, and possess good film-forming properties which
make them particularly useful in food applications.
•It improves the moisture retention, reduces the shrinkage, improves product texture,
juiciness, color, and odor of treated muscle foods.
•Alginate coatings reduced microbial counts, had acceptable flavours, tenderness,
appearance and did not affect cooking losses or overall acceptability of coated beef,
pork, lamb, and poultry products (Cuq, Gontard,and Guilbert, 1995)
•are non-toxic, biologically absorbable, semi-permeable to carbon dioxide, and
resistant to passage of oxygen (Nisperos-Carriedo; 1994).
•Starch films containing High amylose concentration are flexible, oxygen impermeable,
oil resistant, heat-sealable, and water soluble (Gennadios et al., 1997).
•These films can resist the migration of moisture into the meat or poultry product
during storage thus lowers the a
w within the package and retard microbial growth,
reduces drip loss from meat products (Wong et al., 1994).
•Alginates are derived from seaweed, and possess good film-forming properties which
make them particularly useful in food applications.
•It improves the moisture retention, reduces the shrinkage, improves product texture,
juiciness, color, and odor of treated muscle foods.
•Alginate coatings reduced microbial counts, had acceptable flavours, tenderness,
appearance and did not affect cooking losses or overall acceptability of coated beef,
pork, lamb, and poultry products (Cuq, Gontard,and Guilbert, 1995)
CELLULOSE-BASED FILMS
•are non edible, water soluble, resistant to fats and oils, tough, and flexible
(Baldwin et al; 1997).
•When applied to muscle foods it reduces oil uptake during frying and reduce
moisture loss when applied as glazes for poultry and seafood (Baker et al;
1994).
•Cellulose casings also are widely used by the meat industry in the manufacture
of ready-to-eat meat and poultry products, including frankfurters, sausages,
bologna, and other small diameter meat products subject to thermal processing.
•Cellulose casings are designed to contain the uncooked meat emulsion, allow for
heat penetration and smoke permeability and maintain the form of a long tubular
product.
•Since they are not considered as edible, cellulose casings used here are
removed from the meat product and the casings disposed in landfills or
enzymatically treated to assist in disposal (Cumba and Bellmer, 2005).
•are non edible, water soluble, resistant to fats and oils, tough, and flexible
(Baldwin et al; 1997).
•When applied to muscle foods it reduces oil uptake during frying and reduce
moisture loss when applied as glazes for poultry and seafood (Baker et al;
1994).
•Cellulose casings also are widely used by the meat industry in the manufacture
of ready-to-eat meat and poultry products, including frankfurters, sausages,
bologna, and other small diameter meat products subject to thermal processing.
•Cellulose casings are designed to contain the uncooked meat emulsion, allow for
heat penetration and smoke permeability and maintain the form of a long tubular
product.
•Since they are not considered as edible, cellulose casings used here are
removed from the meat product and the casings disposed in landfills or
enzymatically treated to assist in disposal (Cumba and Bellmer, 2005).
PECTIN
•Is a plant derived polysaccharide while Agar is seaweed derived polysaccharide.
•A combination of antibiotics with agar coatings extends the shelf life of poultry
and beef while addition of the bacteriocins nisin to agar coatings in combination
with food grade chelators (EDTA, citric acid, or polyoxyethylene sorbitan
monolaureate) reduces the levels of Salmonella typhimurium on poultry
surfaces 0.4–2.1 log
10
cycles (Natrajan and Sheldon, 2000).
•Is a plant derived polysaccharide while Agar is seaweed derived polysaccharide.
•A combination of antibiotics with agar coatings extends the shelf life of poultry
and beef while addition of the bacteriocins nisin to agar coatings in combination
with food grade chelators (EDTA, citric acid, or polyoxyethylene sorbitan
monolaureate) reduces the levels of Salmonella typhimurium on poultry
surfaces 0.4–2.1 log
10
cycles (Natrajan and Sheldon, 2000).
CHITOSAN
•is an edible and biodegradable polymer derived from chitin, the major organic skeletal
substance in the exoskeleton of arthropods, including insects, crustaceans, and some
fungi.
•Next to cellulose, chitosan is the most abundant natural polymer available
(Vartiainen et al., 2004).
•Desirable properties of chitosan are that it forms films without the addition of
additives, exhibits good oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability, as well as excellent
mechanical properties (Suyatma et al., 2004).
•Chitosan not only acts as a chelator in biological systems, but also exhibits
antimicrobial activity against bacteria yeasts, and molds (Vartiainen et al., 2004).
•However, one disadvantage with chitosan is its high sensitivity to moisture.
•Chitosan also inhibits a number of microorganisms and can produce semi-permeable
coatings (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•These inherent properties, coupled with the ability to form films, alone or in
combination with other polymers, make chitosan a desirable food packaging material.
•is an edible and biodegradable polymer derived from chitin, the major organic skeletal
substance in the exoskeleton of arthropods, including insects, crustaceans, and some
fungi.
•Next to cellulose, chitosan is the most abundant natural polymer available
(Vartiainen et al., 2004).
•Desirable properties of chitosan are that it forms films without the addition of
additives, exhibits good oxygen and carbon dioxide permeability, as well as excellent
mechanical properties (Suyatma et al., 2004).
•Chitosan not only acts as a chelator in biological systems, but also exhibits
antimicrobial activity against bacteria yeasts, and molds (Vartiainen et al., 2004).
•However, one disadvantage with chitosan is its high sensitivity to moisture.
•Chitosan also inhibits a number of microorganisms and can produce semi-permeable
coatings (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•These inherent properties, coupled with the ability to form films, alone or in
combination with other polymers, make chitosan a desirable food packaging material.
LIPID FILMS
•They are used as packaging material primarily to reduce shrinkage of the food
product, as well as to provide oxygen or moisture barriers.
•Fats are used to coat poultry, shrimp, meat patties, and sausages (Hernandez,
1994). Waxes and other types of fat-based oils also have been added to protein
or polysaccharide based films to impart flexibility, to improve coating
characteristics, or to prevent sticking during cooking (Baldwin et al., 1995).
• Edible lipid or resin coatings also may be prepared from waxes (e.g., carnauba,
beeswax, and paraffin), oils (vegetable, animal, and mineral), and surfactants
(Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•Despite these advantages, lipid-based films at higher storage temperatures may
exhibit lower permeability to gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
ethylene, leading to potentially anaerobic conditions which may present food
safety issues; additionally Lipid-based films are susceptible to oxidation,
cracking, flaking, thus produces off-flavors (Gennadios et al., 1997).
•They are used as packaging material primarily to reduce shrinkage of the food
product, as well as to provide oxygen or moisture barriers.
•Fats are used to coat poultry, shrimp, meat patties, and sausages (Hernandez,
1994). Waxes and other types of fat-based oils also have been added to protein
or polysaccharide based films to impart flexibility, to improve coating
characteristics, or to prevent sticking during cooking (Baldwin et al., 1995).
• Edible lipid or resin coatings also may be prepared from waxes (e.g., carnauba,
beeswax, and paraffin), oils (vegetable, animal, and mineral), and surfactants
(Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•Despite these advantages, lipid-based films at higher storage temperatures may
exhibit lower permeability to gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and
ethylene, leading to potentially anaerobic conditions which may present food
safety issues; additionally Lipid-based films are susceptible to oxidation,
cracking, flaking, thus produces off-flavors (Gennadios et al., 1997).
PROTEIN FILMS
•Casein, whey protein, gelatin/collagen, fibrinogen, soy protein, wheat gluten, corn zein, and egg
albumen can be processed into edible films.
• These protein-based films provide barriers for oxygen and carbon dioxide, but do not resist
water diffusion (Han, 2002).
•Milk proteins, namely casein and whey are desirable as components of the edible films because
of their nutritional value, excellent mechanical and barrier properties, solubility in water, ability to
act as emulsifiers and because of their industrial surplus. The casein films when used as a
packaging material in case of frozen salmon reduced the moisture loss, delayed lipid oxidation,
and reduced peroxide values in the product (Khwaldia et al., 2004).
•Another animal origin protein such as collagen films when heated can form a “skin” or edible film
that becomes an integral part of the meat product and reduce the shrink loss, increase
permeability of smoke to the meat product, increase juiciness, allow for easy removal of film after
cooking or smoking (Cutter and sumner, 2002).
•Plant based proteins such as Corn zein coatings when used reduced lipid oxidation in precooked
pork chops, but did not reduce moisture loss (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•Despite the advantages of using proteins in film formation, research has indicated that enzymes
associated with muscle foods can degrade protein films; also the application of protein films to
muscle foods may present health problems, especially for individuals with food allergies
associated with milk, egg, peanut, soybean, or rice proteins (Gennadios et al., 1997).
•Casein, whey protein, gelatin/collagen, fibrinogen, soy protein, wheat gluten, corn zein, and egg
albumen can be processed into edible films.
• These protein-based films provide barriers for oxygen and carbon dioxide, but do not resist
water diffusion (Han, 2002).
•Milk proteins, namely casein and whey are desirable as components of the edible films because
of their nutritional value, excellent mechanical and barrier properties, solubility in water, ability to
act as emulsifiers and because of their industrial surplus. The casein films when used as a
packaging material in case of frozen salmon reduced the moisture loss, delayed lipid oxidation,
and reduced peroxide values in the product (Khwaldia et al., 2004).
•Another animal origin protein such as collagen films when heated can form a “skin” or edible film
that becomes an integral part of the meat product and reduce the shrink loss, increase
permeability of smoke to the meat product, increase juiciness, allow for easy removal of film after
cooking or smoking (Cutter and sumner, 2002).
•Plant based proteins such as Corn zein coatings when used reduced lipid oxidation in precooked
pork chops, but did not reduce moisture loss (Cutter and Sumner, 2002).
•Despite the advantages of using proteins in film formation, research has indicated that enzymes
associated with muscle foods can degrade protein films; also the application of protein films to
muscle foods may present health problems, especially for individuals with food allergies
associated with milk, egg, peanut, soybean, or rice proteins (Gennadios et al., 1997).
POLYLACTIC ACID FILMS
•Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer, made primarily from renewable
agricultural resources (i.e. corn) following fermentation of starch and
condensation of lactic acid.
•PLA is composed of chains of lactic acid and exhibits tensile strength comparable
to other commercially available polymers.
• In addition to its strength, biodegradability, and compostability, PLA polymers
also are resistant to oil-based products, are sealable at lower temperatures, and
can act as flavour or odor barriers for foodstuffs (Krishnamurthy et al., 2004).
•Chellappa (1997) concluded that, PLA when applied on lean beef surfaces,
reduced pathogens mainly E. coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, S.
typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica from the meat.
•Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polymer, made primarily from renewable
agricultural resources (i.e. corn) following fermentation of starch and
condensation of lactic acid.
•PLA is composed of chains of lactic acid and exhibits tensile strength comparable
to other commercially available polymers.
• In addition to its strength, biodegradability, and compostability, PLA polymers
also are resistant to oil-based products, are sealable at lower temperatures, and
can act as flavour or odor barriers for foodstuffs (Krishnamurthy et al., 2004).
•Chellappa (1997) concluded that, PLA when applied on lean beef surfaces,
reduced pathogens mainly E. coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, S.
typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica from the meat.
COMPOSITE FILMS
•Two or more materials can be combined to improve gas exchange,adherence to
coated products, or moisture vapor permeability properties.
•A combination of vegetable oils, glycerin, citric acid, and antioxidants prevented
rancidity by acting as a moisture barrier, restricting oxygen transport, and serving
as a carrier for antioxidants to various foods (Cutter and Sumner,2002).
•Thus when applied to muscle foods with other food grade compounds (i.e.
chelators, antimicrobials, anti-oxidants), bio-based packaging cannot only
enhance the quality or safety of the food, but slows down deterioration and
extends the shelf life of product.
•Hence packaging is an efficient containment, preservation and protection method
for meat product with all necessary information required during packing,
transport, storage, sale and use, along with the provision of convenience, taking
into consideration all legal and environmental issues
•Two or more materials can be combined to improve gas exchange,adherence to
coated products, or moisture vapor permeability properties.
•A combination of vegetable oils, glycerin, citric acid, and antioxidants prevented
rancidity by acting as a moisture barrier, restricting oxygen transport, and serving
as a carrier for antioxidants to various foods (Cutter and Sumner,2002).
•Thus when applied to muscle foods with other food grade compounds (i.e.
chelators, antimicrobials, anti-oxidants), bio-based packaging cannot only
enhance the quality or safety of the food, but slows down deterioration and
extends the shelf life of product.
•Hence packaging is an efficient containment, preservation and protection method
for meat product with all necessary information required during packing,
transport, storage, sale and use, along with the provision of convenience, taking
into consideration all legal and environmental issues
•Sustained growth of the economy, income, rapid urbanisation, growing middle class,
higher disposable incomes, changing lifestyles, improvement in transportation and
storage facilities, distribution chain in general and the rise of supermarkets in rural
towns, are fuelling the rapid increase in the consumption of meat products in India.
•Majority of the young population are now exposed to global trends, which is causing
the demand for food hygiene to grow by leaps and bounds.
•Consumers are experimenting more and more today and they are ready to spend on
worthy and differentiated products, which stand apart in taste and experience.
•The meat market is also witnessing rapid and perceptible changes in the form of
increased acceptance of chilled meat being delivered at the consumer’s doorstep by
online meat distributors.
•These developments call for a sweeping change in meat packaging in India, and
hence we may hope that these advances in packing of meat discussed will be
embrace in India too.
CONCLUSION
higher disposable incomes, changing lifestyles, improvement in transportation and
storage facilities, distribution chain in general and the rise of supermarkets in rural
towns, are fuelling the rapid increase in the consumption of meat products in India.
•Majority of the young population are now exposed to global trends, which is causing
the demand for food hygiene to grow by leaps and bounds.
•Consumers are experimenting more and more today and they are ready to spend on
worthy and differentiated products, which stand apart in taste and experience.
•The meat market is also witnessing rapid and perceptible changes in the form of
increased acceptance of chilled meat being delivered at the consumer’s doorstep by
online meat distributors.
•These developments call for a sweeping change in meat packaging in India, and
hence we may hope that these advances in packing of meat discussed will be
embrace in India too.
CONCLUSION
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