AFRICA POLITICS AND PART OF NATURAL RESOURCES CONFLICTS IN AFRICA

AFRICAN POLITICS

1. African Politics Peter J. Mugume

2. Outline Introduction Understanding ethnicity and identity politics, Religion, the state and conflict in the African politics Extreme ideologies and Terrorism Natural resource and Local conflicts International Conflicts in Africa

3. Identity Politics The term identity politics means- Political positions based on the interests and perspectives of social groups with which people identify Identity can be shaped around many principles age, religion, social class or caste, culture, dialect, disability, education, ethnicity, language, nationality, sex, gender identity, generatio, occupation, profession, race, political party affiliation, sexual orientation, settlement, urban and rural habitation, and veteran status

4. National Security; Definition and components of national security ; elements of national power; National interests; instruments of national interest; concepts and elements of national security, balance of power, security dilemma, game theory, collective security, etc

5. Threats to national security; political subversion and political violence; state fragility, coup d’Etáts and revolutions, arms proliferation etc. Terrorism and Global Security; Traditional theories of global security; changing patterns of security; emergence of terrorist networks, -origins, nature, methods, processes, and impact to global security.

6. What is Security? How is/has it been defined Security studies

7. Security studies deals with threats for survival To Walter Lippman , (1991:6): A nation/State is secure to the extent to which it is not in danger of having to sacrifice core values and is able to maintain them by victory in such war

8. “ Security , in an objective sense, measures the absence of threats to acquired values, in a subjective sense, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked” (Arnold Wolfers, 1962:150)

9. Security-insecurity is defined in relation to vulnerabilities-both internal and external- that threaten or have the potential to bring down or weaken state structures, both territorial and institutional, and government regimes (Mohammed Ayoob, 1995:9)

10. However, according to Smith, Security is an essentially contested concept. While Buzan refer to Security as a political process, “when an issue is presented as posing an existential threat to a designated referent object”

11. King and Murray in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), define security as the condition of being protected from or not exposed to danger; safety… Freedom from care, anxiety or apprehension; a feeling of safety or freedom from an absence of danger (King and Murray, 2001).

12. Therefore Buzan explores the political nature of labeling an issue as security, the OED emphasizes the subjectivity inherent in security as a feeling

13. With the cold war over, security studies has re-emerged and core assumptions of what is to be secured, and how to secure it- have appeared prominent in security studies.

14. Traditionally the state has been the thing to be secured, the state has been the referent object and it has sought security through military might

15. However, contemporary security studies has offered different referent objects , Different means/ways of achieving security and there are also indicators which show that far from enhancing security, the state has been the cause of insecurity

16. Hence despite the contested nature of security, it is important to understand how referent objects are threatened and what they can do to survive

17. A STATE is a territorially based entity with a government to rule over its territory and recognized as a state by other states. Approaches to security focused on states, have long dominated international relations thinking from two perspectives namely:

18. Firstly , states have been the central actors in international affairs. Secondly , security has been considered their most important concern. In this regard, in international relations the core values of security has been the responsibility of states

19. Hence understanding security in terms of states makes sense because of the following reasons; States developed because of fierce pressures of international politics, states were shaped by international politics 2. States are unique concentrates of power. 3. States remain the ultimate focal points of most people’s loyalty and sense of identity; and

20. States have created or embody the largest, most powerful, and most effective human communities Therefore, states remain central to international politics militarily, economically, politically and psychologically

21. Additionally, a state must sustain security against external threats, such as other states, and other international actors such as terrorists. The state must also maintain security against internal threats to its character, rule, or territorial and demographic integrity.

22. The security behavior of states is two sided, notably: States are defensively oriented. When threatened, presently or potentially, they react. States also aggressively pose aggression against each other and to people in their own societies. In other words they are threatened, and threatening, fearful while being armed and dangerous.

23. State security has four basic elements. Physical safety. Autonomy. Development and Rule

24. Safety from attack is obvious. Governments deter, or limit and defeat, a military attack. However, autonomy is frequently taken to be even more important by governments and citizens

25. The second element which is understood as freedom from having to take orders from and be controlled by others. Autonomy is seen as a way of people having their own state, people can also risk their lives, possessions for purposes of having a state e.g Israel and Palestine

26. Autonomy is often considered more important than rule; when a government loses autonomy it may easily lose power and authority too, through outside interference and declining legitimacy in the eyes of its citizens

27. The third element is National Development- which is also understood from the aspect of economic, social, education, political improvement. Others under National development, is strengthening the state militarily, and raising living standards

28. The last component of state security is Rule . This is the capability to run ones domain-having the power, reach, and legitimacy to gain obedience and quell disobedience

29. National Security National interests are innate to any nation They are securitized because they are core to national survival , national security and sovereignty including well being of any nation

30. Securitizing National Interests Desires, needs, aspirations, resources ( ie human, natural and man made), core beliefs and values of a people/nation Are further determined by the requirement to: Promote Pursue & Protect them

31. National security goals Identification of national goals and interests Determination of tools and instruments Cost-benefit ratio analysis (national security & foreign policy goals)

32. Conflicts in the context of Africa The African continent has been susceptible to intra and interstate conflicts since the attainment of independence over six decades ago . These conflicts have impacted negatively on the socio-economic, political, and sustainable development of the continent . Now, let examines the causes and dynamics of conflicts in Africa context to give you insights into the major conflict areas on the continent

33. Ethinicity An ethnic group can be A community of people who have the conviction that they have a common identity and common fate based on issues of origin, kinship ties, traditions, cultural uniqueness, a shared history and possibly a shared language. Ethnicity, may focuse more on sentiments of origin and ancestry, language, culture rather than the geographical imperative of a nation . Notions of ethnicity become pronounced and political when they are used to distinguish one social group from another within a specific territory. In US for example : Africa-Americans, Irish-Americans…. Etc ( here, minority groups are defined in terms of ancestral origins).

34. Power struggles Within Africa cultural settings power struggles emerge when ethnic groups fight to control government power and acquire resources through mobilizing their ethnic solidarity. The use of ethnic identities as political instruments develops due to fierce state control battles.

35. However, ethnicity and religion have been particularly relevant to the political structure of post-colonial Africa. Religious elements have been present in many of Africa’s conflicts ever since pre-colonial times, just as European colonialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries gave rise to resistance movements that were partly inspired by religion – either by traditional religions, Christianity or Islam. Witchcraft and sorcery are also still given widespread credence across Africa today, as many respect this traditional animist world of spirits and ancestors

36. Case of stud y: the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda Colonial rule institutionalized ethnic categories. In 1933, identity cards officially labeled people as Hutu, Tutsi and Twa . Quotas limited Tutsi access to education and jobs, deepening resentment. Propaganda media, like the Kangura newspapers and RTLM radio, openly preached ethnic hatred . “The infamous HUTU 10 commandments. “DEMONIZED THE TUTSI MINORITY” INTERAHAMWE were organized and trained to kill Tutsis and local government leaders prepared to participate. Weapons were distributed, radio gave instructions, house to house raids were carried out, people were slaughtered..

37. ID BEING INTRODUCED DURING COLONIAL PERIOD

38. Examples of Radical Groups Active radical groups have a more direct influence in North Africa, such as Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), or offshoots of the so-called Islamic State. They have an interest in creating branches in other countries. They have supported rebels in Mali and they were also doing it in Nigeria and Somalia. Their influences was about spreading a radical version of Islam. 

39. Countries like Saudi Arabia or Qatar were spreading Wahhabism, or similar variants, which could indirectly create a radical ideology that led to violence. To some countries religion has been used to help achieve political ends. For example in CAR. Religious fanaticism, such as the global Islamic Jihad, exacerbated the situation in CAR. The Seleka insurgents in CAR, according to them, hold the vision of global political Islam, which wants to overthrow all worldly government (i.e., the Kufur system) to enthrone an Islamic theocratic state

40. Key Religious Conflicts Central African Republic : This country has seen religious conflicts with religious overtones Mali, Nigeria, and Somalia : These are considered hotspots for religiously armed conflicts, with rebels linked to global groups like al-Qaida and the Islamic State. 

41. Extreme ideologies are beliefs that are considered far outside the mainstream and advocate for radical or extreme measures, often based on violence, hatred, or intolerance and seeking to negate fundamental rights, overthrow democratic systems, or justify destructive actions.  These ideologies can be political, religious, or social, and they can become more extreme as individuals become more dogmatic and intolerant of other viewpoints

42. Characterisctics Intolerance of opposing views:   Individuals with extreme views become increasingly intolerant of differing opinions, challenging or opposing anyone who disagrees with them.  Rejection of mainstream values:  Extreme ideologies often reject fundamental societal values like democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty, and mutual respect for different beliefs.  Promotion of hatred and violence:   They are frequently based on hatred and intolerance, and some may promote or use violence to achieve their goals

43. Goal of social or political change:  A common aim is to undermine, overturn, or replace an existing system with one based on the extreme ideology itself.  Justification of harm:  Some extreme ideologies may justify violence as a necessary tool to achieve their aims, even considering it a religious or moral duty.  Examples : online-based ideology, Movements based on fascist, racist, groups that have ideologies based on violence to establish a strict interpretation of a specific religious or political system; Groups that oppose democracy or aiming to destabilize governments. 

44. Terrorism Terrorism is generally understood to feature a political objective, whether that means the politics of nationalism, ethnicity, religion, ideology or social class amongst others. Terrorism is defined, at its simplest, as : any act designed to cause terror; violent acts, create fear or acts of unlawful violence and war created by criminal organizations for protection rackets or with intention to enforce a code of silence…. In some cases, the same group may be described as “Freedom fighters” by its supporters

45. Types of Terrorism Political terrorism : violent criminal behavior designed primarily to generate fear in the community or substantial segment of it, for political purpose; State terrorism: referring to nations whose rule is based upon fear and oppression that reach similar to terrorism of such proportions. It may also be referred to as STRUCTURAL TERRORISM: defined broadly as terrorsit acts carried out by governments in pursuit of political objectives, often as part of their foreign policy

46. Data terrorism: the unjust storage or use of private information for economic, political or personal gains. (countries or large company like facebook ….), Other types: cyber terrorism, Eco- terrorism, Nuclear terrorism, Religious terrorism, Narco terrorism etc

47. . Al Qaeda and Taliban Is a global militant islamist organization founded by Osama Bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam and several others at some point between August 1998 and late 1989, with origin traceable to the Arab volunteers who fought against the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan in the 1980s. It operates as a network comprising both a multinational, stateless army and an islamist , extremist, Wahhabi, jihadist group. Alqaeda carried out many attacks.

48. 2. BOKO Haram Which calls itself WILAYAT GHARB IFRIQIYYAH (Islamic State’s) West Africa Province, ISWAP) and was formerly called JAMA’AT AHL AS SUNNAH LID DA’WAH WAL JUHAD” Group of the people of Sunnah for Preaching and Jihad), is an Islamic extremist group based in North-Eastern Nigeria, also active in Chad, Niger and Northern Cameron. The group is led by Abubakar Shekau. Estimated of the group’ s membership varies between 7,000 to 10,000 fighters it had a link to Al-Qaeda, but in 2014, it expressed support for the Islamic State of Iraq

49. International Conflict in Africa Armed Conflict Territory Disputes Territory Water, Superpower Promoting Regime Changes Drug Trafficking Level Of Analysis: Individual, Domestic, Interstate, Global

50. Armed conflicts Armed conflict is the use of armed force between states or protracted armed violence between governmental authorities and organized groups.  It can be categorized as either an international armed conflict (between states) or a non-international armed conflict (within a state, between governmental forces and organized groups).

51. Location of armed conflicts Africa has multiple army conflicts, with prominent examples including the ongoing insurgency in the Sahel region (Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso) The long-running instability in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) .

52. Cont..

53. Terri tory disputes A territory dispute is a disagreement between two or more political entities over the possession or control of land, water, or airspace; In short TD is: A disagreement over sovereignty of a piece of land, water, or air. Involves at least two parties with competing claims. Can occur between sovereign states, or with a new state and an occupying power. 

54. Case studies

55. Causes of Conflict Ethnic plurality Poor leadership Corruption Poverty Ethnicity External debt burden Access and control over resources

56. Thank you