Agroecological weed management ppt 20231103 MK ed.pptx

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1. Agro-ecological weed management

2. Purpose of the webinar Dialoguing on weed management to create new understanding on ‘plants called as weeds’ and to motivate farmer, CRPs, and NGO staff to deal with weeds in a productive way (how to benefit from them) and agroecological way (without affecting overall ecosystem)

3. Understanding plants labelled as weeds: Perspective on weeds, Roles in the ecosystem, Common uses of weeds, How weeds are part of the cropping system Issues with the current approach to managing weeds: Misconceptions related to weed management, Disadvantages of c lean cultivation, and Issues with herbicide application Agroecological management of weeds: Living with weeds- a new paradigm, Understanding the abilities of weeds that make them stronger/problematic, When weeds become a problem: Early stages, and Managing weeds Contents

4. I. Understanding plants labelled as weeds

5. 1.1 Perspective on weeds The overarching impression on weeds is that they are quite harmful or damaging and has to be eradicated from the farms But weeds are plants which are part of the earth’s rich biodiversity , part of our agricultural ecosystem for thousands of years except for the introduced ones; they are ancient than the domesticated crops in a way. They have a role to play in our agricultural ecosystem . We need to understand them better in terms of their roles, uses, their inherent abilities and when they pose difficulties for crop cultivation if we need to have a balanced approach to manage them well .

6. 1.2 Role of weed in the ecosystem Site of rhizobacteria: The rhizosphere is enriched with photosynthates leaked from plant roots which are energy-rich carbon compounds. Increases microbial activity and biomass. Indicator of metals: Taraxacum officinale L. ( Dudhi, Baran, dudal , Dudh-batthal , Dudhal ) and Trifolium pratense L. ( त्रिपत्रा Tripatra ) shows the higher presence of copper. Plantago major ( Lahuriya   Luhuriya ) is the presence of a small fraction of Manganese . Urtica dioica L. ( बिच्छू Bichchhu , Kali, Kandadli , बिच्छूबूटी Bichchhu ) and Trifolium pratense L. ( त्रिपत्रा Tripatra ) presence indicates the lead . Phyto-remediation : Some weeds capable of growing in soil or water with very high concentrations of metals . Minuartia verna (Pb hyperaccumulators), Aeollanthus subacaulis (Cu hyperaccumulator), Thlaspi tatrense (Zn hyperaccumulators), Haumania strumrobertii (Co hyperaccumulator), Dichapetalum gelonioides (Ni hyperaccumulators) and Maytenus bureaviana (Mn hyperaccumulator).

7. Deep-rooted weeds bring up nutrients from deep soil layers that most of the crop species cannot reach anymore. Weed occurrence creates a microclimate that favours the soil organisms like earthworms. As fields Fencing : Weeds being hardy, and persistent can be used for fencing . Ex : Lantana camara , Euphorbia antiquorum , Euphorbia neriifolia , Euphorbia nivulia , Cereus peruvianus Source of organic matter: Lantana camara Parthenium hysterophorus , Cassia sericea , Achyranthus aspera and Euphorbia geniculata as a good sources of organic matter. Rejuvenating saline soils : Basophile weeds like Prosopis julifera , Paspalum vaginatum , Sesuvium portulacastrum , Cressa arecta , Salsola spp. and Sporobolus diander are dominant in saline soils and alkaline soils .

8. त्रिपत्रा Tripatra बन मेथी Ban methi , Morila , Senji आकरा Akra , Akta , आँकरा Kudaliya   Motha Chandausi , Churgali , Maina Weeds are nitrogen fixers स्विच घास

9. Weed species Control Datura stramonium ( धतूरा ) Alternaria leaf spot and bacterial blight on cotton. Seeds acts rat poision . Nicandra physaloides ( पोपटी Popti ) Its use as a household fly repellent. Ocimum kilimanscharicum ( कर्पूर तुलसी ) Stored product pests O. Canem ( Kali Tulasi)  Weeds as a source of biopesticides 1.3 Common uses of weeds

10. Weeds as nematode control घाघरा / छोटा गोखुरू नोनिया Nonia दूब घास  धाकटी घागरी गोयालो कनकाऊवा बड़ी दुधी Kanta chaulai Kaanthi

11. To Be or Not to Be: Weeds for Bees Crops produce floral resources simultaneously, but these provide food only for a fraction of the active season of pollinators . For the remainder of their lives, pollinators must rely on alternative foraging, which is generally provided by 'non-crop' flowering plants and colonizing taxa in agricultural landscapes. Weeds contribute to the conservation of pollinator populations by the provision of nectar and pollen before and after crop flowering, and by providing more diverse resources otherwise. The benefits of a particular weed species depend on its attractiveness ( e.g.  associated with the flower colour )

12. Amaranthus viridis - चौलाई (All parts) Portuleca oleracea/ Common Purslane- नोनिया नोनिया लूनिया  (Leaves, stem and seeds) Trifolium fucatum - (All parts) Taraxacum officinale- सिंहपर्णी - (Leaves, root, stem and flower) Chenopidium album ( bathua )- बथुआ - (Leaves, shoots, seeds and Flowers) Chicorium intiybus - कासनी ग्राम्य - (Leaves, shoots, seeds and Flowers) Weeds can be used as alternate source of food

13. Plantago major- Lahuriya   Luhuriya (Leaves, Seed and Root) Stellaria media- बुच-बुचा (Leaves, stem and roots) Malva sylvestris- Gurchanti   Socholi (Flower and leaf) Rumex crispus- चूक , चुक्रिका , लोलिका (leaf and stem)

14. Sambucus nigra- एल्डरबेरी, अमेरिकन एल्डर, वाइल्ड बल्डबेरी, कॉमन बल्डबेरी Trifolium pretens - त्रिपत्रा  Urtica dioicia - कंडाली

15. 1.4 How weeds are the part of cropping system The plants designated as weeds play the following important roles in the cropping system: They reduce soil erosion by serving as a cover crop or live mulch Some of them fix atmospheric nitrogen , thereby making available N to the main crop They contribute to natural biocontrol of crop pests by attracting predators and serving as a host Many of them serve as ingredients to biopesticides thereby aiding in pest and disease control Some of them help in improving the fertility of the soil ; For example, Tephrosia purpurea is used by farmers as a green leaf manure ; similarly, Abutilon indicum is rich in calcium and Calotropis is rich in boron and they can be used to improve soil fertility Tephrosia purpurea, सरफोंक, शरपुंखा Abutilon indicum, अतिबला  

16. 1.4 How weeds are the part of cropping system… 6) Some weeds serve as companion plant to crops:. Urtica dioica is a weed companion plant for Broccoli, tomato,  valerian , mint, and fennel Allium vineale is a companion for fruit trees, nightshades (tomatoes, peppers, potatoes, etc.), brassicas (cabbage, broccoli, kohlrabi, etc.) and carrots. Brassicaceae companion for Grapevine, radish, non-mustard brassica, including cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli. Borago officinalis is the companion for legumes, brassicas, tomato कंडाली Chhota Kalpa

17. 2. Issue with the current approach to manage weeds

18. 2.1 Misconception related to weed management All plants other than crops are bad for crop performance There are many weeds that aid the crop rather than harm it W eeds are problematic all the time Weeds are problematic only when their population is quite high Weeds are problematic only when they compete with crops in the early stage of the crop; in other periods they are not problematic Clean cultivation is the best for the performance of the crops This goes against the understanding of the benefits of mix of plants and cover crops such as live mulch, supply of nutrients, etc.

19. 2.2 Disadvantages of Clean cultivation Clean  cultivation : In this method of  soil management  the space between plants is kept clean by tillage and removal of weeds. Loss of soil through erosion even on flat lands through water and wind. Loss of organic matter . Loss of nutrients through excessive leaching. Injury to roots and creation of entry points for pathogens . Foregoing all the benefits of plants labelled as weeds to crops like natural biocontrol, addition of soil fertility, etc. Increases the cost of cultivation Foregoing all the uses of plants labelled as weeds such as alternate food source, fodder, medicine, etc.

20. 2.3 Issues with herbicide application

21. The effect of herbicide on non-target plants : Affect plant biological diversity and damage environmental balance. Lead to the Complete extinction of weeds that have an impact on agricultural ecosystems. Impact on biological control, pollination, and functional soil structures are increasingly compromised. Almost complete elimination of weeds . This ecological degradation also posed a particular threat to endangered plant species . The effect of herbicides on animals: Glyphosate caused high death levels of frogs in its effect study. Herbicide application is reported to lead to a decrease in chicken and bird populations (Taylor et al, 2006). In addition, it has been reported to occur degradation of frog genetics due to atrazine (Hayes, 1990). Exposure of chicken eggs to 2,4-D reduced incubation time and has been reported to cause feminization and infertility in pheasant chicks

22. Organic matter content increases and adsorption of herbicides also increases. Herbicides can destroy microorganisms in the soil. This leads formation toxic and permanent metabolites Glyphosate reduces the Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi communities . Glyphosate toxic to Bacillus family and free-living nitrogen-stabilizing bacteria Earthworms also affected by the usage of herbicide . The effect of herbicide on soil Chemicals Active persistence period Acetochlor 3-12 months Alachlor 1.5-3 months Atrazine 4-18 months Bromacil 9-18 months Cholorxuron 3-6 months Chlordbiamid 12-24 months Dichlobenil 12-24 months Isoxaben 6-12 months Metsulfuron 2 -12 months Oxadiazon and Terbacil 9-18 months Trifluralin 5-10 months

23. The effect of herbicides on the aquatic environment: Herbicides can infiltrate the aquatic environment and cause harmful effects on living organisms . Aquatic plants provide 80% of dissolved oxygen in water bodies. Herbicides have been observed to kill aquatic plants, thereby lowering O2 levels and ultimately reducing fish numbers in the water. Herbicide resistant weeds/plants Some weeds showing more resistant to herbicide, herbicide dose is increasing and environmental pollution Many weed species are known to be resistant to many active substances ; such as Avena sterillis , Sinapis arvensis , Cyperus difformis , Phalaris brachystachys and Echinochloa crus-galli. Approximately 500 weed species were determined to be herbicide-resistant species, more than 100 weed species were resistant for two types of herbicides.

24. Herbicides can indirectly affect the population of birds, mammals, insects, and other animals with changes like their habitats, as they cause large changes in vegetation . Economic damage to herbicides in non-target species (including plants, humans) is estimated to be 8 billion dollars annually. जंगली जई जंगली सरसों बड़ा नागर मोथा  गेहूँ के मामा साँवा घास

25. 3. Agroecological management of weeds 3.1: Living with weeds- a new paradigm As we understand the multiple roles and benefits of plants labelled as weeds we need to adopt the practice of ‘Living with weeds’. We need to accept them as part of the agricultural ecosystem. We need to adopt practices that lead to Benefiting from the weeds as much as possible Minimising the losses from the weeds

26. Weeds have some special characteristics that tend them to put in the unwanted plants category Produce enormous quantity of weeds Ex: 1. Wild oats produce 250 seeds per plant 2. Wild Amaranthus produce 11 million seeds They can germinate under adverse soil-moisture conditions. Many weeds develop rapidly , are able to self-pollinate , and have tremendous capacity to disperse from one place to another through wind, water, animals, and man , often weed seeds mimic the crop seeds . 3.2.1: Understanding the abilities of weeds that makes them stronger/problematic 3.2 Managing weeds

27. Weed seeds remain viable for longer periods without losing their viability . Ex: Annual meadow grass (Poa annua) and scarlet pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) remain viable for about 8 years ; creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense ) for 20 years and field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) for about 50 years . Application of fertilizer may benefit weeds to a greater extent than crops because nutrient absorption is faster and higher in weeds than in crop plants. Some of the weeds have allelopathic effects on other weeds and crops ex: Parthenium Weeds are serious competitors for water and are a major cause of reduced crop yield or crop failure worldwide. Water is a primary resource for crop-weed competition in non-irrigated areas or dryland farming systems. Crop Choices: Mono cropping Weeds are made “enemies” by the herbicide industry, No real education for farmers-especially new generation farmers. Technology: Chemical Intensive farming, irrigation

28. 3.2.2: When weeds become a problem: Early stages The weeds becomes a problem only when they act as competing plant, w hen it competes with the crop for nutrients, water and sunlight The critical period of weed competition is the shortest time span during the crop growth when weeding results in highest economic returns . The crop yield level obtained by weeding during this period is almost similar to that obtained by the full season weed-free conditions. The critical period of weed competition is approximately 1/3rd of the duration of the crop.

29. 3.2.3: Specific management measures 3.2.3.1: Utilising the weeds Composting Using as fodder Using to generate energy

30. a. Weed composting Compost from weeds can be perfectly safe and full of good nutrients . The secret is hot composting – ensuring the compost gets hot enough to kill any seeds and roots . Here's how to do it: Turn the pile regularly and frequently to make sure everything in the pile gets to be in the hot zone in the centre . Parthenium compost : Parthenium hysetreoforus commonly known as congress grass, carrot grass, is a menace to farm lands, we can compost from abundantly occurred biomass of parthenium

31. b. Using as fodder Weeds presence in and around the cultivated fields has never been deemed desirable, but these can contribute significantly to the production of quality organic feed for dairy animals. The nutritional profile of weeds determines the feasibility and scope of their inclusion in ruminant feed The nutritional quality of weeds encompasses digestibility, chemical composition, energy and extent of the presence of anti-nutritional factors Lamb- squarters ( Chenopodium album )- Bathua . Barn-yard-grass ( Echinochloa crus-galli )- Sanwak , Samak Dandelion ( Taraxacum officinale )- सिंहपर्णी Jerusalem artichoke ( Helianthus tuberosus ), Yellow foxtail ( Setaria glauca )- Bandra, Bandri, Ban kauni, Siun, Ankutt Perennial sowthistle ( Sonchus arvensis )- दूधी Dudhi Canada thistle ( C. arvense )- Chiuli   ( च्युली).

32. Bathua . Sanwak , Samak सिंहपर्णी / simhaparni Jerusalem artichoke Bandra, Bandri दूधी Dudhi Chiuli   ( च्युली).

33. Now, a new technique for generating electricity from ipomoea (creeping plants) has been developed by Development Alternatives, a NGO based in Tara Gram in Orchha, Madhya Pradesh. Technology developed by the Indian Institute of Science ( IISC), Bangalore.  Gasification is the conversion of biomass into a combustible gas. Locally known as  Besaram , Ipomoea is found in abundance near water bodies . One hectare yields approximately 160 tonnes of green biomass , which is equi -valent to 64 tonnes of useful feedstock for gasifier . Parthenium hysterophorus  L. and  Cannabis sativa  L. have been employed for the production of biofuels (biogas, biodiesel and biochar) through nano-catalytic gasification by employing Co and Ni as nanocatalysts . c. Using to generate energy ( Biomass gasification) छगली

34. 3.2.3.2 Controlling the weeds

35. 1. Need to stop germination a. Avoidance Basic seed source: FYM (Well decomposed ) Weed seed also enters through irrigation water, winds, animals and implements. The field is irrigated, pre-sowing irrigation followed by shallow cultivation . Feed the weeds before seeds mature , it will stop the entry weeds through feed and FYM 2. Limiting the size of the weed seed bank Preventing weeds from going to seed within fields Regularly cutting or shredding vegetation along field edges to prevent nearby weeds from going to seed and contaminating the field. Composting material produced; the temperature in the file (≥55℃ ) will reduce seed viability Cleaning and sorting farm-saved seeds to avoid re-contaminating fields with seeds collected during the previous harvest . Cleaning farm equipment , and combine harvesters to prevent accidental field contamination.

36. 3 . Light and germination/night tillage Poppy need light to germinate , this behaviour can be used to reduce such weeds in the crop by ensuring the seeds are not exposed to light during the soil disturbance. Cultivation should be done at night or with shrouded equipment to minimise weed emergence. Some species are very sensitive to light and even moonlight or tractor light can also trigger germination. 4. Tillage The most effective and cost-efficient weed management strategy. Weed management can be accomplished before planting by ploughing, cultivating, and harrowing Summer ploughing : During the months of April, May, and June , farmers expose their fields to the sun to reduce weeds, roots, rhizomes, and tubers of shallow-rooted perennials. Minimum tillage: Minimum tillage is aimed at  reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing conditions .

37. 5. Stale Seedbed Preparation Only 85-95% of seeds are dormant at any given time, but the 5-15% that are non-dormant, most germinate (very) quickly; Tillage is the most effective means of getting weed seeds to germinate; Most weeds can / will only emerge from top five centimetres / 2” of soil.

38. How to prepare a stale seedbed The area should be smooth and ready to plant Irrigate area or wait for rain sufficient to germinate weeds About 7 to 10 days after the rain or irrigation, perform shallow tillage with a rake, or hoe to kill the weeds. Again irrigate or wait for rain sufficient to germinate weeds . About 7 to 10 days after the rain, perform shallow tillage with a rake, or hoe to kill the weeds. The area is now ready for planting.

39. 6. Crop rotation Crop rotation involves alternating different crops in a systematic sequence on the same land. It is an important strategy for developing a sound long-term weed control program. Monoculture , which is growing the same crop in the same field year after year, results in a build-up of weed species that are adapted to the growing conditions of the crop. When diverse crops are used in a rotation, weed germination and growth cycles are disrupted by variations in cultural practices associated with each crop ( tillage, planting dates, crop competition, etc.).

40. b. Not allowing them to reach a problem level Baby weeding : 10-15 days after sowing/planting of any crop , when the weeds are very small they only need to control by using bullock-drawn implements or hand weeding or cycle weeder. This will control weeds seed production and reduce the weed pressure. Mulching: Applying mulch after planting can offer some benefits in many cropping systems. Mulches reduce weed competition by limiting light penetration and altering soil moisture and temperature cycles . Living mulch: Living mulches are cover crops sown previously or at the same time as the main crop and maintained as a living ground cover throughout the growing season. Cover crops that develop rapidly and form a dense canopy can keep sunlight from newly emerged weeds and outcompete them. Cover crops can also provide organic mulch /living mulch to further suppress weeds. Intercropping involves growing a smother crop between rows of the main crop. As the greater portion of the land area is covered by the crops in intercropping, there will be fewer weeds. Ex: M ung and Black gram

41. Mulch with organic matter: Organic mulches include many materials that can be produced on-farm such as hay, straw, grass mulch, crop residues , and livestock or poultry bedding. Other materials, such as leaves, composted municipal wastes, bark, and wood chips, may be available from off-farm sources. Newspaper mulching : Newspaper mulching helps to control weeds. One to two cm thick sheet of newspaper should be used and edges should be fastened with materials like pebbles, gravels, etc. The application of newspaper mulch should be avoided on a windy day. Newspaper is a cheap, abundant and useful mulch. And the amount of hydrocarbons in colored inks is insignificant.

42. Periodically cut the weeds under orchard condition The way to manage weeds is to periodically cut the weeds (before they flower) and mulch them at least 3-4 inches thick on the soil under crops. Without any sunlight falling on the weed seeds buried in the soil, fresh germination is effectively checked . The cutting of weed growth above the land surface – without disturbing the roots – and laying it on the earth as ‘mulch,’ benefits the soil in numerous ways. With mulching , there is less erosion of soil by wind or rain, less compaction, less evaporation, and less need for irrigation. It is also important that the cutting and mulching operation should be done before the weeds have flowered and become pollinated.  If the farmer is too late, and the mulch contains pollinated weed seeds, a new generation of the same weeds will re-emerge strongly in the mulched areas .

43. Water management Time and method of irrigation influences weed growth in field. In drip irrigation water is applied in the crop root zone and hence weed growth is minimal. Weed seed germination is influenced both by soil moisture and temperature . Changes in soil moisture regimes can affect weed emergence patterns and population dynamics. For example, weed emergence and growth were suppressed under sub-surface drip irrigation compared to sprinkler and furrow irrigation systems. For example, if an orchard is planted in flat beds and the irrigation water is placed in the tree rows, Conversely, where trees are planted on raised beds , the frequency of weed control measures may be reduced because of the drier soil surface in the tree rows.

44. c . Suppression/killing the weeds c1. Manual weeding Handheld implements Manual weeders Bullock drawn weeders c2 . Mechanical weeding Small-scale mechanical weeders Tractor-drawn weeders

45. C1: Manual weeding : Different tools to dig, cut and uproot the weeds through hand-operated tools. Hand-held implements Weeding hook Manual weeder

46. Manual Weeders Cycle Wheel Hoe V-Blade hand hoe Three tined hand hoe Wheel Hoe Twin wheel hoe Dryland weeder

47. Bullock-drawn implements Blade harrow Guntaka Bullock drawn Kenny

48. Small-scale mechanical weeders C2: Mechanical weeding

49. Tractor-drawn weeding cum earthing up equipment

50. C3: Allelopathy Allelopathy is the direct or indirect chemical effect of one plant on the germination , growth or development of neighbouring plants . Allelopathic crops include barley, rye, annual ryegrass, buckwheat, oats, sorghum, alfalfa, wheat, red clover and sunflower .

51. Foliar application of aqueous sunflower extract was found to suppress total weed dry weight by 33–53 % (Cheema et al. 1997). Aqueous extract (10 %) of sorghum cultivars exhibited differential allelopathic effects eliciting purple nutsedge as more susceptible test species than horse purslane (Cheema et al. 2007). A single spray of 5 % sorghum water extract at 30 days after sowing (DAS) increased wheat yields by 14 % and suppressed weed biomass by 20–40 % (Cheema et al. 1997).

52. C5: Bio-weedicide Weedicide preparation from Calotrophis : Material required: Cow urine-4 litres, Calatorpis leaves – ½ kg, Salt – ½ kg, and Limestone- ½ kg Keep the content for two days, After two days and Squeeze Lemon in the solution. For 10-litres water, ½ to 1-litre solution is used. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyRFrrlZXFQ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PQ5e3w-B2gg

53. Weedicide preparation from agave Material required: 4 to 5-litre urine Agava leaves-3-4 10 liter of water 50 gm asafoeitida Keep it for 48 hours, and sieve it 40 – 50 gm asafoetida can be mixed. 10-litre water and ½ to 1-litre solution can be used. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwgeN7-ns3Y

54. Weedicide preparation from wood vinegar: Wood vinegar is the major organic compound found in wood pyrolysis liquid. Wood vinegar primarily contains water and also consists of various organic compounds, such as acids, alcohols, aldehydes, carbohydrates, esters, nitrides, ketones, and phenols, depending on the feedstock. Vinegar works as a non-selective, post-emergence, contact herbicide causing rapid desiccation of plant tissues following application as the result of damage to cell membranes. Wood vinegar production steps: Arrange dry wood in the 200-litre drum kiln , close and cover every hole with clay before burning. Stop feeding the fire when smoke exiting the flue is very thick and white. Approximately 30 minutes to 1 hour after having stopped feeding fuel into the kiln, if the smoke is yellowish and acrid, close off most of the outer vent. Extend a hollow green bamboo pole (far end elevated to 45º) from the flue pipe. Wood vinegar can be collected with containers fastened underneath one to two holes, approximately 2 cm (3/4 in.) wide, drilled into the bamboo pole roughly 30 cm (11.8 in.) from the connection with the flue pipe. If wood is burned for 12 to 15 hours (or less, depending on the type and size of wood) in a 200-litres oil drum kiln, it should produce 2 to 7 litres of raw wood vinegar . Leave the raw wood vinegar sealed in a bottle for approximately three months to allow sediments to settle. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhSmTPdDvAM

55. 3.2.3.3: Control measures for problematic weeds

56. Parthenium/ गाजर घास Rock salt is commonly using parthenium control For a one-acre area prepare a 20 % rock salt solution, 300 L water and 60 kg rock salt are required. All plant parts will be destroyed within 2 days. Mulching: Mulching has a smothering effect on weeds by restricting photosynthesis. Composting Parthenium : The weed reaches 50 per cent of seed setting during flowering. The weed left as such in the same area acts as a seed bank because of its higher seed production capacity and extended dormancy period.

57. Striga /Witch weed ( Striga asiatica ) Trap cropping, and sowing of false host such as coriander, cowpea, groundnut, sesame, and cotton. Cover cropping, mulching/ shading effect Intercropping of cereals with legumes or a trap crop such as  Desmodium spp . Green manuring with sunhemp helps in reducing the problem of Striga.

58. Cynodon dactylon / दूब घास  Utilization: Pasture and cut-and-carry systems: Cattle should be allowed to graze the upper 2/3 of the stand as this part is much leafier and has a higher nutritive value. Hay and haylage: Bermuda grass makes good quality hay and haylage. As a fine-stemmed leafy species, Bermuda grass cures quickly. It can be tightly packed in bales and maintain good nutritive value during storage.

59. Management: Raking to remove rhizomes and stolons will also help. Mulch (Black polyethylene ) can be used in a variety of ways to manage bermudagrass. Clear plastic mulching ( solarization ) is effective for eradication of bermudagrass plants and seeds if it is applied during periods of high solar radiation. Niger and cowpea are highly competitive smother crops for perennial grasses and sedges like Cynodon . Duck grazing also helps to control this weed.

60. Purple nutsedge ( Cyprus rotundus L.)  मोथा (मुस्तक) Deep tillage : Exposing the perennating structures , e.g. tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, corms and cormlets to hot sun. They get desiccated/dried up to a great extent and collected into piles after being removed from the field. A live mulch, a forage/fodder intercrop , e.g. cowpea, sorghum, maize, or a green manuring crop like Sesbania, or mungbean , in between the rows of a main crop may be quite useful to manage Cyperus. Niger and cowpea are highly competitive smother crops for perennial grasses and sedges (Cyperus). Wheat straw incorporation during summer resulted in maximum suppression of C. rotundus . Sorghum for consecutive two seasons because of different allelochemicals

61. Lantana camara Utilization: Furniture making Make the walls of their houses as well as chicken coops. Lantana oil is used externally for leprosy and scabies. Useful fuel for cooking and heating in many regions of India Potential source of raw material for paper making . Management practices: Hand pulling, slashing/chopping of the stems, burning and manual grubbing with substantial removal of the root system. A cut rootstock method : Cutting its roots underneath the ground by an edge of 6-7 inches . it involves cutting the main tap root of the Lantana plant beneath the ‘coppicing zone’ (transition zone between stem base and rootstock).

62. Thank you