Alkyl Chloride Lab Report

✍️

1. Alkyl Chloride Lab Report
In experiment A, Water soluble alcohols are always tested by using the Lucas reagent to differentiate
among the primary, secondary, and tertiary alcohols. Alcohols are soluble in Lucas reagent while
their halides are insoluble. Alcohols react with Lucas reagent to form an insoluble alkyl halide. This
test depends on the appearance of an alkyl chloride as an insoluble second layer.The formation of
alkyl chloride is indicated by the appearance of turbidity in the reaction mixture.The reaction that
occurs in the Lucas test is an SN1 nucleophilic substitution which depends on carbocation stability.
Only alcohols that can generate stable carbocation intermediates will undergo the reaction. As the
reactivity of alcohols with halogen acids is in the order tertiary > secondary > primary, the time
required for the appearance of turbidity will be different for primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols
which helps to distinguish them from one to another.The tertiary alcohol which is tert–butyl alcohol
reacts with Lucas reagent almost immediately to form an alkyl chloride which is insoluble in the
aqueous solution. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is because tertiary alcohols form tertiary carbocations which are the most stable. The secondary
alcohols which are 2–butanol and cyclohexanol, react slowly with Lucas reagent, and it gives a
second phase in 5 to 20 minutes as secondary alcohols produce the secondary carbocation is
comparatively less stable. Tertiary alcohols react quickly because they form a relatively stable
tertiary carbocation and secondary alcohols react more slowly because the secondary carbocation is
less stabilized than the tertiary carbocation. The primary alcohol, 1–butanol in this case on reaction
does not react with Lucas reagent under normal
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

3. Compare The Reaction Between Tert-Butyl Chloride And Alkyl...
The data reveals that reactions occurred in all four test tubes. This means that all four test tubes
turned out to be positive reactions. The data collected regarding the reactions did not meet the
expectation. The expectation was that two out of the four tubes would yield a reaction. To be
specific, the expectation was that only one of the first two tubes would have a reaction, and only one
of the second two tubes (tubes 3&4) would have a reaction. This was the expectation because the
goal of the reactions was to verify the structure of the alkyl halides. The structure of the tert–butyl
chloride and chlorobutane were in question. If they reacted with NaI, it could be concluded that they
were primary alkyl halides. If they reacted with AgNO3, it could be concluded that they were
tertiary alkyl halides. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
AgNO3 easily undergoes reactions with tertiary alkyl halides (SN1). The four tubes should not all
have undergone reactions because that would give an unclear indication whether or not the alkyl
halides were primary or tertiary. Two tubes were supposed to undergo reaction and two should not
have. It is likely that the error that made the extra two test tubes react was contamination. If the test
tubes contained traces of both solvents, it would be possible that the alkyl halides would react in all
the test tubes. This is because the alkyl halide would react with its preferred solvent, even if the
solvent is present in small quantities. This contamination could have been due to using the same
pipette to transfer the solvents. It also could have been possible that the test tubes used were not
properly cleaned and still contained traces of
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

5. Relativities of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution...
Title: Relativities of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
Introduction:
The purpose of this lab was to perform a comparison of relative reactivities of various alkyl halides
with two different reagents, sodium iodine in acetone and silver nitrate in ethanol. (Below are the
reaction equations). We used different substrates, which were primary, secondary, and tertiary. These
substrates included 2–bromobutane, 2–bromo–2–methylpropane, 1–bromobutane ∞–Bromotoluene,
bromobenzene, and I–bromoadamantane. This lab helped discover what kind of mechanisms (either
SN1 or SN2) are involved in the performed reactions. 1. Sodium Iodine in Acetone:
RX + NaI –––––Acetone––––> RI + NaX (X=Br) 2. Silver Nitrate in ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
| Bromocyclohexane | 2° | RT: NO changeAfter heating: Evaporated slightly, made crystals, light
yellow | Slower SN1 reaction due to secondary carbon. | 1–bromoadamantane | 3° | RT: No
changeAfter Heating: Evaporated slightly, clear crystals formed | SN2 |
Sliver nitrate in ethanol reactions: Alkyl Halides | Classification of RX | Observations | Conclusion |
2–bromobutane | 2° | RT: Precipitate and densely cloudy.No heating required | Slower SN1 reaction
due to secondary carbon. | 2–bromo–2–methylpropane | 3° | RT: ClearAfter heating: No change |
Fast SN1 reaction due to it being a tertiary carbon. | 1–bromobutane | 1° | RT: Precipitate and
slightly cloudy.NO heating required | Heating required due to primary carbon SN2 reaction | ∞–
Bromotoluene | 1°Benzylic | RT: Precipitate and very cloudy.No heating required | Heating required
due to primary carbon SN2 reaction | Bromobenzene | 1°Allylic Vinylic | RT: ClearAfter heating: No
change | Heating required due to primary carbon SN2 reaction | 1–bromoadanabtane | 3° | RT:
Precipitate and cloudyNo heating required | Fast SN1 reaction due to it being a tertiary carbon. |
Conclusion:
In conclusion, out of the reactions for NaI in acetone, 1–bromobutane reacted the fastest, and did not
require
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

7. Free-Radical Chain Reaction Lab Report
Free–radical chain reactions involve the formation of halides and alkyl halides by reacting diatomic
halogens with reactive hydrogens attached to hydrocarbons. In this experiment, diatomic bromine
was reacted with various arenes to produce hydrobromic acid and alkyl halides. The mechanism
behind this reaction can be characterized by three distinct phases: initiation, propagation, and
termination. During the initiation step, bromine radicals are produced via thermal or photochemical
homolysis. These bromine radicals then react with hydrogens attached to a hydrocarbon in the
propagation step to produce hydrobromic acid and a carbon radical. The chain reaction continues
since the carbon radical formed can react with another diatomic bromine molecule, producing a
carbon–bromine bond and regenerating a bromine radical. The termination step ends the reaction by
reacting two bromine radicals with each other, lowering the concentration of highly reactive
bromine radicals in solution. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For example, when propane and diatomic bromine are reacted together, a 3:97 ratio of primary alkyl
halide to secondary alkyl halide is produced. In contrast, when propane and diatomic chlorine are
reacted together, a theoretical 3:1 ratio of primary alkyl halide to secondary alkyl halide is produced;
experimentally, the ratio is closer to 45:55. Thus, it was determined that diatomic bromine was
better suited to examine the reaction rates of the various
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

9. Experiment 13: Synthesis of 1-Bromobutane
Experiment 11: Reactivities of Some Alkyl Halides in Substitution Reactions Materials &
Methods: Materials used: 1–bromobutane 1–chlorobutane bromocyclopentane Bromocylcohexane
2–chlorobutane 2–bromobutane 2–chloro2–metylpropane 2–bromo–2–methylpropane Crotyl
chloride Bromobenzene Benzyl chloride 1–chloroadamantene Methods/Techniques: Physiochemical
Research: Reagent | Formula Weight | Density | Boiling Point | Melting Point | Color | 1–
bromobutane | 137.023 g/mol | 1.2676 g/ml | 372–376 K | 160.7 K | Clear | 1–chlorobutane | 92.57
g/mol | .89 g/ml | 351 K | 150 K | Clear | bromocyclopentane | 158.08 g/mol | 1.473 g/ml | 411.15 K |
| Clear | Bromocylcohexane | 163.06 g/mol | 1.324 g/cm3 | 439.15 K | | ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
| Bromocylcohexane | < 10 secconds | cloudy | The mixture was found to be reactive in less than
10 seconds. The color changed to a light white color. | 2–chlorobutane | <30 sec | cloudy | The
mixture turned cloudy within 30 seconds. | 2–bromobutane | <30 sec | cloudy | The mixture turned
cloudy within 30 seconds | 2–chloro2–metylpropane | immediately | cloudy | The mixture was
reactive on entering the test tube. The color changed from clear to cloudy. | 2–bromo–2–
methylpropane | immediately | cloudy | The mixture was reactive on entering the test tube. The color
changed from clear to cloudy. | Crotyl chloride | No reaction | | | Bromobenzene | <2min | Slightly
cloudy | With in 2 minutes it was determined that the mixture was reactive. The color changed from
clear to slightly cloudy | Benzyl chloride | immediately | cloudy | The mixture was reactive on
entering the test tube. The color changed from clear to cloudy. | 1–chloroadamantene | About 10 min
| cloudy | After about 10 minutes the mixture turned cloudy and was found to be moderately
reactive. | Conclusion: I this experiment, it was concluded that the time in which it took the
substrates to react by indication of a cloudy color in the the Sn1 reactions and a yellow color in the
Sn2 reactions, was a direct result of reactivity of the alkyl halides in this
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

11. Electrophile Addition Lab Report
The purpose of Experiment 6 – Part 1, was to use electrophile addition to synthesize 1,2‐dibromo‐
1,2‐diphenylethane from (E)–1,2–diphenylethene. The final product was correctly identified by the
use of TLC and melting point determination. The final product was meso–1,2‐dibromo‐1,2‐
diphenylethane.
Figure 1. Reaction for Experiment 6, Part 1. Created by Chem Doodle.
The purpose of Experiment 6 – Part 2, was to use a double elimination reaction to synthesize
diphenylacetylene from Part 1's 1,2‐dibromo‐1,2‐diphenylethane. The final product was correctly
identified by using melting point and UV–vis analysis.
Figure 2. Reaction for Experiment 6, Part 2. Created on Chem Doodle.
Overall, Experiment 6 used many different techniques in order help identify a compound by
comparing them to known substances. Some techniques used in this experiment include:
electrophile addition, TLC, melting point determination, double elimination, UV–vis spectroscopy,
recrystallization, and series of dilutions. For example, in Part 1, the final product of the experiment
had the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This is the rate limiting step as it is dependent only upon the concentration of alkyl halide and not
the concentration of the base2. Thus, a strong base is not required in this type of reaction as the
leaving group is not removed (Master Organic Chemistry, 2017). Also, there is no need of
stereochemistry, but there is a barrier that needs to be crossed (Master Organic Chemistry, 2017).
For an E2 reaction, it is characterized as being bimolecular, because the rate it proceeds at is
proportional to the concentration of both the alkyl halide and base added to make the product2. This
reaction also requires a strong base because the leaving group is polar. Also, there is stereochemistry
involved as the leaving group has to be anti to the hydrogen (Master Organic Chemistry, 2017).
However, there is no barrier in this mechanism (Master Organic Chemistry,
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

13. Formal Report Exp 9
University of Santo Tomas
Faculty of Pharmacy
Organic Chemistry Laboratory
APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF TEST TO CLASSIFY HYROXY– AND
CARBONYL–CONT AINING COMPOUNDS
Jane Catherine SP. Villanueva, Edenn Claudine C. Villaraza, Lorenz Oliver C. Villegas and Cristel
Bernice T. Wee
Group 10 2G–Medical Technology Organic Chemistry Laboratory
ABSTRACT
Hydroxyl group refers to a functional group containing OH– when it is a substituent in an organic
compound. It is also known as the characteristic functional group of alcohols and phenols. On the
other hand, carbonyl group refers to a divalent chemical unit consisting of a carbon and an oxygen
atom connected by a double bond. It is known as the characteristic functional group of aldehydes ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Other organic compounds that contain –OH groups but are not alcohols are phenol (C6H5OH) and
acetic acid (CH3COOH). These compounds are not alcohols because they are acidic. The term
alcohol, then, is another representation of a type of electronic structure in the molecules of
substances. [3] [4]
Phenols are aromatic compounds in which a hydroxide group is directly bonded to an aromatic ring
system. They are very weak acids, and like alcohols, form ethers and esters. The main phenols are
phenol itself, cresol, resorcinol, pyrogallol, and picric acid.
Phenol itself (C6H5OH), also known as carbolic acid, is a white, hygroscopic crystalline solid,
isolable from coal tar, but made by acid hydrolysis of cumene hydroperoxide, or by fusion of
sodium benzenesulfonate with sodium hydroxide. Formerly used as an antiseptic, phenol has more
latterly been used to make bakelite and other resins, plastics, dyes, detergents, and drugs. [4] [15]
The hydroxyl– containing compounds used in the experiment were ethanol, n–butyl alcohol, sec–
butyl alcohol, tert–butyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, and benzyl alcohol.
Ethanol also known as ethyl alcohol is a clear, colorless liquid with a characteristic, agreeable odor.
In dilute aqueous solution, it has a somewhat sweet flavor, but in more concentrated solutions it has
a burning taste. Its low freezing point has made it useful as the fluid in thermometers for

14. ... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

16. Synthesis Of Tert-Butyl Chloride Lab Report
The objective surrounding the experiment outlined by this report is to perform an SN1 reaction to
synthesize tert–butyl chloride while recording the reactivity of the compound with sodium iodide
and silver nitrate reagents. Nucleophilic substitution reactions, denoted SN1 or SN2, are
characterized by a nucleophile (electron pair donor) reacting with an electrophile (electron pair
acceptor) to break a bond at a carbon to form a new bond with that carbon.1 In order for the reaction
to take place, a compound or element must break away from the electrophile, so it may accept
electrons from the nucleophile.2 The octet rule must not be disobeyed and thus, the leaving group
allows space for other electrons to attach. Figure 1.1 (right) shows a typical ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
For this experiment, the nucleophile will be considered the chloride ion from HCl. The chloride ion
in this case constitutes a good nucleophile because it is charged with a 1– and is relatively low in
electronegativity.5 Since the chloride ion will be donating a pair of its electrons, the fact that it is
negatively charge indicates that it indeed has extra electrons to donate and thus its nucleophilic
character is greater as a result. Additionally, the electronegativity of the chloride ion is a showing of
how willing the ion is to donate elctrons, or rather how tightly the chloride ion holds those electrons
to the nucleus. A low electronegativity indicates that the ion is larger in size and allows electrons to
float more freely and also donates those outer electrons more
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

18. Comparison of Three Isomers of Butanol
Comparison of Three Isomers of Butanol
SCH 4UI
Abstract
The Hydroxyl group on alcohols relates to their reactivity. This concept was explored by answering
the question "Does each alcohol undergo halogenation and controlled oxidation?" . Using three
isomers of butanol; the primary 1–butanol, the secondary 2–butanol and the tertiary 2–methyl–2–
propanol, also referred to as T–butanol, two experiments were performed to test the capabilities of
the alcohols. When mixed with hydrochloric acid in a glass test tube, the primary alcohol and
secondary alcohols were expected to halogenate, however the secondary and tertiary ended up doing
so. This may have been because of the orientation of the Hydroxyl group when butanol is in a
different ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Three test tubes were placed in a test tube rack..
2. Using a clean eye dropper, 2 drops of 1–butanol were placed in the first tube, 2 drops of 2–
butanol were placed in the second tube, and 2 drops of T–butanol were placed in the third tube.
3. Under a fume hood, drops of concentrated HCl(aq) were added to each test tube.
4. Each mixture was shaken gently and subsequently returned to the test tube rack.
5. The tubes were observed for approximately a minute, noting any evidence of cloudiness.
6. The mixtures were then correctly disposed of, and steps 1. and 2. were repeated.
7. To each fresh tube of alcohol, 2 mL of 0.01 mol/L KMnO4 was added, and step 4. was repeated.
8. The Tubes were observed for a final 5 minutes, noting any color changes in the solutions.
Observations and Results
Table 1.1 – Structural Diagrams of Isomers of Butanol.

19. |2–butanol |1–butanol |2–methyl–2–propanol |
| | | OH |
|OH | || |
||
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

21. Organic Chemistry Experiment 10 Formal Report
Organic Chemistry Laboratory – CH 200L (2012 – 2013) 2B–Ph Group 9 Experiment 10
Identifying Carboxylic Acids and Derivatives Through Classification Tests
Bianca Therese Rivera, Camille Aliana Rivera, Zarah Mae Roxas,
Ma. Rosario Teresa Saylo, Jean Darlene Semilla and Adrian Yu
Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Santo Tomas, Espana Street, Manila 1008
Date Submitted: September 13, 2012
–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
Abstract
Carboxylic acid derivatives namely, acyl halides, acid anhydrides, esters and amides were classified
through different reactivity tests. The samples used were acetyl chloride for acyl halide group, acetic
anhydride for acid anhydride group, ethyl acetate for ester group, ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Methodology
A. Hydrolysis of Acid Derivatives
A.1. Acyl Halides and Acetic Anhydrides
One mL of water was placed in each two test tubes. The samples, acetyl chloride and acetic
anhydride, were added separately to the test tubes by placing ten drops of each sample. A warming
effect was noted from the reaction. The resulting mixtures were divided into two portions. To the
first portion, an amount of one mL of 2% silver nitrate (AgNO3) was added. The formation of
precipitate was observed. To the second portion, one mL of saturated sodium bicarbonate
(NaHCO3) and the evolution of gas was noted.
A. 2. Esters
To one mL of the sample, ethyl acetate, two mL of 25% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was added. The
mouth of the test tube was covered with a marble and was heated in a boiling water bath for five

22. minutes. The mixture was neutralized with 10% HCl solution. The odor was observed with a
wafting motion.
A. 3. Amides
One mL of benzamide was treated with five mL of 10% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and was heated
to boiling afterwards. The reaction of the gas evolved during heating was tested by placing a piece
of moist red litmus paper over the test tube. The observed reaction was noted.
B. Alcoholysis: Schotten–Baumann Reaction
A mixture of ten drops of acetic acid, one mL of ethanol and five drops of concentrated sulfuric acid
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

24. Grignard Reagent Lab Report
The purpose of this experiment is to prepare a Grignard reagent by reacting with alkyl or aryl halide
and to ultimately react the Grignard reagent with carbon dioxide in order to produce carboxylate.
The formed carboxylate is then protonated with an acid to produce carboxylic acid that could be
used with liquid–liquid extraction to isolate the unknown acid from the other products from side
reactions. The final unknown product is identified by measuring the melting point and calculating
the molecular weight obtained from titration.
Organometallic compounds are compounds that contain carbon–metal bonds (C–M bonds), in which
carbon bears a partial negative charge because metal is less electronegative than the carbon. This
partial negative charge of the carbon atom allows it to be a good nucleophile that attacks the
electrophile to make a new carbon–carbon bond. There are several examples of organometallic
compounds, such as organolithium, Gilman reagents, and Grignard reagents (organomagnesium
reagent). In this experiment, Grignard reagents are prepared and reacted with other electrophilic
carbon to form a new carbon–carbon bond. Victor Grignard discovered Grignard reagent around
1890s and received a Noble Prize in 1912 with his discoveries. In this experiment, an alkyl halide or
aryl halide is reacted with magnesium metal to prepare a Grignard reagent (R–MgX). In this
Grignard reagent preparation reaction, halide is typically used with bromine (sometimes with
chlorine, not
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

26. Grignard Reagent Lab Report
the purpose of this experiment is to prepare a Grignard reagent by reacting with alkyl or aryl halide
and to ultimately react the Grignard reagent with carbon dioxide in order to produce carboxylate.
The formed carboxylate is then protonated with an acid to produce carboxylic acid that could be
used with liquid–liquid extraction to isolate the unknown acid from the other products from side
reactions. The final unknown product is identified by measuring the melting point and calculating
the molecular weight obtained from titration.
Organometallic compounds are compounds that contain carbon–metal bonds (C–M bonds), in which
carbon bears a partial negative charge because metal is less electronegative than the carbon. This
partial negative charge of the carbon atom allows it to be a good nucleophile that attacks the
electrophile to make a new carbon–carbon bond. There are several examples of organometallic
compounds, such as organolithium, Gilman reagents, and Grignard reagents (organomagnesium
reagent). In this experiment, Grignard reagents are prepared and reacted with other electrophilic
carbon to form a new carbon–carbon bond. Victor Grignard discovered Grignard reagent around
1890s and received a Noble Prize in 1912 with his discoveries. In this experiment, an alkyl halide or
aryl halide is reacted with magnesium metal to prepare a Grignard reagent (R–MgX). In this
Grignard reagent preparation reaction, halide is typically used with bromine (sometimes with
chlorine, not
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

28. An Unknown Grignard Reagent Experiment Essay
Grignard
5. Introduction In this experiment, an unknown Grignard reagent was prepared from an aryl halide.
The unknown reagent was then reacted with carbon dioxide to form a carboxylic acid. The solid acid
was then isolated and recrystallized before the melting point was taken. The precipitate was then
dissolved in water and titrated to determine the molecular weight. The melting point and molecular
weight were then used to determine the unknown acid obtained from the experiment.
6. Data and Results The product obtained had a melting point of approximately 107 °C and a weight
of .324 grams. Some of the product would not dissolve in water and so was removed through
vacuum filtration, which left .141 g not dissolved in solution. It took 13.2 mL of sodium hydroxide
to turn the solution of the product dissolved in water pink. A molecular weight of 138.63 g/mol was
calculated from the data. These results indicate that the product was 2–methylbenzoic acid, the
Grignard reagent was 2–methylphenylmagnesium bromide, and the unknown bromide solution was
2–methylbromobenzene. Calculations showed that the limiting reagent of the Grignard preparation
was magnesium and that the experiment had a 23.13 % yield. 7. Discussion and Conclusion
Organometallic compounds, such as Grignard reagents, are molecules containing carbon–metal
bonds and are often used to create new carbon–carbon bonds. Grignard reagents–or
organomagnesims– are specifically those that have a carbon–magnesium bond.
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

30. Reactivities Of Some Alkyl Halides
Karen Dennie
Professor Tjandra
Chemistry 75A
Due: November 18, 2013
Experiment 20: Reactivities of Some Alkyl Halides
Purpose: The purpose of this experiment is to examine the reactivities of various alkyl halides under
both SN2 and SN1 reaction conditions. The alkyl halides will be examined based on the substrate
types and solvent the reaction takes place in.
Procedure: For the first part of this experiment, six dry test tubes were obtained and labeled
accordingly to test the following halides: 2–chlorobutane, 2–bromobutane, 1–chlorobutane, 1–
bromobutane, 2–chloro–2–methylpropane, and bromobenzene. To each of the six test tubes 2ml of
15% sodium iodide in acetone was added. 4 drops of the appropriate halide was added to the test
tube labeled for that specific halide. After adding the halide, the test tube was then shaken to mix
thoroughly. If a precipitate formed the time it took was recorded. Since none of the solutions formed
a precipitate at room temperature after five minutes, the test tubes were placed inside of a hot bath at
about 50°C. After one minute, the test tubes were taken out of the hot bath and allowed to cool. If
any test tubes formed a precipitate, the time it took was recorded on a table. For the second part of
the experiment, again six dry test tubes were obtained and labeled accordingly to test the following
halides: 2–chlorobutane, 2–bromobutane, 1–chlorobutane, 1–bromobutane, 2–chloro–2–
methylpropane, and bromobenzene. To each of the six
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

32. Aromaticity Of Pyridine Lab Report
Aromaticity and reactions of pyridine Introduction
Pyridine is a nitrogen containing aromatic analogue of benzene. The N in pyridine is sigma bonded
to two atoms and has a lone pair, and is therefore sp2 hybridized.
This leaves one electron in an unhybridized p orbital, which contributes to the system, making a
total of 6, and therefore an aromatic molecule (5 x C–H contribute 5 electrons, N contributes 1, = 6,
4N+2). The lone pair on the N is in an sp2 orbital, which means it is directed away from the ring but
in the same plane.
The lone pair of electrons are not involved in the aromatic system, and stick out away from the
molecule.
Pyridine is aromatic, and displays aromatic characteristics such as high resonance energy
(27kcal/mol), ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hellwinkel, D. (1998). Die systematische Nomenklatur der Organischen Chemie (4th ed.). Berlin:
Springer. p. 45. ISBN 3–540–63221–2.
2. Gossauer, A. (2006). Struktur und Reaktivität der Biomoleküle. Weinheim: Wiley–VCH. p. 488.
ISBN 3–906390–29–2.
3. Curvall, Margareta; Enzell, Curt R.; Pettersson, Bertil (1984). "An evaluation of the utility of four
in vitro short term tests for predicting the cytotoxicity of individual compounds derived from
tobacco smoke". Cell Biology and Toxicology. .
4. Aeschbacher, HU; Wolleb, U; Löliger, J; Spadone, JC; Liardon, R (1989). "Contribution of coffee
aroma constituents to the mutagenicity of coffee". Food and Chemical Toxicology. 27 (4): 227–232.
doi:10.1016/0278–6915(89)90160–9. PMID
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

34. Essay Sch4U Final Exam Study Note
Chemistry Exam Study Sheet
Organic Chemistry Study of compounds to which carbon is the principal element. Carbon is special
because it has 4 bonds.
Functional Groups Organic substances are organized into organic families. Organic Families – group
of organic compounds with common structural features. o Each family has a recognizable physical
property and a specific structural arrangement. o Each combination is referred to as a functional
group. o Even though many functional groups exist, they essentially consist of only 3 main
components. ▪ Carbon– carbon multiple bonds ▪ Single bonds between a carbon atom and a more
electronegative atom. ▪ Carbon atom double bonded to an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
o They go through substitution reactions o Hydrogen atoms are easily replaced.
Organic Halides o Group of compounds that include common products such as Freon's
Naming Organic Halides o Consider the halogen atom as an attachment on the parent hydrocarbon
chain. o The halogen name is shortened to either fluros, chloros, bromo, or iodo.
Properties of Organic Halides: o The presence of the halogen atom (ie – Cl) on a hydrocarbon chain
makes the molecule polar. o Halogens are more electronegative than carbon and hydrogen o Due to
polarity, will have higher boiling points.
Naming Alcohols o The –OH functional group is named – 'Ol' o The parent alkane is the longest
carbon chain to which an –OH group is attached o When an alcohol contains more than 2 carbon
atoms abd more than two –OH groups, a number system is used. o Different isomers have different
properties o Poly Alcohols: o Alcohols that contain more than one hydroxyl group. o Suffixes are
diol and triol.
Ethers o General formula is R–O–R o There is an oxygen bond to 2 alkyl group which are on either
side o Is a bent molecule
Naming ethers o Ether is named by adding any to the prefix of the smaller hydrocarbon group.
Preparing Ethers from Alcohols o Ether are formed when two alcohols

35. ... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

37. Palladium Catalysis: the Suzuki Reaction
SC/CHEM 3001 3.0 Experimental Chemistry II Experiment A4: Palladium Catalysis: The Suzuki
Reaction Abstract In this experiment, the Suzuki reaction was performed using phenylboronic acid,
p–iodophenol and Pd/C catalysis in potassium carbonate aqueous media to synthesize biphenyl–4–
ol. The yield of final product was only 11.94% and the measured melting point was 170–175℃.
Since the appearance of the product was significantly different from expected light tan color and the
measured melting point was higher than literature value, the experimental synthesized product may
not be the desire final product, biphenyl–4–ol, or may contain large amount of impurities.
Introduction The Suzuki reaction was reported in 1979 by Akira Suzuki ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The development of a new catalytic system without use of stabilizing phosphine ligands in aqueous
media under milder conditions has drawn more attention.3 Pd/C is one of the most common
heterogeneous palladium–catalyst which is convenient, phosphine–free and reusable and can be
used in aqueous media under mild condition.3 During this experiment, a Pd/C catalyzed Sukuzi
reaction was conducted using phenylboronic acid and p–iodophenol. The basic aqueous media was
provided by potassium carbonate. When mixed phenylboronic acid and p–iodophenol, a yellow
solution was observed. The added Pd/C suspension stayed at the bottom of the flask. When cooled
the flask containing reaction mixture to room temperature after 30 minutes reflux, white thin layer
was formed upon the mixture. Filtered the reaction mixture by suction, a white/greyish solid was
collected in the filter paper. Recrystallized this solid, white solids were obtained with a close
melting point to that of final product. The NMR spectrum of this solid also showed the aromatic
peaks. This solid was suggested as an intermediate of reaction, mostly likely ArOH–Pd–Ar in
reductive elimination. Since a ligandless palladium catalyst was used in this reaction, a
transformation from trans complex to required cis complecx was unnecessary. The unreacted
intermediate may be left on the filter paper. This complex contained two phenyl groups which gave
the aromatic peak in NMR spectrum. Because of the presence of the
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

39. Methylcyclohexane Lab Report
Arenes 5. Introduction In this experiment, the relative rates of free–radical chain bromination where
determined. Five arenes were used for this comparison along with two controls for each set. One set
was kept in the dark while the other was put under light. This allowed for better observation of the
reactions, as the light set would proceed fast to show which arenes reacted slowest, while the dark
set would proceed slowly to show relative differences between the faster reacting arenes. The time it
took for the arenes to react was recorded to determine the relative rates of the reactions. 6. Data and
Results The five arenes used for this experiment were toluene, ethylbenzene, tert–butylbenzene,
cyclohexane, and methylcyclohexane. All solutions were a dark orange right after the addition of
bromine. Toluene had 1º benzylic and 2º aromatic hydrogens. Ethylbenzene had 2º benzylic, 1º
aliphatic, and 2º aromatic hydrogens. tert–butylbenzene had 1º aliphatic and 2º aromatic hydrogens.
Cyclohexane had 2º aliphatic hydrogens and methylcyclohexane had 1º, 2º, and 3º aliphatic
hydrogens. In the set that was exposed to light, Ethylbenzene was the first to react. It turned from a
dark orange color to a colorless liquid. Next, toluene turned colorless. After that, none of the other
solutions turned colorless. However, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
More specifically, secondary benzylic hydrogens are more reactive than primary benzylic
hydrogens, which are more reactive than tertiary aliphatic hydrogens and so on. This is due to the
fact that secondary benzylic hydrogens are more accessible than primary benzylic hydrogens due to
less steric hindrance. With less steric hindrance, the transition states formed from secondary
benzylic hydrogens are more stable than transition states formed from primary benzylic hydrogens
and therefore the resulting products are more
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

41. Aromaticity And Reactions Of Pyridine
Aromaticity and reactions of pyridine Introduction
The structure of pyridine e considerably resembles that of benzene. It may be formally derived from
the structure of benzene through the exchange of one ring carbon for a nitrogen but, is pyridine
which is structurally and electronically allied to benzene, also aromatic?. Pyridine is aromatic based
on the following facts. The protons of pyridine show chemical shifts in the NMR spectrum that are
ordinary of aromatic protons. Furthermore, electrophilic substitutions at pyridine are possible. The
nitrogen of pyridine is sp2–hybridized and possesses one lone electron pair. This electron pair is
located in an sp2 orbital that is parallel to the ring plane. Therefore, in contrast to pyrrole, the
nitrogen 's lone electron pair of pyridine doesn 't take an interest in the aromatic π electron system.
As a result, pyridine can easily be protonated, yielding a pyridinium cation. Two valence electrons
of the nitrogen are included in the two (σ bonds) with the adjacent carbons. The fifth valence
electron of the nitrogen occupies the p orbital that is perpendicular to the ring plane. Thus,
analogous to the ring carbons, this electron takes part in the π electron system. Com¬par¬i¬son of
ben¬zene and pyri¬dine.
Electrophilic substitutions at pyridine
As an aromatic compound, pyridine may participate in electrophilic substitutions as an electrophile.
How easily and at which positions do these substitutions occur? In order to answer
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

43. Organometallic Reactions : Identification Of An Unknown...
LAB 7: ORGANOMETALLIC REACTIONS: IDENTIFICATION OF AN UNKNOWN
BROMIDE (Preparative) Introduction The first purpose of the lab was to prepare an unknown
organomagnesium bromide, an organometallic reagent, reacting an unknown aryl bromide with
magnesium in anhydrous ether. The unknown was chosen from a predetermined list of benzoic acid
derivatives with varying molecular weights and melting points (see Supplement C). The second
purpose of this lab was to prepare an unknown carboxylic acid by reacting the unknown aryl–
magnesium bromide with carbon dioxide and diethyl ether then protonating.The third purpose of
this lab was to determine the neutralization equivalence point of the unknown carboxylic acid by
titrating with sodium hydroxide. The fourth purpose of this lab was to ascertain the identity of the
unknown carboxylic acid, and thus the original unknown aryl bromide, using its molecular weight
determined from neutralization and melting point. Data and Results Compound Molecular Weight
(g/mol) Melting Point (°C) Unknown Carboxylic Acid (R––COOH) 121.18 116–119 Discussion
Organometallic reagents are compounds with carbon–metal (R––M) bond. In the carbon–metal
bond, carbon is more electronegative than the metal atom which creates a dipole moment where
carbon possesses a partial negative charge and the metal atom possessing a partial positive charge
(Rδ–––Mδ+). The partial negative charge on the carbon allows it to act as a strong nucleophile or
base similar to
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

45. Tert-Butyl Chloride Lab Report
The aim of this experiment was to perform a reaction via a Sn1 reaction to prepare tert–Butyl
chloride and test the effectiveness of the reaction by examining the reactivity of the product. To
prepare tert–Butylchloride from tert–Butylalcohol, one must cause a Sn1 reaction to occur. An Sn1
reaction is a monomolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction, meaning that one molecule is
involved in each step of the Sn1 reaction. First, the leaving group leaves. After the leaving group
leaves, the nucleophile has enough room to form a bond with the carbocation. As a result, the
leaving group is replaced by the nucleophile (Michman 2016). In our reaction, the nucleophile is
chlorine and the leaving group is water, which forms after the protonation of hydroxide to form a
better leaving ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
On the other hand, Sn2 reactions are dimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction; thus, all steps of
the reaction occur simultaneously. Rather than the leaving group leaving and then the nucleophile
attacking, the leaving group begins to break its bond with carbon as the nucleophile begins to form a
bond with the carbon. Sn2 reactions result in an inversion of stereochemistry because the
nucleophile must form its bond with carbon behind the leaving group, since the leaving group is still
partially attacked (Michman 2016). To synthesize tert–Butylchloride we must use an Sn1 reaction
pathway because Sn1 reaction are more stable modes of substitution in tertiary and secondary alkyl
halides and alcohols (Michman 2016). Sn2 reactions are more effective for primary alkyl halides
and alcohols. This is again because tertiary alkyl halide, like tert–Butylalcohol, are very large – the
leaving group must leave first to make room for nucleophile. Still, there are some complications that
come into play when conducting an Sn1
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

47. Grignard Essay
Introduction:
Grignard was the child of a sail producer. In the wake of concentrating on arithmetic at Lyon he
exchanged to science and found the manufactured response bearing his name (the Grignard
response) in 1900. In 1909, he assumed responsibility of the Department of Organic Chemistry at
Nancy and was granted the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1912. At the beginning of the First World
War, he studied chemical warfare agents, especially the produce of phosgene and the identification
of mustard gas. (2) The Grignard reagent is exceptionally responsive and responds with most natural
mixes. It likewise responds with water, carbon ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the principle, you get an augmentation of the Grignard reagent to the carbon dioxide. (1)
Dry carbon dioxide is bubbled through a reply of the Grignard reagent in ethoxyethane, made as
depicted already. (1)
For instance: The item is then hydrolyzed (responded with water) inside observing a weaken
dangerous. By and large, you would join weaken sulphuric ruinous or cripple hydrochloric
damaging to the game–plan encompassed by the response with the CO2. (1) A carboxylic acid is
conveyed with one more carbon than the main Grignard reagent.
The usually quoted equation is: All sources cite the arrangement of a basic halide, for instance, Mg
(OH) Br as the other result of the reaction. That is truly tricky in light of the way that these blends
react with dilute acids. What you wind up with would be a blend of a mixture of ordinary hydrated
magnesium particles, halide particles and sulfate or chloride ions – depending upon which weaken
acid you added. (1)
–Reaction with carbonyl compounds:–
The responses between the various sorts of carbonyl blends and Grignard reagents can look
uncommonly caught, However truth be told they all respond similarly – every one of that
movements are the get–together connected with the carbon–oxygen twofold bond.
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

49. Relative Reactivity Of Alkyl Halides
Relative Reactivity of Alkyl Halides in Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions
Charlie Doyle
Madison McGough
Annie Chang
Introduction
Both Sn1 and Sn2 reactions are nucleophilic substitution reactions, though they are slightly
different. Sn2 reactions have bimolecular displacement and are also concerted, meaning the bond
making and the bond breaking processes happen in one step.1 Sn1 reactions require two steps and
have unimolecular displacement. This difference can be seen when comparing Figure 1 and Figure 2
below. The strength of the nucleophile does not effect Sn1 reactions, while the strongest nucleophile
is required for Sn2 substitution reactions.2 Other important considerations include the effect of ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For Part A: five drops of 2–bromo–2–methylpropane were pipetted into test tube 1; five drops of 2–
bromobutane were pipetted into test tube two; five drops of 1–bromobutane were pipetted into test
tube three; and five drops of 1–chlorobutane were pipetted into test tube four and each were labeled
accordingly. Then, twenty drops of a 15% solution of sodium iodide (NaI) in acetone (for Sn2
reactions) was added to all four test tubes, shaking each once to mix contents, and the time from
when the first drop hit to when cloudiness or a precipitant formed was recorded. The solutions were
then disposed of in the appropriate waste container. For Part B, the test tubes were cleaned and
allowed to dry. The process of pipetting the alkyl halides into the individual four test tubes was
repeated. 20 drops of a 1% solution of silver nitrate (AgNO3) in ethanol (for Sn1 reactions) was
added to each tube, shaking each once to mix contents, and again recording the
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

51. Our current aim is to make more "green" industries by...
Our current aim is to make more "green" industries by searching for ways to make better yields and
little to no waste at all. One of the major blocks scientists have run into is the reactivity of cabon–
hydrogen bonds, which is needed to form new molecules. In order for these bonds to work, carbon–
hydrogen bonds need to be served. Previously, this has required dangerous reagents, and little was
yielded when the reaction was over. Now, there are different ways to achieve this goal. If the right
catalyst is given, it is now possible to form carbon–to–carbon bonds from activating carbon–
hydrogen bonds. This reaction is called dehydrogenate cross–coupling, has to be catalyzed before
the process can begin, and there are three categories of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The challenge is to identify the strategies so scientists can form organ–metal intermediates in a mild
condition, and to also discover different methods for these organ–metal intermediates' subsequent
functionalisation in order to expand this area. This presents an exciting challenge for chemists since
it might be the ultimate synthetic transformation. Currently, interest has taken over in developing an
intramolecular carbon–carbon bond that ends up forming reactions catalyzed by transition metals,
and research for this focuses on the activation of carbon–hydrogen bonds. There are a number of
functional groups that may be capable of certain carbon–hydrogen activation. With this comes
developing strategies that involve steroinduction, complexity generating reactions, and carbon–
carbon bonding formation processes. However, to efficiently identify possible new processes,
parallel screening techniques enable scientists to preform and monitor these reactions. The new
discovery and development process can be now be accelerated, which leads to a new optimized
transformation faster. This activation bond, carbon–hydrogen, is currently at the edge of synthetic
organic chemistry. Carbon–hydrogen activation allows the chemist to perform unexpected
disconnection, and it enables synthetic strategies. Over the past thirty years, the Heck reaction has
become a fundamental metal catalyzed carbon–carbon bond, which is able to form the process for
the synthesis of molecules that
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

53. Grignard Is The Child Of A Sail Producer Essay
Introduction:
Grignard was the child of a sail producer. In the wake of concentrating on arithmetic at Lyon he
exchanged to science and found the manufactured response bearing his name (the Grignard
response) in 1900. He turned into an educator at the University of Nancy in 1910 and was granted
the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1912. Amid World War I, he studied chemical warfare agents,
especially the produce of phosgene and the identification of mustard gas. His partner on the German
side was another Nobel Prize–winning chemist, Fritz Haber. (2) The Grignard reagent is
exceptionally responsive and responds with most natural mixes. It likewise responds with water,
carbon dioxide and oxygen. (2) Grignard reagents are set up by the response of magnesium metal
with fitting alkyl halide in ether dissolvable. The halogen might be Cl, Br, or I. A standout amongst
the most imperative employments of the Grignard Reagent is the response with aldehydes and
ketones to frame liquor. A related blend utilizes ethylene oxide to plan alcohols containing two more
carbon molecules than that of the alkyl halide. (2)
Grignard is most noted for creating another procedure for delivering carbon–carbon bonds utilizing
magnesium to couple ketones and alkyl halides.
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

55. Comparison of Three Isomers of Butanol Essay
1.5.1
Comparison of Three Isomers of Butanol
Introduction:
An alcohol's reactivity is determined based on the attachment of their hydroxyl functional
group. The location of this hydroxyl functional group will impact the molecular structure of the
alcohol, making it either primary (1° ), secondary (2° ), or tertiary (3° ). If the OH is bonded to only
one other carbon, it is a primary alcohol (eg. 1–butanol); if bonded to two other carbons, it is a
secondary alcohol (eg. 2–butanol); if bonded to three other carbons, it is a tertiary alcohol (eg. 2–
methyl–2–propanol). Due to the placement of the hydroxyl functional group in each of the degrees
of alcohol, the reactivity of each should be impacted. This means that all three ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
4. Write a structural diagram equation to represent the reaction between each alcohol and HCl(aq).
5. Write a structural diagram equation to represent the controlled oxidation of each alcohol in
KMnO4(aq) solution.
6. Summarize in a few sentences the halogenation and controlled oxidation reactions of 1°, 2°, and
3° alcohols. During the halogenation reactions of 1–butanol, 2–butanol, and 2–methyl–2–propanol,
there is a formation of water from the OH atom of the alcohol, and the H atom from the HCl
solution. The OH bond of the alcohol is then substituted with the Cl atom. Therefore all of the
degrees of alcohol undergo halogenation reactions, and form alkyl halides as products. This is
because the functional group of alkyl halides is a carbon–halogen bond. A common halogen is
chlorine, as used in this experiment.
The products of the primary alcohol reaction, 1–butanol and HCl, are 1–chlorobutane and water;
products of the secondary alcohol, 2–butanol and HCl are 2–chlorobutane and water; products of the
tertiary alcohol, 2–methyl–2–propanol are 2–methyl–2–chloropropane and water. In the controlled
oxidation reactions of 1–butanol and 2–butanol with KMnO4, there is also a formation of water. The
primary alcohol 1–butanol, reacted with KMnO4 to create butanal, an aldehyde, and water as
products. Also the secondary alcohol, 2–butanol and KMnO4

56. ... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

58. Reactivity Of Tert-Butyl Chloride Lab Report
Courtney Copeland
Alexis Madrazo
TA: Katrinah Tirado
October 10, 2017
Synthesis and Reactivity of tert–butyl Chloride via an Sn1 Reaction
Copeland 1
Introduction/Background
Substitution reactions are important chemical processes that contribute to the production of new
compounds. Simplistically, these reactions take place through a series of steps in which one
functional group is replaced by another (March). There are two types of nucleophilic substitution
reactions, first–order and second–order, but this experiment only involves the Sn1 first–order
reactions. Sn1 reactions are considered unimolecular meaning that only one molecule is involved in
the rate determining step, the slowest step of the reaction which determines the overall speed of the
reaction. In contrast, Sn2 reactions are considered bimolecular, and complete the substitution
reaction in one step. The main components of these reactions are the nucleophile and the leaving
group; a nucleophile replaces the leaving group by donating its electrons to form a new bond to the
carbon (Weldegirma). For this experiment, the nucleophiles and leaving groups of the Sn1 reactions
are alkyl halides and alcohols respectively. When a hydrogen atom is replaced by halogen in an
alkane, the resulting compound is referred to as a alkyl halide. There are certain factors that affect
both Sn1 and Sn2 reactions which include the structure of the substrate, and the concentration and
reactivity of the nucleophile (Sn2 only). If a
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

60. Essay about Wittig Reaction: Synthesis of Trans-Stilbene
The purpose of this experiment was to perform a wittig reaction, the horner–emmons wittig
specifically, reacting an aldehyde with an ylide to make an alkene. This particular variation of the
wittig reaction has several advantages: It gives only the trans product; it uses a much milder base
that is easier to handle; and it gives a water soluble byproduct which is easy to separate from the
product. The reason that these advantages occur is a change in the structure of the ylide. Instead of a
tripheylphosphine ylide, we use a diethylphosphonate ylide. The protons are much more acidic and
its byproduct is negatively charged.
The reason why we chose to create trans–stilbene is become of its many practical applications.
Stilbene exists as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This modification is similar to a standard Wittig reaction in that the first step, which has already
been done for you, is the reaction of a trialkyl phosphite with a suitable alkyl halide as shown below
in two steps:
In the first step the trialkyl phosphate acts as a nucleophile and, in a typical Sn2 reaction, forms a
phosphonium salt. The salt is unstable and a halide ion X displaces R in the Sn2 manner to form a
dialkylphosphonate. It is the phosphonate that, in the presence of base, is converted to a Wittig–like
reagent. Normally the Wittig reagent is an ylid and neutral, but the modified Wittig is analogous to
the carbanion of an aldol intermediate. Due to its resonance forms, the phosphonate anion is able to
attack the carbonyl much like acarbanion in an aldol reaction to give an oxyanion species. This is
where the analogy with the aldol reaction fails. The oxyanion undergoes a reaction analogous to
nucleophilic substitution at an unsaturated center to form the olefin, normally as the E isomer, and a
water soluble phosphonate anion. In this particular experiment, diethyl benzylphosphonate is used
with benzaldehyde as the carbonyl component. Since phase transfer conditions are used, we can use
a weaker base, the hydroxide ion. The reactivity o the anion formed is very high, resulting in
excellent yields of trans–stilbene. The trans form of Stilbene is more favored than the sterically
hindered cis form. Although
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

62. Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction Lab Report
Introduction:–. To natural science the substitution responses is the The greater part significant
reactions, particularly Nucleophilic fragrant substitution responses the place nucleophile strike sure
charge alternately incompletely certain accuse Concerning illustration it can so, it replaces An
weaker nucleophile which after that gets to be An abandoning bunch. The remaining sure alternately
incompletely certain particle gets a electrophile. The general type of the response is:. Nuc: + R–LG
→ R–Nuc + LG:. Those electron combine (:) starting with the nucleophile (Nuc :) strike the
substrate (R–LG) framing another covalent bond Nuc–R–LG. The former state about accuse will be
restored The point when the abandoning aggregation (LG) departs for ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
Need simply one step. Those assault of the reagent and the removal of the abandoning bunch happen
all the while. This system generally brings about reversal from claiming setup. On the substrate that
is under nucleophilic strike is chiral, those response will prompt a reversal from claiming its
stereochemistry called a Walden reversal. To a sample (chloromethane for bromide particle. ( SN2
ambush might happen Assuming that the posterior course of ambush is not sterically hindered by
substituents on the substrate. Subsequently this system generally happens during a unhindered
essential carbon focal point. Assuming that there may be steric swarming on the substrate close to
those abandoning group, for example, such that at a tertiary carbon center, those substitution will
include a SN1 as opposed an SN2 mechanism, (an SN1 might Additionally make less averse in this
the event in light a sufficiently stable carbocation go–between Might a chance to be formed). At the
substrate is a fragrant compound those response kind will be nucleophilic fragrant substitution.
Carboxylic corrosive subsidiaries respond for nucleophiles for nucleophilic acyl substitution. This
sort of response camwood a chance to be advantageous in get ready
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...