ALLPORT personality psychology ppt uploaded

Allport psychology

1. PERSONALITY THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE

2. Overview of Allport’s Psychology of the Individual Emphasized the uniqueness of the individual. Attempts to describe people in terms of general traits rob them of their unique individuality. Objected to trait and factor theories that tend to reduce individual behaviors to common traits. F or example, that one person’s stubbornness is different from any other person’s stubbornness and the manner in which one person’s stubbornness interacts with his or her extraversion and creativity is duplicated by no other individual.

3. Allport’s emphasized each person’s uniqueness and wanted to study in depth a single individual. He called the study of the individual- morphogenic science and contrasted it with the nomothetic methods used by most other psychologists. Morphogenic methods are those that gather data on a single individual , whereas nomothetic methods gather data on groups of people. Allport also advocated an eclectic approach to theory building. He accepted some of the contributions of Freud, Maslow, Rogers, Eysenck, Skinner, and others; but he believed that no one of these theorists is able to adequately explain the total growing and unique personality. To Allport, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific theory even if it does not generate as many testable hypotheses.

4. Allport argued against particularism, or theories that emphasize a single aspect of personality . In other words, no theory is completely comprehensive, and psychologists should always realize that much of human nature is not included in any single theory . To Allport, a broad, comprehensive theory is preferable to a narrow, specific theory even if it does not generate as many testable hypotheses.

5. WHAT IS PERSONALITY? After a review of 49 definitions of personality, Allport came up with a classic definition of personality – “ Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to the environment / characteristic behavior and thought.” (Allport, 1937, p. 48). DYNAMIC ORGANISATION : It’s always subject to change: hence, the qualifier “dynamic.” It is not a static organization; it is constantly growing or changing. Dynamic organization evolves as a developmental process, and a failure of integration is a mark of psychopathology.

6. Dynamic refers to the constantly evolving or changing nature of personality. Not only does the personality become more complex in structure as the indiviual’s physical and psychological characteristics develop, but from time to time and situation to situation, there are changes in the structural organization. The changes are not radical nor are they necessarily permanent. The dynamic nature of personality is difficult to measure as compared to intelligence which is stable, and can be measured quite accurately.

7. Organization emphasizes Active organization. An integration or interrelatedness of the various aspects of personality. Healthy people become integrated, getting it all together. It’s organized and patterned. P atterning of the independent parts of the personality structure, each of which has a special relation to the whole. The distinction b/w the normal and abnormal personality is to be found in the degree of organization that exists. A normal, healthy personality is a highly correlative structured person. The abnormal personality shows disorganization, degree of disorganization.

8. PSYCHOPHYSICAL SYSTEMS The term psychophysical emphasizes the importance of both the psychological and the physical aspects of personality. A psycho-physical system is composed of habits, attitudes, emotional states, sentiments, motives, and beliefs, all of which are psychological but have physical basis in the indiviual’s neural, glandular or general bodily states. It reminds us that personality is neither exclusively mental nor exclusively physical. Its organization entails the functioning of both mind and body . They are not the product of heredity, but the product of learning and they derive from the life experiences of the indiviual . Sometimes they are latent or inactive in the organism.

9. Allport offered a mathematical expression of this pervasive influence of heredity through a multiplicative equation: Personality = f (heredity) X (Environment). If either were zero there could be no personality. It refers to the individual behind the facade, the person behind the action. The psycho-physical system has a motivational force that shapes the personality. This term is a natural consequence of the biophysical view. It emphasizes the motivational role of the psychophysical systems. Once an attitude, belief, habit, sentiment, or some other element of a psychophysical system has been aroused by a stimulus, either from the environment or within the individual, it provokes adjustive and expressive acts which are characterstic forms of expression of that individual.

10. DETERMINATIVE It suggests that “personality is something and does something” (Allport, 1961, p. 29). Personality is not merely the mask we wear, nor is it simply behavior. All the systems that comprise personality are to be regarded as determining tendencies. They exert a directive influence upon all the adjustive and expressive acts by which the personality comes to be known.

11. CHARACTERISTIC All persons stamp their unique mark or engraving on their personality, and their characteristic behavior and thought set them apart from all other people . Characteristics are marked with a unique engraving, a stamp or marking, that no one else can duplicate. The adjective characteristic refers to the distinctiveness or uniqueness of the personality. Even identical twins can’t have the same life experiences, each person learns to respond to his environment in terms of his individual experiences, drives, interest, psychophysical systems that have been built up as a result of learning.

12. The words behavior and thought simply refer to anything the person does. They are omnibus terms meant to include internal behaviors (thoughts) as well as external behaviors such as words and actions.

13. UNIQUE For Allport, traits are highly individualized, or unique. People are motivated by diverse traits reflecting the differences in their learning. ADJUSTMENT TO THE ENVIRONMENT Allport emphasized the adaptive, coping functions of personality. Personality results from the attempts of the CNS to establish security and comfort for the individual torn between his own affective cravings and the harsh demands of his environment. These adaptations are unique to each individual because of differences in heredity and environment.

14. Allport’s comprehensive definition of personality suggests that human beings are both product and process. People have some organized structure while, at the same time, they possess the capability of change. Pattern coexists with growth, order with diversification. In summary, personality is both physical and psychological; it includes both overt behaviors and covert thoughts; it not only is something, but it does something. Personality is both substance and change, both product and process, both structure and growth.

15. Traits A Trait is a theoretical construct describing a basic dimension of personality. A Trait is considered as a relatively enduring attribute or quality on which one individual differs from another. The Trait approaches attempts to identify primary characterstics of people. Assumptions of Trait Theories Trait approaches emphasize individual differences in characteristics that are more or less stable across time and across situations. Trait approaches emphasize the measurement of these traits through tests, often self-report questionnaires.

16. Characterstics of Traits Provides direction to behavior Determines behavior Invisible and can be only felt. Leads to development of personality Develops uniqueness in personality Base of traits is heredity They are learned also. They are developed and affected by society. They are dimensions of behavior in which indiviual differs. E.g. aggressiveness, poliete , anxious.

17. STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY According to Allport, the primary of personality is traits. Listing a person’s traits provides a description of person’s personality. Personal Dispositions T hey permit researchers to study a single individual. They are peculiar to the individual. Allport (1961) defined a personal disposition as “a generalized neuropsychic structure (peculiar to the individual), with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent (equivalent) forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior” (p. 373 ). To Allport, the most important structures are those that permit the description of the person in terms of individual characteristics, and he called these individual characteristics personal dispositions.

18. They are general characteristics held in common by many people and are possessed by many people, each to a varying extent. Common traits provide the means by which people within a given culture can be compared to one another. In everyday speech, we often describe people by using common traits, comparing how much of a trait each person has e.g. creativity, cooperation. Some have more of this trait and some have less. Common traits are not the ultimate real units of personality. Personal dispositions are individual; common traits are shared by several people.

19. Levels of Personal Dispositions Allport placed personal dispositions on a continuum from those that are most central to those that are of only peripheral importance to a person. Some people possess an eminent characteristic or ruling passion so outstanding that it dominates their lives. Allport (1961) called these personal dispositions cardinal dispositions. They are so obvious that they cannot be hidden; nearly every action in a person’s life revolves around this one cardinal disposition . Most people do not have a cardinal disposition, but those few people who do are often known by that single characteristic.

20. Cardinal Dispositions It is specific It’s the eminent trait, ruling passion, master-sentiment Affects person’s whole life Affects person’s philosophy Not present in all Dominates just about everything a person does Most people do not have such a highly pervasive single trait. When they do, the trait often makes its possessor famous. Only very rarely do people have a cardinal trait – Non-Violence in Gandhi, Aggressiveness in Napolean .

21. Central Dispositions Few people have cardinal dispositions. But everyone has several central dispositions, which include the 5 to 10 most outstanding characteristics around which a person’s life focuses. Allport (1961) described central dispositions as those that would be listed in an accurate letter of recommendation written by someone who knew the person quite well . Allport believed, have 5 to 10 central dispositions that their friends and close acquaintances would agree are descriptive of that person.

22. Provides global picture of personality Main characteristic of personality Makes person’s identity It effects many behaviors The characteristics that summarize personality are termed central traits. E.g. self-confidence, short tempered. Secondary Dispositions: Less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions are the secondary dispositions . Everyone has many secondary dispositions that are not central to the personality yet occur with some regularity and are responsible for much of one’s specific behaviors.

23. Secondary Dispositions Less organized Less consistent Less active Less important for personality development Arise in special situations They do not affect behaviors Like personal preferences.

24. The three levels of personal dispositions ar arbitrary points on a continuous scale from most appropriate to least appropriate. Cardinal dispositions, which are exceedingly prominent in a person, shade into central dispositions, which are less dominating but nevertheless mark the person as unique. Central dispositions, which guide much of a person’s adaptive and stylistic behavior, blend into secondary dispositions, which are less descriptive of that individual. We cannot say, however , that one person’s secondary dispositions are less intense than another person’s central dispositions.

25. Motivational and Stylistic Dispositions All personal dispositions are dynamic in the sense that they have motivational power. Nevertheless , some are much more strongly felt than others, and Allport called these intensely experienced dispositions motivational dispositions. These strongly felt dispositions receive their motivation from basic needs and drives and initiate actions. Stylistic Dispositions Allport (1961) referred to personal dispositions that are less intensely experienced as stylistic dispositions , even though these dispositions possess some motivational power. Stylistic dispositions guide action, whereas motivational dispositions initiate action. An example of a stylistic disposition might be neat and impeccable personal appearance. People are motivated to dress because of a basic need to stay warm, but the manner in which they attire themselves is determined by their stylistic personal dispositions.

26. PROPRIUM Whether motivational or stylistic, some personal dispositions are close to the core of personality, whereas others are more on the periphery. Those that are at the center of personality are experienced by the person as being an important part of self. They are characteristics that an individual refers to in such terms as “That is me” or “This is mine.” All characteristics that are “peculiarly mine” belong to the proprium ( Allport , 1955).

27. Allport used the term proprium to refer to those behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important in their lives. The proprium is not the whole personality. As the warm center of personality, the proprium includes those aspects of life that a person regards as important to a sense of self-identity and self-enhancement ( Allport , 1955 ). The proprium includes a person’s values as well as that part of the conscience that is personal and consistent with one’s adult beliefs.

28. The theoretical concept, proprium , which includes all aspects of the personality that make for unity. It is a law which integrates traits, values and motives. It shows person’s positive, creative and dynamic traits. It is the striving part of our being, which gives us our intentionality and direction.

29. Motivation Most people are motivated by present drives rather than by past events and are aware of what they are doing and have some understanding of why they are doing it. The theories of motivation must consider the differences between peripheral motives and propriate strivings. Peripheral motives are those that reduce a need, whereas propriate strivings seek to maintain tension and disequilibrium. Adult behavior is both reactive and proactive, and an adequate theory of motivation must be able to explain both.

30. A Theory of Motivation Allport believed that a useful theory of personality rests on the assumption that people not only react to their environment but also shape their environment and cause it to react to them. Personality is a growing system, allowing new elements to constantly enter into and change the person . An adequate theory of personality, must allow for proactive behavior. Theory must view people as consciously acting on their environment in a manner that permits growth toward psychological health, stress change, and individuality.

31. Functional Autonomy Functional autonomy represents a theory of changing rather than unchanging motives and is the capstone of Allport’s ideas on motivation. In general, the concept of functional autonomy holds that some human motives are functionally independent from the original motive responsible for the behavior. If a motive is functionally autonomous, it is the explanation for behavior. This notion that much human behavior is based on present interests and on conscious preferences is in harmony with the commonsense belief of many people who hold that they do things simply because they like to do them . Functional autonomy is a reaction to what Allport called theories of unchanging motives.

32. Functional autonomy represents his attempt to explain these conscious, self-sustaining contemporary motivations . Allport (1961) defined functional autonomy as “any acquired system of motivation in which the tensions involved are not of the same kind as the antecedent tensions from which the acquired system developed” (p. 229). In other words, what begins as one motive may grow into a new one that is historically continuous with the original but functionally autonomous from it. For example, a person may originally plant a garden to satisfy a hunger drive but eventually become interested in gardening for its own sake.

33. Allport listed four requirements of an adequate theory of motivation. Functional autonomy, of course, meets each criterion . An adequate theory of motivation “will acknowledge the contemporaneity of motives.” In other words, “Whatever moves us must move now” ( Allport , 1961, p. 220). The past per se is unimportant. The history of an individual is significant only when it has a present effect on motivation . “It will be a pluralistic theory—allowing for motives of many types” ( Allport , 1961, p. 221). Some motivations are conscious, others unconscious; some are transient, others recurring; some are peripheral, others propriate ; and some are tension reducing, others tension maintaining. Motives that appear to be different really are different, not only in form but also in substance.

34. 3. “It will ascribe dynamic force to cognitive processes—e.g., to planning and intention” ( Allport , 1961, p. 222). The lives of healthy adults are future oriented, involving preferences, purposes, plans, and intentions. These processes, of course, are not always completely rational, as when people allow their anger to dominate their plans and intentions. 4 . An adequate theory of motivation is one that “will allow for the concrete uniqueness of motives” ( Allport , 1961, p. 225). Allport would simply say that Derrick wants to improve his bowling game because he wants to improve his bowling game. This is Derrick’s unique, concrete, and functionally autonomous motive . In summary, a functionally autonomous motive is contemporary and selfsustaining ; it grows out of an earlier motive but is functionally independent of it

35. Perseverative Functional Autonomy The more elementary of the two levels of functional autonomy is perseverative functional autonomy. Allport borrowed this term from the word “perseveration,” which is the tendency of an impression to leave an influence on subsequent experience. Behavior repeated as it is has become his habit . E.g. the rat runs the maze just for the fun of it . Alcoholics continue to drink although their current motivation is functionally independent from their original motive.

36. Propriate Functional Autonomy The master system of motivation that confers unity on personality is propriate functional autonomy, which refers to those self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium . Behavior repeated in order to maintain a good self image and life style . Jigsaw puzzles and alcohol are seldom regarded as “peculiarly mine.” They are not part of the proprium but exist only on the periphery of personality . On the other hand, occupations, hobbies, and interests are closer to the core of personality, and many of our motivations concerning them become functionally autonomous.

37. For example, a woman may originally take a job because she needs money. At first, the work is uninteresting, perhaps even distasteful. As the years pass, however, she develops a consuming passion for the job itself, spending some vacation time at work and, perhaps, even developing a hobby that is closely related to her occupation . Criterion for Functional Autonomy In general, a present motive is functionally autonomous to the extent that it seeks new goals, meaning that the behavior will continue even as the motivation for it changes. For example, a child first learning to walk is motivated by some maturational drive, but later he may walk to increase mobility or to build self confidence .

38. LEVELS OF INTEGRATION OF PERSONALITY: TRAITS, ATTITUDES, HABITS Personality is arranged in a hierachial structure. At the lowest level of integration are simple conditioned reflexes. These become associated over time to form habits. A higher level of integration is the notion of self.

39. LEVELS OF INTEGRATION IN PERSONALITY MOST INTEGRATED UNIFYING PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE SELF TRAITS ATTITUDES HABITS LEAST INTEGRATED REFLEXES

40. QUALITIES OF NORMAL, MATURE ADULT Allport gave several qualities of mature adult: Warm Human Interaction – Capacity for warm human interaction. Social interaction are sincere, friendly rather than prescribed by rigid roles and expectations. Emotional Security (Self-Acceptance ): Healthy indiviuals are emotionally secure and accept themselves, having high self- steem . Realistic Perception, Skills and Assignment: He realistically perceives the world. Both unrealistic optimism like conviction that his lottery ticket is going to be a winner, and unrealistic pessimism such as expectation of falling at everything is avoided. Self-Objectification, Insight and Humor: Mature indiviuals are capable of self-objectification, seeing themselves accurately from an objective perspective, with insight, and often with sense of humor.

41. 5. Extension of the sense of self: The developed person has a variety of interests – he can talk on any topic. 6. Unifying Philosophy of life: He has a philosophy in life, for some it is religious philosophy in life.

42. UNITY OF PERSONALITY With maturity comes the integration and unification of personality. The consistency across various roles (friend, student, worker etc ) lies within our personality, which comes from within (not from society or from one’s personal history). Integration occurs through the formation of “master sentiments” – which can be religious or nonreligious philosophies of life that constitutes a person’s core consistency. With maturity, the indiviual becomes more purposive, less pushed from the past. People experience a crisis when unification is threatened. Such disunity is unpleasant, but it can provide the opportunity for personal growth. Researches support Allport’s claim that Integrated personalities are better adjusted and more effective ( Behrends , 1986; Donahue, Robins, Roberts & John, 1993).

43. In referring to the unity of personality, Allport used the latin phrase UNITAS MULTIPLEX – unity of multiples. In a person, there is integration of diverse elements: interests, traits, biological predispositions, and so forth. Consider people as a whole, rather than analyzing them into isolated parts: habits, conflicts and so forth. He stressed that the various parts are somehow directed by the indiviual to work together towards some adaptive purpose.

44. STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT The proprium develops gradually through a lifetime. A newborn infant lacks personality, for he has not yet encountered the world in which he must live, and has not developed the distinctive modes of adjustment and mastery that will later comprise his personality. Allport suggested a list of stages of development, although he did it without any developmental research. BOBILY SENSE : the propium begins developing in infancy with the sense of the bodily self. He discovers putting the hand in the mouth is different from putting the toy in the mouth. This experience develops the realization of the “bodily me”. SELF-IDENTITY : The second achievement of propriate development begins in the second year of life, from 1 to 2, and continues until about 4 or 5. during these years the child develops a sense of self-identity, a sense of his-her existense as a separate person. This is the stage when children begin to recognize themselves by name. EGO-ENHANCEMENT: From age 2 to 3, the child begins working on self-esteem. The capacity for pride through achievement starts to develop, as well as the capacity for humiliation and selfishness.

45. 4. EGO-EXTENSION: At an early age of 3 – 4, the child begins to identify with his or her ego-extensions, such as personal possessions: “That is my bike”. This process continues into adulthood. Besides possessions, the maturing individual identifies with “loved objects, ideal causes and loyalties”. 5. SELF-IMAGE: It includes both evaluation of our present “abilities, status, and roles” and our aspirations for future. Children b/w 4 -6 yrs become capable of formulating future goals and are aware of being good and bad. 6. RATIONAL AGENT: During the middle childhood yrs (6 -12) the child may be thought of as a rational coper. The child is busy solving problems and planning ways of doing things, skills that are practiced at school.

46. 7. PROPRIATE STRIVING: It begins in adolescence, it is ego-involved motivation that has directedness or intentionality. At this time some defining object becomes the “cement” holding a life together, as the person becomes capable of genuine ideology and career planning. 8. THE KNOWER: Allport described the development in adulthood of the self as knower. The adult cognitively integrates the previous seven aspects of the self into a unified whole, a view that emphasizes Allport’s conviction that unity is a characteristic of mature personalities.

47. SOCIAL INFLUENCE Allport, who was quite aware that people live in a social environment that exerts a significant influence, considered specific social issues. E.g. he wrote a major work on prejudice and rumor transmission. CONCEPT OF SELF Allport argued for the notion of self as a major focus of personality growth. INTERACTION OF PERSONALITY WITH SOCIAL INFLUENCE Situations influence people, but they influence individuals in different ways. In Allport’s words – “ The same heat that melts the butter hardens the egg.” He recognized that further theoretical advances were needed to develop the concept of interactionism (interaction between personality and environment).

48. REFERENCES Cloninger S.C. (2012). Theories of Personality: Understanding Persons (6th International Ed.). Pearson Education Feist , J., Fiest , G. J., & Roberts, T.A. (2012). Theories of Personality (8th Ed). New York: McGraw Hill