Alternative Fuels

Alternative Fuels

1. SNIST (JNTUH) M.Tech ( Therm.Engg ) ALTERNATIVE FUELS Need, Types of Alternative Fuels, its Properties and Applications Dr. SIRIVELLA VIJAYA BHASKAR Professor in Mechanical Engineering Sreenidhi Institute of Scienc & Technology, Hyderabad

2. UNIT-I: Alternate Fuels Availability and properties of alternate fuels General use of Alcohols LPG, Hydrogen ammonia , CNG and LNG Vegetable oils and biogas . Merits and demerits of various alternate fuels 2

3. Objectives After studying this unit, you should be able to  understand the alternative renewable fuel sources  understand the different types of alternative fuels available as of today  know the chemical properties of alternative fuels and  advantages and disadvantages of alternative fuels 3

4. Sources of Energy Conventional / Non-Renewable Unconventional (Non-conventional)/ Renewable

5. 5 Conventional/Non-conventional ???

6. Th e incr e as e i n en e rg y consumptio n particularl y i n th e pas t sev e ra l decade s has raise d fears o f exhausting vi t a l natural resources Rapi d in d ustrialization an d m assiv e gro w t h in po p ulation has increase d th e depen d enc e and use o f natural fuels Currently approximately 90 % o f ou r ener g y requiremen t ar e m e t b y fos s i l fuels Introduction

7. Studies suggest tha t i f exploite d a t th e same rat e , th e coa l reser v e s will deplet e i n th e next 200 - 30 year s an d petr o leu m deposit s w ill deplet e i n th e n e x t few dec a des So, i t is importan t for us t o enga g e in res e ar c h an d de v el o pmen t o f alt e rnati v e fu e ls so we may not face scarcity o f natural resource s i n th e future

8. Diminishing Reserves of Conventional Fuels To reduce environmental pollution To protect against Global Warming To reduce import cost and improve nations’ economy Meeting the current global energy demand Need for Alternate Fuel

9. Diminishing Reserves of Conventional Fuels The traditional fuels including petroleum would be depleted after some time. Because they are not renewable To reduce environmental pollution The use of alternative fuels considerably decreases harmful exhaust emissions (such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, particulate matter and sulfur dioxide) as well as ozone-producing emissions. Need for Alternate Fuel

10. 3. To protect against Global Warming According to a commonly accepted scientific theory, burning fossil fuels was causing temperatures to rise in the earth’s atmosphere (global warming). Though global warming continues to be just a theory, a lot of people across the globe are of the belief that discovering sources of cleaner burning fuel is an essential step towards enhancing the quality of our environment. Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

11. 4. To reduce import cost and improve nations’ economy The majority of oil fields are located in Middle East and majority of OPEC countries are associated with problems – both political and economic. So, the production rate is uncertain and may/may not meet the demand. This causes rise in price abruptly. On the other hand, the feed-stock for alternative fuels are renewable and can be produced locally with less expenses. This in turn means saving of money in the long term. Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

12. 5. Meeting the current global energy demand Every day increasing demand of energy has created large gap between demand and supply. Need for Alternate Fuel (cont..)

13. Availability of Alternate Fuels

14. Properties of Alternative Fuels Key properties for alternative fuels to be considered for : Combustion and Performance : Heat of combustion, heat content of stoichiometric mixture, octane number (SI engine) , cetane number (CI engine), boiling point ( esp., cold start), flammability limits Emissions : Chemical composition and nature, adiabatic flame temperature Storage and Handling: Boiling point, volumetric energy density, vapour pressure, flammability limits 14

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16. Properties of Alternative Fuels Volatility : Volatility is one of the main characteristic properties of petrol/gasoline which determines its suitability for use in an SI engine. Since gasoline is a mixture of different hydrocarbons, volatility depends on the fractional composition of the fuel. The usual practice of measuring the fuel volatility is the distillation of the fuel in a special device at atmospheric pressure and in the presence of its own vapour . Starting and Warm up : A certain part of the gasoline should vapourize at the room temperature for easy starting of the engine. As the engine warms up, the temperature will gradually increase to the operating temperature. 16

17. Properties of Alternative Fuels (Cont..) Antiknock Quality : Abnormal burning or detonation in an SI engine . combustion chamber causes a very high rate of energy release, excessive temperature and pressure inside the cylinder adversely affect its thermal efficiency. Therefore, the characteristics of the fuel used should be such that it resists the tendency to produce detonation and this property is called its antiknock property. Gum Deposits : Reactive hydrocarbons and impurities in the fuel have a tendency to oxidize upon storage and form liquid and solid gummy substances. . A gasoline with high gum content will cause operating difficulties such as sticking valves and piston rings carbon deposits in the engine, gum deposits in the manifold, clogging of carburettor jets and enlarging of the valve stems, cylinders and pistons. 17

18. Properties of Alternative Fuels (Cont..) Sulphur Content : Hydrocarbon fuels may contain free sulphur , hydrogen sulphide and other sulphur compounds which are objection­ able for several reasons. The sulphur is a corrosive element of the fuel that can corrode fuel lines, carburettors and injection pumps and it will unite with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide that, in the presence of water at low temperatures, may form sulphurous acid . The presence of sulphur can reduce the self-ignition temperature, then promoting knock in the SI engine Viscosity : CI engine fuels should be able to flow through the fuel system and the strainers under the lowest operating temperatures to which the engine is subjected to. SI Engine: Higher Octane number is required (above 86-94) CI Engine: Above 45 Cetane number is preferred 18

19. Properties of Alternative Fuels Some of the key properties of the main alternative fuel candidates are compared in Table with those of conventional petroleum fuels. 19

20. Properties of Alternative Fuels 20

21. DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALTERNATE FUELS Alcohol fuels (ethanol & methanol) LPG Hydrogen Ammonia CNG and LNG Vegetable oil Bio-Fuel (incl. Biogas) 21

22. Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol Methanol at present is produced mostly from natural gas although both methanol and ethanol can be produced from renewable sources.  Methanol may be produced near the natural gas field and it being liquid can be more easily handled and transported over long distances compared to natural gas. Ethanol is produced almost entirely from the renewable agriculture sources by fermentation of sugar, grains, tapioca, molasses etc. 22

23. Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol Alcohols in engines may be used as: Low concentration ( 5 to 10% by volume) blends in gasoline Neat alcohol or high level ( 85% by volume) blends Neat ethanol (95% ethanol + 5% water) and anhydrous ethanol blended up to 20% in gasoline have been widely used in Brazil during 1980’s. In the USA, use of ethanol was promoted due to agricultural surplus for blending in the reformulated gasoline as oxygenate. 23

24. Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol Use of 5 to 10% ethanol as a blending component in gasoline is permitted in Europe and India.     Now, ethanol is the preferred oxygenate replacing MTBE ( methyl tertiary-butyl ether ). Methanol due to its toxicity is not permitted any more for blending into gasoline. The 10 percent ethanol-gasoline blends used in the USA are commonly referred as ‘Gasohol’. 24

25. Alcohol Fuels: Ethanol & Methanol Key features of alcohols as motor fuel are: Alcohols are a preferred alternative for SI engines only due to their high octane number . A higher engine compression ratio could be used to obtain a higher engine thermal efficiency. Cetane number of methanol and ethanol are close to 5 and 8, respectively. Direct injection alcohol engine prototypes operating similar to diesel/CI engines have also been developed using either a positive source of ignition or high dosage of ignition quality improvers (3 to 7% by volume). Alcohols are not easily miscible (homogeneous mixture) in the diesel fuels. To prepare alcohol-diesel blends high amounts of emulsifiers or solublizers are required. 25

26. Key features of alcohols as motor fuel are: Heating value of ethanol is approximately 60 percent and that of methanol is only 45 % of gasoline. The stoichiometric air-fuel ratio due to presence of oxygen in the molecule is much lower than the gasoline. The volumetric energy content of stoichiometric mixture (gaseous state) of alcohols and gasoline however, are not very different. Thus, engine specific power output that may be obtained with alcohols and gasoline is nearly the same. The latent heat of vaporization of methanol and ethanol is nearly 4 and 2.7 times, respectively compared to gasoline. Cold starting performance with neat alcohol is therefore, poor compared to gasoline. Flames of neat alcohols in air are not easily visible to the naked eye. Hence, 15% gasoline is mixed to alcohol for making the flame visible in case of an accidental fire . 26

27. Alcohols - Ethanol An alcohol-based alternative fuel made by fermenting and distilling crops such as corn, barley or wheat. It can be blended with gasoline to increase octane levels and improve emissions quality. Positive : Materials are renewable. Negative : Ethanol subsidies have a negative impact on food prices and availability. 27

28. General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol Ethanol fuel use in the U.S. has increased dramatically from about 1.7 billion gallons in 2001 to about 16.4 billion in 2016 Ethanol is also known as ethyl alcohol. It’s the alcohol in beer, wine, rum, vodka, etc. Ethanol was used to fuel some of the first automobiles The first production car running entirely on ethanol was the Fiat 147, introduced in 1978 in Brazil by Fiat 28

29. General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol Alcohol-based alternative fuel produced by fermenting and distilling starch crops or cellulose Most commonly used to increase octane and improve the emissions quality of gasoline. Can be blended with gasoline to create E85, a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline.(Gasohol) An excellent, clean-burning fuel, has a higher octane rating (over 100) and burns cooler than gasoline. High ethanol blends present a problem to achieve enough vapor pressure for the fuel to evaporate and spark the ignition during cold weather 29

30. General Use of Alcohols- Ethanol The various techniques by which the ethanol can be used as a fuel for petrol engines are: 1. Blend formation 2. Fumigation  carbureting or vaporizing 3. Dual injection 4. Ignition improvers 5. Surface ignition 30

31. Ethanol 31 Wo rl d rank country 2013 2010 2009 2008 2007 1 Un i te d St a tes 1 3 , 9 0.00 13 , 231 . 10 , 938 . 9 , 235 . 6 , 485 . 2 B r az i l 5,5 7 3.24 6 , 921 . 5 4 6 , 577 . 8 9 6 , 472 . 2 5 , 019 . 2 4 Ch i na 55 4 . 76 5 4 1.55 5 4 1.55 5 1.90 4 8 6.00 7 In d i a 9 1 .67 6 6 .00 5 2 .80

32. Ethanol – General Uses Personal Care Products clean skin, in lotions as a preservative and to help ensure that lotion ingredients do not separate, and in hairsprays to help the spray adhere to hair. ethanol is effective in killing microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and viruses, it is a common ingredient in many hand sanitizers 32

33. Ethanol – General Uses Household Products Ethanol mixes easily with water and many organic compounds, and makes an effective solvent for use in paints, lacquers and varnish, as well as household cleaning products. As an additive to cleaning products, ethanol is also used as a preservative because it is effective in knocking out organisms that could pose a danger to consumers. 33

34. Ethanol – General Uses Food Additives As a food additive, ethanol can help evenly distribute food coloring , as well as enhance the flavor of food extracts. For example, vanilla extract, a common food flavoring , is made by curing and processing vanilla beans in a solution of ethanol and water. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) only allows vanilla to be called “extract” when it has an alcohol or ethanol base. 34

35. Ethanol – General Uses Fuel in Automotives More than 97 percent of U.S. gasoline contains ethanol, typically in a mixture called E10, made up of 10 percent ethanol and 90 percent gasoline, to oxygenate the fuel and reduce air pollution. Ethanol has a higher octane number than gasoline, providing premium blending properties, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. Minimum octane number requirements prevent engine knocking and maintain drivability. 35

36. General Use of Alcohols- Methanol Methanol also known as wood alcohol, methanol is a convenient liquid fuel that is made from a number of different feedstock resources - natural gas and coal as well as renewable resources like forest thinning or agriculture waste and - even directly from CO2 captured from power plant and factory emissions. 36

37. General Use of Alcohols- Methanol 37

38. General Use of Alcohols- Methanol Methanol’s benefits include lower emissions, higher performance, and lower risk of flammability than gasoline Methanol can easily be made into hydrogen for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles in the future. Methanol is extremely corrosive, requiring special materials for delivery and storage. 38

39. General Use of Alcohols- Methanol Methyl alcohol, also called methanol, can be readily purchased in hardware stores as paint thinner and gas stations as gas line antifreeze . It makes a good fuel for alcohol stoves . It is also referred to as wood alcohol, camp stove fuel and methyl hydrate. The vapors of methyl alcohol are toxic and long-term use and contaminated stoves may cause inadvertent exposure. Be careful when stowing methyl alcohol near cooking utensils. 39

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41. General Use of LPG Cooking and Heating No self-respecting chef would cook with anything else but gas. In fact, LPG is one of the major ingredients in the success of a good recipe and delicious meal. Its efficient flame provides you with instant heat and therefore makes cooking easy, enjoyable and clean. LPG fireplace or portable heater during a cold winter. 41

42. General Use of LPG Cooling Gone are the days of fluctuating air-conditioned temperatures. LPG has revolutionised the consistent supply of your temperature requirements. From island breezes to Alaskan snow falls, you can have it all. Home air-conditioning is the easiest way to monitor your home temperature. A vast range of systems is available to suit your needs. 42

43. General Use of LPG Refrigeration From fresh produce to bulk meat preservation, LPG has assisted this industry to improve cold storage facilities throughout the country. LPG adheres to the strictest regulations and assists in maintaining a non-pollutant atmosphere resulting in only the freshest products offered to the consumers 43

44. General Use of LPG Crop Drying LPG is often used in this agricultural application because of its highly controllable nature. Whatever your crop, Totalgaz will supply you with the kind of fuel that can maintain an optimum drying temperature. Potatoes, wheat, maize, barley, etc can then be dried at an optimum level for the most suitable usage. 44

45. General Use of LPG Poultry Rearing A reliable energy supply is a matter of life and death for poultry farmers. Birds thrive on consistent levels of heat and on a stress-free environment in which to grow healthily. LPG produces the moist heat necessary to promote rapid growth as well as the feathering of chickens. Moreover, thanks to the clean properties of LPG feeds or broods do not run the danger of contamination. 45

46. Mining Uses for LPG Extraction industries include the extraction of natural products from the earth as well as their industrially derived products. These industries require continuous energy mostly for drying and heating.  Some sectors, like cement works, bitumen coatings, road lining and roof water-proofing are particularly large consumers of energy. LPG is a well-adapted source of energy for these sectors because of its mobile storage and on-site transport possibility. 46

47. General Use of LPG LPG can be used in many applications in the industrial sector namely in space- and process-heating, powering industrial ovens, production of food, kilns, furnaces, production of packing material as well as in powering forklift trucks in warehouses.  Ceramic  LPG is one of the best choices of energy in this particular industry. Ceramics made of clay require a high heating value in order to dry and become hard and solid. 47

48. General Use of LPG Easily controllable, LPG provides clean combustion and is therefore advantageous in the maintenance process. Burners and kilns have to be maintained less often causing less downtime, with the consequence of saving costs and increasing productivity. As a choice energy, LPG is widely used in pottery, roofing, ceramic tiles and sanitary ware. 48

49. General Use of LPG Food Processing LPG is widely used in many food processing systems because of its clean burning properties. Bakeries and the manufacturers of biscuits, chips and chocolate are inclined to choose LPG as their preferred energy option as their products will not be exposed to the risk of contamination. In addition, this energy is also used in slaughterhouse for the cleaning of facilities and sterilisation, pork butchery in the process of cooking, drying and smoking as well as in the dairy industry for pasteurisation. 49

50. General Use of LPG Metal Processing Metallurgy uses heat treatments to meet the demand for highly specialised metals. Heat treatment consists in modifying the original structure of the metal or alloy in order to obtain mechanical specifications. This is done while using a precise thermal cycle that includes heating, maintaining a high temperature and cooling. 50

51. General Use of LPG Some heat treatments need a controlled atmospheric environment and the production of such an environment is possible in furnaces where LPG is used since combustion products have no contact with the furnace wall (thus avoiding any oxidation processes). Using LPG in this process allows the industry to manufacture products of a higher quality thanks to its flexible usage and low maintenance costs. LPG can also be used in applications involving surface treatment such as paint drying and galvanisation. 51

52. General Use of LPG - Textile The textile industry consists of three groups, namely: Natural textiles: cotton, wool, linen, silk, Artificial textiles: derived from natural products Synthetic textiles: 100% chemical products with a high degree of polymerisation. The textile industry requires a number of energy-consuming processes for which LPG is found to be a suitable fuel. These processes are: Heating of the bath (cleaning, bleaching, dyeing) Drying, thread singeing and polymerisation Ironing 52

53. General Use of LPG- Printing The manufacture of pulp, paper and cardboard consumes a considerable amount of energy. If fuel oil is to be commonly used in manufacturing pulp, it is possible for LPG to find many applications in paper, cardboard manufacturing processes and printing. In colour printing, the paper has to go several times through the rotary press as it requires a fast ink drying process. It is therefore always better to use the decentralised heating solution rather than the centralised steam solution in these processes as it offers more advantages: modular heating, easy regulation of gas output, cleanliness and environmental care. 53

54. General Use of LPG - Chemicals Production A number of products are part of the field of chemical engineering, i.e.  Polymers Paint Varnish Colourings and dyes Wax and polish.  A number of products are destined to: The food industry (aromas, flavours, spice extracts) The pharmaceutical industry 54

55. General Use of LPG - Chemicals Production Although chemical engineering is the biggest user of steam boilers, LPG-powered heat-exchangers are recommended in a number of different stages of the process. By using LPG, the chemical processes are enhanced thanks to good temperature regulation attributes, very high yields of energy and low maintenance procedures that are required by this type of installation. 55

56. General Use of LPG Forklifts Good for meeting air quality regulations in the workplace and technical demands for a modern handling (rapidity, power, flexibility, economy), LPG is nowadays the best response for the fuelling of thermal-engine trucks. Lead-free and soot-free, LPG has a very low rate of carbon monoxide emissions and is therefore the chosen energy when a pollution-free environment is critical. Should you invest in new forklifts trucks, there are many reasons why you should use LPG models 56

57. General Use of LPG The LPG is usually  fed to the engine in gas phase. Most LPG vehicles operate on bi-fuel systems for operation either on gasoline or LPG. It is important as the number of LPG filling stations is usually small. One drawback with a bi-fuel system is that the engine is neither optimised on LPG nor on gasoline. Better cold start and warm-up characteristics due to its gaseous state compared to gasoline hence lower HC emissions. 57

58. General Use of LPG HC emissions from LPG vehicles have significantly lower potential of smog formation compared to gasoline and diesel fuels. Negligible PM emissions compared to diesel. Small reductions in CO compared to gasoline as no enrichment of mixtures during warm up or acceleration phase is required. No significant difference in NO x emissions. 58

59. General Use of LPG Variation in propane/butane ratio in LPG poses problem as the octane number of the two main constituents; propane (RON is 112) and butane (RON is 94) is quite different. For bi-fuel vehicles specific technological development will be necessary to ensure compliance with the stringent emission standards. 59

60. Hydrogen Steam reacts with methanol to generate carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This process is done at high temperatures. When the temperature is set down, carbon monoxide will be produced. It can produce carbon dioxide and hydrogen. The efficiency rate is around 75%. A mixture of water and methanol with a molar concentration ratio ( water:methanol ) of 1.0 - 1.5 is pressurized to approximately 20 bar, vaporized and heated to a temperature of 250 - 360 °C. The hydrogen that is created is separated through the use of Pressure swing adsorption or a hydrogen-permeable membrane made of polymer or a palladium alloy. 60

61. Production of Hydrogen Production using Thermolysis and Electrolysis These are used for hydrogen production for industrial uses. The method is also known as water splitting. In this method, hydrogen and oxygen molecules are separated using electric currents. Heat is not necessary for electrolysis. However, high temperatures will produce better hydrogen yields. Sometimes urine is used in lieu of water. Many uses of hydrogen rely on this method. 61

62. H2 Prod: Steam reforming of hydrocarbons Steam reforming of natural gas or syngas sometimes referred to as steam methane reforming (SMR) is the most common method of producing commercial bulk hydrogen as well as the hydrogen used in the industrial synthesis of ammonia.  It is also the least expensive method.  At high temperatures (700 – 1100 °C) and in the presence of a metal-based catalyst ( nickel ), steam reacts with methane to yield carbon monoxide and hydrogen .  These two reactions are reversible in nature. CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2

63. A d d i t iona l h y d r o g en ca n b e r e c o v e r ed b y a l o w e r - t empe r atu r e ga s - shift r eact i on with the ca r b o n m o n o xid e p r o d u c ed. Th e r eact i on i s summar i z ed b y: C O + H 2 O → C O 2 + H 2 Th e f i r st r eacti o n i s st r o n g l y end o thermic ( c o n sumes heat ). the se c o n d r eaction i s m i ld l y e x othermic ( p r odu c es heat). Th e ef f ic i en c y of the p r o c ess i s a p p r o xim a t e l y 6 5% t o 7 5%. Steam reforming of hydrocarbons

64. General Use of Hydrogen Fuel Cells Hydrogen fuel cells generate electricity from oxygen and hydrogen. These electrochemical cells generate only water vapor so it is considered as environment friendly. Fuel cells are used in spacecrafts, remote weather stations and submarines. When in liquid form, it is used as rocket fuel. Deuterium is heavy hydrogen. This isotope is used for nuclear fusion reaction in nuclear reactors. 64

65. General Use of Hydrogen Use in Weather Balloons Because hydrogen is light, scientists are able to use it with weather balloons. Meteorologists’ weather balloons have this element installed. These balloons are fitted with equipment to record information necessary to study the climate. During the First World War, these were utilized in balloon airships. 65

66. General Use of Hydrogen Industrial Applications Other uses of hydrogen are in the fertilizer and paint industries. It is also used in the food and chemical industries. Food industries use the element to make Hydrogenated vegetable oils such as margarine and butter. In this procedure, vegetable oils are combined with hydrogen. By using nickel as a catalyst, solid fat substances are produced. In petrochemical industry, hydrogen is required for crude oil refinements 66

67. General Use of Hydrogen Chemical Compounds This element is used for producing several chemical compounds. Apart from ammonia, hydrogen can be harnessed in other ways. It can be used to make fertilizers, hydrochloric acids and an assortment of bases. The same element is required for methyl alcohol production. Methyl alcohol is used in inks, varnishes and paints. Hydrogen peroxide is another vital compound that is used in Doctor’s office. 67

68. General Use of Hydrogen Hydrogen peroxide is used in many ways. First and foremost it is used for medication. It is included in most first aid kits . It is primarily used for treating wounds and cuts. Peroxide is also a toenail fungus disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide can be diluted in water. It can kill bacteria and germs if used as whitewash. The same element can be used for teeth whitening and canker sores treatment. Hydrogen peroxide can be used in non-medical ways. Other applications include a pest controller in gardens, removing stains on clothing and functioning as a bleaching agent for cleaning homes. 68

69. Ammonia Ammonia, also known as NH 3 , is a colorless gas with a distinct odor composed of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms. It is produced naturally in the human body and in nature—in water, soil and air, even in tiny bacteria molecules. In human health, ammonia and the ammonium ion are vital components of metabolic processes 69

70. General Use of Ammonia Fertilizer About 90 percent of ammonia produced is used in fertilizer , to help sustain food production for billions of people around the world. The production of food crops naturally depletes soil nutrient supplies. In order to maintain healthy crops, farmers rely on fertilizers to keep their soils productive. 70

71. General Use of Ammonia Household Cleaning Products On its own or as an ingredient in many household cleaning products , ammonia can be used to clean a variety of household surfaces – from tubs, sinks and toilets to bathroom and kitchen countertops and tiles. Ammonia also is effective at breaking down household grime or stains from animal fats or vegetable oils , such as cooking grease and wine stains. Because ammonia evaporates quickly, it is commonly used in glass cleaning solutions to help avoid streaking. 71

72. General Use of Ammonia Industrial/Manufacturing Uses When used as a refrigerant gas and in air-conditioning equipment, ammonia can absorb substantial amounts of heat from its surroundings. Ammonia can be used to purify water supplies and as a building block in the manufacture of many products including plastics , explosives, fabrics, pesticides and dyes . Ammonia also is used in the waste and wastewater treatment, cold storage, rubber , pulp and paper and food and beverage industries as a stabilizer , neutralizer and a source of nitrogen. It also is used in the manufacture of pharmaceuticals. 72

73. General Use of Ammonia Agricultural industries are the major users of ammonia, representing nearly 80% of all ammonia produced in the United States.  Ammonia is a very valuable source of nitrogen that is essential for plant growth.  Depending on the particular crop being grown, up to 200 pounds of ammonia per acre may be applied for each growing season. Ammonia is used in the production of liquid fertilizer solutions which consist of ammonia, ammonium nitrate, urea and aqua ammonia.  It is also used by the fertilizer industry to produce ammonium and nitrate salts. Ammonia and urea are used as a source of protein in livestock feeds for ruminating animals such as cattle, sheep and goats.  Ammonia can also be used as a pre-harvest cotton defoliant, an anti-fungal agent on certain fruits and as preservative for the storage of high-moisture corn.   Dissociated ammonia is used in such metal treating operations as nitriding , carbonitriding , bright annealing, furnace brazing, sintering, sodium hydride descaling , atomic hydrogen welding and other applications where protective atmospheres are required. 73

74. General Use of Ammonia Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid; certain alkalies such as soda ash; dyes; pharmaceuticals such as sulfa drugs, vitamins and cosmetics ; synthetic textile fibers such as nylon, rayon and acrylics; and for the manufacture of certain plastics such as phenolics and polyurethanes.  The petroleum industry utilizes ammonia in neutralizing the acid constituents of crude oil and for protection of equipment from corrosion.  Ammonia is used in the mining industry for extraction of metals such as copper, nickel and molybdenum from their ores. Ammonia is used in several areas of water and wastewater treatment , such as pH control, in solution form to regenerate weak anion exchange resins, in conjunction with chlorine to produce potable water and as an oxygen scavenger in boiler water treatment.  Ammonia is used in stack emission control systems to neutralize sulfur oxides from combustion of sulfur -containing fuels, as a method of NOx control in both catalytic and non-catalytic applications and to enhance the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators for particulate control.  Ammonia is used as the developing agent in photochemical processes such as white printing , blue printing and in the diazo duplication process. 74

75. General Use of Ammonia  Ammonia is a widely used refrigerant in industrial refrigeration systems found in the food, beverage, petro-chemical and cold storage industries. Ammonia is used in the rubber industry for the stabilization of natural and synthetic latex to prevent premature coagulation. The pulp and paper industry uses ammonia for pulping wood and as a casein dispersant in the coating of paper. The food and beverage industry uses ammonia as a source of nitrogen needed for yeast and microorganisms. The decomposition of ammonia serves as a source of hydrogen for some fuel cell and other applications. Ammonia is used by the leather industry as a curing agent, as a slime and mold preventative in tanning liquors and as a protective agent for leathers and furs in storage. Weak ammonia solutions are also widely used as commercial and household cleaners and detergents. 75

76. CNG and Its Uses Conventional natural gas, must be compressed (CNG) or liquefied (LNG) for use in vehicles CNG: Compressed Natural Gas ( CNG ) is a fuel source that is made from compressing natural gas to less than 1% of its standard atmospheric volume, or 3,600 PSI. CNG can be used in place of gasoline or diesel in any vehicle with a CNG conversion kit available or CNG engine Primary component is Methane (CH4) 76

77. Use of CNG in Automotives 77

78. Th e a v e r a g e c ompos i ti o n of CNG i s as f o ll o w s C o nstituen t s Pe r cent a ge (%) Methane 88 . 5 Ethane 5.5 P r op a ne 3.7 Butane 1.8 Pent a ne 0.5

79. P r opert i es of CNG 1. C NG i s the ch e apest, clea n est and least e n vi r onmental l y impactin g al t ernat i v e fuel . 2 . V ehi c les p o w e r ed b y C NG p r o du c e less c a r bon mon o xid e and h y d r oca r bo n (HC) emission . 3 . I t is less e x pens i v e than pet r ol and diese l. 4 . Th e ignition t empe r atu r e of C NG is ab o ut 5 5 °C. 5 . CN G r equi r es mo r e air f or ignition

80. LNG LNG: LNG is natural gas that has been cooled to –260° F (–162° C), changing it from a gas into a liquid that is 1/600th of its original volume. Major components are Propane and Butane (95%) USES The industrial sector uses natural gas as a fuel for process heating , in combined heat and power systems , and as a raw material (feedstock) to produce chemicals, fertilizer, and hydrogen. 80

81. Uses of LNG Trucks: LNG can be used as a transportation fuel because of its energy density . This has the potential to be cheaper than conventional diesel, have quieter engine operation, and emit less greenhouse gas emissions (30-40% reduction). Shipping: LNG is a potential solution for the shipping industry as an alternative fuel source to diesel powered vessels. LNG is not only cleaner-burning but also cost-saving as the vessel can hold a greater volume of LNG than diesel fuel. 81

82. Liquefied Petroleum Gas ( LPG ) V arieties of LPG bo u g ht and so l d includ e m i x es that a r e primari l y p r opane ( C 3 H 8 ), primari l y butan e (C 4 H 1 ) and , mos t c ommon l y , m i x es i n cludin g b o th p r opane and b utan e and isob u tane depe ndi n g on the season — i n wi n t er mo r e p r opane, i n summer mo r e bu t an e . P r o p y lene and b ut y lenes a r e usu al l y also p r esent i n small c on c e n t r ation. A p o w erful odo r ant, ethan e thiol , is added so that leaks ca n be de t ec t ed easi l y

83. Th e a v e r a g e c ompos i ti o n o f L PG i s as f o ll o w s : I ts calori f i c v alue i s about 2 5,000 k cal/ m 3 c onst i tuents pe r c enta g e N - b u ta n e 38.5 I so b u tane 37 p r opa n e 24 . 5

84. Uses of LPG LPG i s use d t o ru n an au t o m obile v ehicle jus t li k e CN G . Used as Home Gas for Cooking Heating Homes and Heat generation in industrial equipment(s) in industries Why Can't we Use CNG Instead of LPG as Home Gas? Due to the lower energy capacity of a CNG cylinder, they would need to be replaced more than twice as often. So Space and Transportation cost will be saved

85. Ad v a n t a g es o f CNG o v er LPG C NG p r odu c es less po l lutants than LP G . C NG is ch e aper and clea n er than LP G . Th e oc t ane r at i ng of C NG i s hi g h, h e n c e the thermal ef f ic ien c y is mo r e. I t doe s not e v o l v e sul p hur and nit r o g en gase s . I t m i x es v e r y easi l y with air t h a n the other gaseous fuel s . N oise le v el is mu c h less than diesel C NG v e h icle limit 4 % less of nit r o g en o xide , 90% less of h y d r oca r bon s , 2 5% less of C O 2

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87. App l i c a ti o n o f LPG I t i s in c r ea s in g l y u s ed a s an ae r osol p r opel l ant a n d a r efri g e r ant , r eplac ing chlo r o f luo r oca r bo n s in an ef f ort t o r edu c e dama g e t o the o z one l a y e r . When speci f i c al l y used a s a v ehi c le f u el it i s of t en r e f er r ed t o as au t ogas . Ot h er in dustria l ap p lication in clud e s its us e in po r table bl o w lamp s , so lderin g , w eldin g , ann e aling , ha r denin g , b r azin g , s t eel c u t tin g e t c .

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89. Biodiesel In a 1912 speech, Rudolf Diesel said, "the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may seem insignificant today, but such oils may become, in the course of time, as important as petroleum and the coal - tar products of the present time". The revival of biodiesel derived from vegetable oils started as a result of agricultural surplus in some European countries and under Kyoto protocol the need of reducing greenhouse gas CO 2 emissions.  89

90. Biodiesel Biodiesel is a renewable fuel that is produced from a variety of edible and non-edible vegetable oils and animal fats. It is mainly used as Alternative Fuel in Diesel Engine The term “biodiesel” is commonly used for methyl or ethyl esters of the fatty acids in natural oils and fats, which meet the fuel quality requirements of compression-ignition engines. 90

91. Biodiesel Straight vegetable oils (SVO) are not considered as biodiesel. The straight vegetable oils have a very high viscosity that makes flow of these oils difficult even at room temperatures.  Moreover, presence of glycerine in the vegetable oil causes formation of heavy carbon deposits on the injector nozzle holes that results in poor and unacceptable performance and emissions from the engine even within a few hours of operation. 91

92. Production of Biodiesel Biodiesel is produced by reacting vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol such as methanol or ethanol in presence of a catalyst to yield mono-alkyl esters. The overall reaction is given in Fig. Glycerol is obtained as a by-product. 92

93. Properties of Biodiesel A variety of vegetable oils such as soybean, rapeseed, safflower, jatropha-curcas, palm, and cottonseed oils have been used for production of biodiesel.  Waste edible oils left after frying/cooking  operation etc., have also been converted to biodiesel for study of their performance. The biodiesel are also known as fatty acid methyl esters [FAME]. Recently non-edible oil produced from jatropha-curcas seeds has gained interest in India as this plant can be easily grown on wastelands. 93

94. Properties of Biodiesel The vegetable oil esters are practically free of sulphur and have a high cetane number ranging from 46 to 60 depending upon the feedstock. Due to presence of oxygen, biodiesels have a lower calorific value than the diesel fuels. European specifications for biodiesel or fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), EN 14214 have been issued in 2003. 94

95. Biodiesel-Emissions The influence of biodiesel on emissions varies depending on the type of biodiesel (soybean, rapeseed, or animal fats) and on the type of conventional diesel to which the biodiesel is added due to differences in their chemical composition and properties. The average effects of blending of biodiesel in diesel fuel on CO, HC, NO x and PM emissions compared to diesel as base fuel are shown in Fig.8.7.The Table 8.19 gives change in emissions with 20 % blend of biodiesel in diesel and 100% biodiesel compared to diesel alone. These show the average of the trends observed in a number of investigations. 95

96. Biodiesel-Emissions Use of biodiesel results in reduction of CO, HC and PM, but slight increase in NO x emissions is obtained. Reduction in CO emissions is attributed to presence of oxygen in the fuel molecule. A slight increase in NO x emissions results perhaps due to advancement of dynamic injection timing with biodiesel. The methyl esters have a lower compressibility, which results in advancement of dynamic injection timing with biodiesel compared to diesel. Lower SOF with biodiesel and advanced injection timing also results in lower PM emissions. 96

97. Biodiesel-Emissions Volumetric fuel consumption with biodiesel is higher than diesel due to its lower heating value. An increase of 10-11 % in fuel consumption compared to diesel may be expected when comparing their heating values. An increase in volumetric fuel consumption by 0.9-2.1% with 20% blends has been obtained. 97

98. Biodiesel-Emissions 98

99. Alternative Fuels Greenhouse Gas Emissions with Alternative Fuels Fossil fuels currently supply about 80% of all primary energy and are expected to remain fundamental to global energy supply for at least the next 20 to 30 years. . Presently, it is estimated that power generation accounts for about 40% and surface transport contributes nearly 20% of global CO 2 emissions. The Kyoto Protocol signed in December 1997 commits the industrialized countries to legally binding reductions in emissions of greenhouse gases by 2008-2012. Strategy to achieve reduction in CO 2 emissions from transport sector involves essentially the following: Reduction in fuel consumption of vehicles. Increased use of low carbon alternative fuels and bio fuels. 99

100. Alternative Fuels European Union countries   have introduced CO 2 emission regulations for the automobiles . A voluntary target of 140 g/km average CO 2 emissions for new car sales to be met in 2008 was set that had to be relaxed.  By the year 2012, a goal of 130 g/km of CO 2 to be achieved by engine and vehicle technology, and further reduction to 120g/km by use of renewable fuels has been set by European Union. 100

101. Alternative Fuels When comparing different fuel and power plant alternatives, life cycle CO 2 equivalent GHG emissions are to be considered. It should account for CO 2 and other GHG emissions generated during production, transportation and use in the vehicles. Lifecycle CO 2 emissions for liquid petroleum fuels, LPG, natural gas and biodiesel for heavy vehicle application are compared in Fig 8.8. The CO 2 emissions yielded during fuel production and during fuel utilization stage in engines are shown separately. Among the alternative fuels, natural gas having lower carbon content in the fuel molecule has advantage over gasoline and diesel fuels as far as CO 2 emissions are concerned. From natural gas vehicles, the greenhouse effect of the fugitive methane emissions as a result of leakage from the transportation and distribution systems is also to be accounted for as methane is nearly 20 times more potent than CO 2 in causing global warming. LPG lies in between the natural gas and liquid petroleum fuels. The bio fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel have much lower lifecycle CO 2 emissions as the carbon dioxide produced on their combustion would be the same that has been fixed from atmosphere during growth of the agriculture crops. These fuels do contribute to net CO 2 emissions resulting from manufacture of fertilizers and other ingredients used for crops and, during processing of these fuels and making them suitable for use in the engines. 101

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104. Bio-Gas Biogas is a mixture of methane , carbon dioxide and other trace gasses. In principal, biogas can be used like other fuel gas. When produced in household-level biogas reactors, it is most suitable for cooking or lightening . Additionally, electricity generation is a valuable option with the biogas produced in large anaerobic digesters. 104