Anatomy and Physiology GI RTI , the description on digestive system

its description on digestive line

1. ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 2/8/2024 1

2. ANATOMY : Study of body structures & their relations to each other. PHYSIOLOGY : Study of the normal functions of the body. PATHOLOGY : Study of changes caused by disease in structure & functions of the body. BASIC TERMS 2/8/2024 2

3. HUMAN BODY- LEVELS OF ORGANISATION Human Body System Organ Tissue Cells 2/8/2024 3

4. BODY CAVITIES 3. Thoracic Cavity – Heart, Lungs, Large Blood vessels, Oesophagus , Trachea 4. Abdominal Cavity – Stomach, Intestines, Kidneys, Liver 1. Cranial Cavity – Brain & Cranial Bones 2. Vertebral Cavity – Vertebral column, Spinal Cord 2/8/2024 4

5. METABOLISM Anabolism  - use of energy, to build components of cells such as proteins & nucleic acids. Catabolism  - release of energy, by breaking down complex matter into simple substances.  2. RESPONSIVENESS 3. MOVEMENT 4. GROWTH 5. REPRODUCTION IMPORTANT LIFE PROCESSES 2/8/2024 5

6. BODY SYSTEMS No System Body components 1   Integumentary   Skin, Hair, Nails, Sweat, Sebaceous (Oil) glands 2 Musculo - Skeletal Bones, Joints, Various types of muscles 3 Nervous Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves, sense organs 4 Endocrine Hormones producing cells, Ductless glands 5 Cardiovascular Heart, Blood Vessels, Blood 6 Lymphatic (Immune) Lymph, Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes 2/8/2024 6

7. BODY SYSTEMS (CONTD) No System Body components 7 Respiratory Lungs, Airways 8 Digestive (G.I.) Mouth, Oesophagus , Stomach, Intestines, Liver, Gall bladder, Pancreas 9   Urinary Kidneys, Urinary bladder, Ureter, Urethra 10 Reproductive Ovaries , Uterus , Testes, Fallopian tubes 2/8/2024 7

8. NEEDS OF THE HUMAN BODY - SYSTEM WISE No Needs Systems 1   Intake of food, water & oxygen Digestive Respiratory 2 Internal transport Circulatory, Lymphatic 3 Elimination of waste materials Urinary, Respiratory, Digestive, 4 Communication with the outside world Nervous, Integumentary, Respiratory (voice production), Skeletal, Muscular 2/8/2024 8

9. NEEDS OF THE HUMAN BODY - SYSTEM WISE (CONTD) No Needs Systems 5 Communication within the body Nervous, Endocrine 6 Protection against external environment Skin 7 Reproduction Reproductive 8 Movement Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Integumentary 9 Protection against foreign bodies, harmful microbes etc Immune 2/8/2024 9

10. CELL 2/8/2024 10

11. PARTS OF CELL Cell Membrane: Mainly consists of 2 layers of phospholipids & some protein molecules  Provides protective covering & rigidity to the cell. Transfers food & other particles in & out of the cell. 2/8/2024 11 b. Cytoplasm Liquid substance inside the cell membrane, but outside the nucleus. Most of the chemical reactions of the cell occur in the cytoplasm.  

12. PARTS OF CELL - contd c. Cell organelles : 1) Nucleus contains DNA, RNA & protein molecules. The DNA consists of chromosomes 2) Endoplasmic reticulum- synthesis of lipids, proteins & carbohydrates takes place. 3) Golgi Complex - site for processing proteins. 4) Ribosomes - sites of protein synthesis. 5) Mitochondria - energy is produced here. 6) Lysosomes - break down cell’s organic materials into smaller particles. These are later expelled as waste matter. 2/8/2024 12

13. TISSUES TISSUE - organized collection of large number of cells, performing the same function. 1. Epithelial Tissue Cells are closely packed Matrix is minimal Cover the body, line the cavities, airways & vessels. Functions: Protection of underlying structures. Secretion Absorption   2/8/2024 13

14. Carries oxygen from lungs to tissues Nutrient materials from G.I. tract to tissues Hormones from endocrine glands to target organs Waste products to excretory organs Defence against foreign bodies & harmful microbes, by carrying antibodies to sites of infection Maintaining proper hydration of tissues, with a proper water balance Maintaining body temperature Blood clotting through clotting factors Healing of wounds through healing factors 2/8/2024 14 BLOOD - FUNCTIONS

15. BLOOD - COMPOSITION A. Plasma (about 55%)   Water (about 92%) Proteins, Salts, Hormones, Enzymes, Oxygen etc (about 8%) 2/8/2024 15 B. Blood Cells (about 45%)   Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) White Blood Cells (Leucocytes) Blood Platelets (Thrombocytes)

16. RED BLOOD CELLS Small, circular discs 5 million RBCs in each cubic millimetre of blood Contain Haemoglobin , which gives red colour to blood Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues. 2/8/2024 16

17. WHITE BLOOD CELLS 2/8/2024 17

18. WHITE BLOOD CELLS Bigger cells having nuclei 8000 WBCs in each cubic millimetre of Blood WBCs are further divided into: a] Granulocytes Neutrophils - involved in Phagocytosis) Eosinophils - involved in Allergic reactions) Basophils 2/8/2024 18

19. WHITE BLOOD CELLS ( contd ) b] Agranulocytes Lymphocytes - involved in formation of antibodies Monocytes - involved in Phagocytosis   Phagocytosis Process in which, Granulocytes & Monocytes, engulf , swallow & kill the micro-organisms 2/8/2024 19

20. VARIOUS BLOOD CELLS 2/8/2024 20

21. BLOOD PLATELETS Very small cells, having no nucleii Play important roles in the clotting of Blood Approximately 3 lakhs Platelets are present, in per cubic millimetre of blood 2/8/2024 21

22. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM 2/8/2024 22 Heart Blood Vessels Arteries Veins Capillaries Blood

23. HEART 2/8/2024 23

24. VEIN CAPILLARIES CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - contd 2/8/2024 24

25. ANTIBODIES Antigens Foreign particles, like bacteria, dust, pollen etc , which produce immune responses Antibodies Defensive proteins produced by B - Lymphocytes, which combine with antigens & produce immunity 2/8/2024 25

26. THE IMMUNE RESPONSE Lymphocytes - component of WBCs, produced in the bone marrow They identify & destroy foreign substances, by producing Immune responses On maturity, some Lymphocytes passing through the thymus are called T - lymphocytes or T cells Those which pass through the spleen, are called B - lymphocytes or B cells. When a foreign body enters the system, it is picked up by the macrophages & carried to the T - lymphocytes 2/8/2024 26

27. T lymphocytes are of 2 types: T memory lymphocytes & T killer lymphocytes T memory lymphocytes identify the foreign particle T killer lymphocytes kill the foreign body. B - lymphocytes - stimulated by the T cells to produce specific antibodies which combine with & destroy the foreign particles. 2/8/2024 27 THE IMMUNE RESPONSE - contd

28. 2/8/2024 28 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

29. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - contd 2/8/2024 RYTUS - ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY 29

30. UPPER RESPIRATORY TRACT Nose Sinuses Pharynx Larynx Epiglottis Middle Ear LOWER RESPIRATORY TRACT Trachea Lungs Left & Right Bronchial Tubes Bronchi Alveoli 2/8/2024 30 PARTS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

31. 2/8/2024 31 MIDDLE EAR

32. What is the respiratory system? The primary function of this system is to furnish oxygen for individual tissue cells, and to take away the waste products and carbon dioxide produced by those same cells. The respiratory system consists of the nose, pharynx (FAIR inks), larynx (LAIR inks), trachea (TRAY kee ah), bronchi (BRAHN kye), and lungs.

33. External & internal respiration… External respiration is the process of inhaling oxygen into the lungs, and exhaling carbon dioxide. That process includes the ventilation of the lungs and the exchange of air in the lungs and blood within the capillaries of the alveoli of the lungs. Internal respiration is the metabolic process by which living cells use blood flowing through the capillaries, absorbing the oxygen (O 2 )they need and releasing the carbon dioxide (CO 2 )they create. Ventilating the lungs

34. The pharynx… The pharynx is the correct term for the throat. It is a muscular and membranous tube that is about 5 inches long, extending downward from the base of the skull. It eventually becomes the esophagus. The nasopharynx is behind the nose; the oropharynx is behind the mouth; the laryngopharynx is behind the larynx.

35. The larynx… The larynx, commonly called the voicebox, is located at the upper end of the trachea, below the root of the tongue and hyoid bone. It is lined with mucous membrane. Short, tense vocal cords produce high notes; long relaxed vocal cords produce low notes. The larynx contains vocal cords, which produce sound.

36. The trachea… The trachea or windpipe is a smooth, muscular tube leading from the larynx to the main bronchi. Trachea C-shaped rings of cartilage provide protection on the front and sides Cartilage rings prevent crushing of the trachea

37. The bronchi… The bronchi are the two main branches at the bottom of the trachea, providing passageway for air to the lungs. The trachea divides into the right bronchus and the left bronchus, and then divides further into the bronchial tree. As the branches of the bronchial tree get smaller, the 2 primary bronchi become bronchioles, and then very small alveolar (al VEE ah ler) ducts.

38. The bronchi… The left bronchi is smaller than the right bronchi, because room is needed to accommodate the heart. If a foreign body is inhaled or aspirated (drawn by suction), it usually lodges in the larger right bronchi (as shown in this Xray) or enters the right lung.

39. The bronchi… In the presence of infection, the bronchi sometimes become inflamed, resulting in a diagnosis of bronchitis.

40. The lungs… The lungs are two spongy organs located in the thorax. They consist of elastic tissue, filled with an interlacing network of tubes and sacs that carry air and blood vessels that carry blood. Each lung is divided into lobes, the right lung into 3 lobes and the left lung into 2. The left lung has an indentation called the cardiac depression or notch… for placement of the heart.

41. The lungs… At the end of each bronchiole are the alveoli (al VEE oh lye). The lungs contain about 300 million alveoli sacs, which are the air cells where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place with the capillaries. . Deoxygenated blood comes in and drops off CO2 ; oxygenated blood goes out.

42. Vital signs, essential elements for determining an individual’s state of health, include temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. A deviation from normal of any or all of the vital signs indicates a state of illness, and can be used by the physician in a diagnosis, prognosis (prospects of survival and recovery), and treatment. Vital signs… The normal respiration rate for a 5 year old is 20-25 breaths per minute; for someone 15 years or older is 15-20 breaths per minute. Vital signs, essential elements for determining an individual’s state of health, include temperature, pulse, respiration, and blood pressure. A deviation from normal of any or all of the vital signs indicates a state of illness, and can be used by the physician in a diagnosis, prognosis (prospects of survival and recovery), and treatment.

43. 2/8/2024 43 MIDDLE EAR MIDDLE EAR - air-filled cavity behind the ear drum Eustachian tube - part of the Middle Ear, that links to the Pharynx. Eustachian tube maintains pressure between the middle ear & atmosphere. It also drains mucus from the middle ear

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45. 2/8/2024 45 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – main organs Mouth Contains Saliva, which partly digests the food 2. Oesophagus Tube like structure, through which food passes 3. Stomach Transit chamber for food Contains Hydrochloric acid, which kills microbes Enzymes like Renin, Pepsin & Gastric Lipase help in digestion of proteins & fats

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67. 2/8/2024 67 URINARY SYSTEM Parts of the Urinary System are: Kidneys Ureters Urethra Urinary Bladder

68. 2/8/2024 68 URINARY SYSTEM - FUNCTIONS Maintaining water balance Production of urine Regulation of concentration of salts in the blood Maintaining the pH of blood Excreting waste products of metabolism, drugs & toxins.

69. 2/8/2024 69 NERVOUS SYSTEM NEURONS BRAIN

70. 2/8/2024 70 NERVOUS SYSTEM CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM 1] BRAIN Cerebrum Cerebellum Brain Stem Hypothalamus Meninges C.S.F 2] SPINAL C ORD AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM 1] SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Adrenaline Noradrenaline 2] PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Acetylcholine PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Contains peripheral nerves

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74. 2/8/2024 74 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Gland: Organized group of cells that functions as a secretory organ. Glands generally produce hormones or enzymes 2. Endocrine Glands: Organs that do not have ducts (tubes) Secretions are passed directly into the blood.   3. Exocrine Glands: Organs that have ducts (tubes) Secretions are passed directly into the respective organ

75. 2/8/2024 75 4. Hormones M olecules acting as chemical messengers from one cell to another. They are involved in the coordination of the various activities of different cells, in the body. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - contd

76. 2/8/2024 76 SKIN

77. 2/8/2024 77 SKIN - Functions Regulation of body temperature Protection Sensation Excretion Synthesis of Vitamin D LAYERS OF SKIN Epidermis (outermost & visible) Dermis (below epidermis) Subcutaneous tissue

78. 2/8/2024 78 EPIDERMIS

79. 2/8/2024 79 Outermost layer of skin Contain 5 different layers Bottom layer - Stratum Basale Cells are shaped like columns These cells divide & push already formed cells into higher layers The cells move into the higher layers, they flatten & eventually die EPIDERMIS - contd

80. 2/8/2024 80 EPIDERMIS - contd Uppermost layer - Stratum Corneum Made of dead, flat skin cells that shed about every 2 weeks. Composed of two types of cells Keratinocytes - produce Keratin, a protective protein. Melanocytes - produce Melanin which gives colour to the skin.

81. 2/8/2024 81 DERMIS

82. 2/8/2024 82 Layer containing fat & connective tissue It has larger blood vessels & nerves. This layer is important in regulation of temperature of the skin & body The size of this layer varies throughout the body & from person to person. SUBCUTANEOUS TISSUE

83. 2/8/2024 83 PAIN & INFLAMMATION PAIN Unpleasant sensory & emotional experience, with actual or potential tissue damage. May be Acute or Chronic INFLAMMATION Localized reaction of the body to injury May be Acute or Chronic

84. 2/8/2024 84 INFLAMMATION PAIN REDNESS SWELLING HEAT Inflammatory Mediators: Substances produced by the body, to take part in various inflammatory reactions Examples: Histamines, Prostaglandins, Bradykinins & Platelet Activating Factors.