Ancient-India-RS-Sharma (1).pdf

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2. Editorial Board

Professor Satish Chandra (Chairman)
Professor R. S. Sharma

Professor Barun De

Professor Sumit Sarkar

Professor M. G $ Narayanan

Shri S. H. Khan

Shri Arjun Dev (Convener)

3. ANCIENT INDIA

A Textbook for Class XI

Ram SHARAN SHARMA

Rom qe

cadtzanan
NCMERT .

aa fre aque site ra ae

National Council of Educational Research and Training

4. The fist edition of this book was published ın August 1977 by Eurasia Publishing
House (Pet) Ltd, by permission of the National Council of Educational Research and
Training, The subsequent revised edition and the reprints have been published by the
National Council of Educational Research and Train.

First Edition
August 1977
Sravana 1899
Revised Edition
August 1980
Sravana 1902
Reprinted

June 1981
Jyasstha 1903
January 1982
Magha 1903
PD.2T-

© National Comes of Weveational Research and Teaming, 1977

Corer: KARANKUMAR CHADRA

Ro. 630

Published at the Publication Department by V. K. Pandit, Secretary, National Council of

Educational Research and Traimng, Set Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi, 110016 and printed at
Radha Offset Press, Madras 600 013

5. Foreword

“The present book 1s meant for use tn Class XI, which ws the first year aftar a gonoral
education up to Class X At the Higher Secondary stage (Clusses XI and XID, the
student s given advanced knowledge m a few subjects of his choice so as to enable him
to pursue Jugher education, tf he wants it, or to enter into some occupation.

‘The NCERT had entrusted the responsibility of preparing courses and textbooks m
history to the History Edstonial Board consisting of Professor Satish Chandra (Char.
man), Professor R. S Sharma, Professor Battin De, Professor Sumit Sarkar, Professor
M G.S. Narayanan, Shu H. Ken and Shiri Arjun Dev (Convener). The Board had
finalized the courses and prepared a series of textbooks The NCERT is grateful to the
members of the Board for sparing their valuable time ungrudgingly ın developing the
‘now courses and textbooks In history within the short time that was given to them

This textbook dealing with a historical survey of ancient India was prepared by
Professor R § Sharma and was first published in 1977 The present volume 1s the
first rovised edition of the textbook which had been out of stock since carly 1978 The
NCERT is grateful to Professor R. $ Sharma for preparing the original as well as the
présent rovised edition The NCERT : also grateful to many other persons, both
belonging to the NCERT and outside, and organizations for their help and coopera-
tion. Our special thanks are due to Dr. G L Adhya of the NCERT and Km Arun
dhoti Banerıt of the Archacological Survey of India for their help im supervising the
preparation of illustrative materials, to Shri A K Ghosh for the drawings and the
maps, and to the Archacologıcal Survey of India for making available to us photo
graphs which have been moluded in this book

Thus volume on Ancient India is the first ın the series of textbooks whuch have been
brought out by the NCERT for tho Higher Secondary stage. Thus volume covers
the syllabus in ancicnt Indian hustory for tho Higher Secondary stage Volumes deal-
ing with ths syllabus in medieval and modern periods of Indian Mstory have also been
brought aut.

‘The NCERT would be grateful for any comments, suggestions and criticisms on any
aspect of the present volume,

Shin K Mitra

Director
New Delhi National Council of
August 1980

Educational Research and Training

7. Preface to the First Edition

History forms a part of an undiversified curriculum ın general education for the
fist ton years of schooling, The course in history up to this stago is, therefor, aimed
at acquainting the pupif with important trends and developments in the history of India
and of the world. The courses at the “plas two’ stage have bech framed keeping in
wow the foundations to be laid during th ten years of general education Their main
purposes are to broaden and deepen the histoncal knowledgo of the pupil to introduce

him to the rigours of the discipline, and to prepare him for higher academic studies ın

the subject.

‘The courses in hıstory at the ‘plus two” stage which havo been framed by the Editorial
Board are-the results of discussions with teachers, teachor-educators and experts. Pre-
sently the Board is engaged in preparing four textbooks for the four semester courses

| in history. The syllabus includes optional courses on the history of regions outside
India, and toxtbooks on these courses would be prepared when theso courses ara intro-
duced in schools.

Th prosont volume covering the course for the first semester deals with the history
of anciont India from prehistoric times to about the eighth century. An effort has been.
mado in this book to highlight the forces and factors behind the mise and spread of
civilization and culture in India rathor than present details of dynastic history. The
growth and diffusion of various aspects of civilization such as social classes, state
formation, and political institutions have been treated cleerly. The book points out
the significant changes and marks the main stages in the development of Indian society
in ancient times Attention has been paid to the contribution of ancient Indians to
polity art, literature, philosophy, religion, and science and technology.

‘The Editorial Board 1s grateful to Professor R. S. Sharma for undertaking the writing
of this book The Board also sincerely thanks all the other persons for their help in
connection with the publication of this book

Saris CHANDRA
Now Deiht ‘Chatrman

July 1977 > History Editorial Board

8. Author’s Acknowledgements

No single historian can speak with authority on various phases and facets of ancient
Indian history. I have therefore utitized the works of numerous scholars not all of
\whoso names appear in the bibliography. 1 took various kinds of help from Dr. Pratipal
Bhatia, Dr. D. K, Chakrabarti, Shri George Jacob, Shri V. K. Jain, Shrimat Vijaya
Nath, Dr. Sitaram Rai, Kumar: Snehlata and Dr. P. D. Tripathi, Shrı Arjun Dov of the
NCERT helped mo in finalizing the preparation and publication of the book with
ability, devotion and keon interest. Thoy all deserve my sincere thanks At one
stage it seemed that the book would not appear again Lam therefore happy to see its
second edition. 1 gratefully acknowledge tho support and suggestions received from a
wide citelo of renowned historians including Dr. G. L. Adhya, Profossor A. L.
Basham, Professor B.D. Chattopadhyay, Professor R. N. Dandekar, Shri R. K.
Choudhary, Professor D. N. Jha, Dr. Suvira Jaiswal, Professor B. N. Mukhorjes.
Professor M. G. S. Narayanan, Professor A. M. Shastri, Professor S. Sett
Professor G.R. Sharma, Dr. K. M. Shrimali, Shri R. P. Singh, Professor K. K.
Sinha, Professor D. C. Sırcar, Professor Upendra Thakur, Professor Romila Thapar
and Professor B. NS. Yadava.

9. Contents

Foreword won à ev
Preface to the First Edition .. : ee vi
Author's Acknowledgements ee io ene |
1, The Importance of Ancient Indian History a $ » a À
2. The Construction of Ancient Indian History =. u. 20.3
Material Remains—Coins—Insoriptions—Literary Sources—
Foreign Accounts—Historical Sense — *
3. The Geographical Setting... 10
4. The Stone Age zn m, EN E
Tho Old Stone Age—Phases ın the Palaeolithic Age—The Late
Stone Ago—Tho New Stone Age... \
5. The Stone-Copper Phase e das 8
Chalcolithic Settlements—Chalcolithic Cultures—Importance of
the Chaloolithic Phase—Limitations of Chalcolithic Cultures— *
‘Tho Copper Age in India
6. The Harappan Civilization TE ee ee
Geographical Extent—Town Planning and Structures—Agricul-
ture—Domostication of Animals—Technology and Crafts
Trade—Political Organızation—Religious Practices—The Male
Deity in the Indus Valley —Tree and Animal Worship—The Harap-
pan Scripi—Weights and Moasures—Harappan Pottery—Seals
—Images—Torracotta Figurines—Origin, Maturity and End
7. Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda .. 45

Original Home and Identity—Tribal Conflicts—Material Life
Tribal Polity—Tribe and Family—Social Divislons—Rig Vedic
Gods

10. 8. The Later Vedic Phase : Transition to State and Social Formation .
Expansion in the Later Vedie Period (c. 1000-600 B.C.)—The
PGW—Iron Phase Culture and Later Vedic Economy—Political
Organization—Social Organization—Gods, Rituals and Pl
osophy

9. Jainism and Buddhism —.. fe ee
‘Causes of Origin—Vardhamana Mahavıraand Jaínism—Dostrinos
of Jainism—Sproad of Jainism—Contribution of Jainism—Gau-
tama Buddha and Buddhism—Doctrines of Buddhism—Special
Features of Buddhism and ¿ho Causes of its Spread—Causes of
the Decline of Buddism—Importance and Influence of Buddhism

19: Durcal Stan nad ne Fi naan Rage
he Mahajanapadas—Rise and Growth of the Magadhan Empire
nen oF Magadisa’s Success

11. Jranlan and Macedosian Invasions

Tranian Tavasion—Results of the Contact—Alexander’s Invasión
—Eifects of Alexander's Invasion

12. State and Varna Society in the Age of the Buddha .
Matanal Life—Administrative Systam—Army and Taxation—
‘Tho Ropublican Experiment—Social Orders and Legislation

13. The Age of the Mauryas
Chandragupta Maucya—Imporial Organization—Asoka (273-232
B.C)—Asokan Edicts—Impact of the Kalinga War— Internal
Policy and Buddhism—Asoke's Place’ in History

14, Significanco of the Maurya Rule a, ARE des
State Control—Economic Regulations—Spread of Material
‘Culture—Causes of the Fall of the Maurya Empire

15. Central Asiun Contacts and Their Results
The Indo-Greeks—The Sakas—The Parthians—The Kushans—
Impact of Centrat Asian Contacts

16, The Age of me Satavabanas — ..

ical History—Aspects of Material Culture—Social Organi-
eue ct kann
Language

&

75

93

11. 2

1. The Dawn of History ln the Deep South

The Mogolithie Background—Throo Early Kingdoms—Tho Purse
and the Sword—Rise of Social Classes—Boginnings of Brah-
manism—Tamil Language and Sangam Literature

. Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Post-Maurya Age ..

Crafls—Foreign Trade—Urban Settlements

,, The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

Background — Samudragupta (c. À D. 335-380)—Chandeagupta 11
(e. A.D. 380-412)—Fall of the Empire

Life in the Gupta Age
System of Administration—Decline of Trade and Rise of Landed
Classes—Social Developments—Buddhism and Brahmanism—
Art—Literaturo—Scionce and Technology

‘Spread of Civilization in Eastern India
‘Signs of Cwvilization—Onissa and Easter and Southern Madhya
Pradesh—Bengal—Assam—The Formanve Phase

Harsha and His Times ..

Harsha's Kingdom—Administration-Hsuan Tsang's Account
—Budáhism and Nalanda

. Formation of New States and Rural Expansion in the Penfasula

The New Phase—States of the Deccan and South India—Confot
between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas—Temples—Demands on
the Poasantry--Rural Expanston—Social Structure

|: India’s Cultural Contacts with the Asian Countries...

Transformation of the Ancient Phase ..
Social Crisis and the Origin of Land Grants—Decline of Central
Control—New Agrarian Economy —Decline of Trade and Towns
—Changes in the Varna System—Cultural Developments—-Bhaktı
and Tantricism

. Sequence of Social Changes
Tribal and Pastoral Phase—A griculture and the Origin of Upper
“Orders—Varna System of Production and Goverament—Social
Crisis and Rise of Landed Classes—Summary

120

126

134

173

12. 27 Legacy in Science and Civilization .
Religionand Formation of Social Classes—Philosophical Systems
—Crafts—Polity—Sctenee and Mathematies—Medicine—Geo-
araphy—Art and Literature

178

Bibliography rT eT!

Index Pe a es as A

13. CHAPTER 1

The Importance of Ancient Indian History

The study of ancient Indian history is impor-
tant for several reasons, Ittellsus how, when and
where people developed the earliest cultures
in our county. Tt indicates how they started
agriculture which made life secure and settled,
Xi shows how the ancient Indians discovered and
utilized natural resources, and how they created
the means for theır livelihood We come to know
how they took to farming, spinning, weaving,
metalworking, and so on; how they cleared
forests, and how they founded villages, cities,
and finally large kingdoms. ,

People are not considered civilized unless
they know wating The different forms of writing
prevalentin India today are all derived from the
ancient scripts This is also true of the Jangua-
ges that we speak today The languages we use
have roots an ancient times, and have developed
through the ages,

Ancient Indian history is interesting because
India proved to be a crucible of numerous races.
The pre-Aryans, the Indo-Aryans, the Grecks,
‘the Soythians, the Hunas, the Turks, etc., made
India their home, Each ethnic group contributed
Ms mite to the making of Indian culture All
‘these peoples mixed up so inextricably with one
another that at present none of them can be
identified in their original form

India has sınce ancient mes been the land of
several religions Ancient India witnessed the
birth of Hinduism, Jamism and Buddhism, but
all these cultures and religions intermingled and
acted and reacted upon one another in such a

manner that though people speak
languages, practise different religic
observe different social customs, th
certain common styles of life throug
country. Our country shows a deep u
umty ın spite of great diversity.
The ancients strove for unity. The
upon this vast subcontinent as one !
mame Bharatavarsha or the land ol
was given to the whole country, after
of an ancient tribe called the Bharata
people were called Bharatasantatı or 4
dantsof Bharata Our ancient poets, ph
and writers viewed thecountry as an int
They spoke of the land stretching fror
alayasto the sea as the proper domain
universal monarch The kings who trie:
lish their authority from the Himala
Cape Comorin and from the valk
Brahmaputra in the east to the land E
Indus in the west were universally pra
wore called chakravartins, This kind «
‘unity was attained at least twice, In
century BC Asoka extended his or
the whole country, except for the extr
Again, in the fourth century A.D. San
carried his victorious arms ftom thi
the borders of the Tamil Land. In t
century the Chalukya king, Pulakesi
Harshavardhana who was called €
the whole of north India, Jn spite
political unity political formations a
‘country assumed more or less the s

14. ‘The idea that India constituted one single
geograplical unit persisted in the minds of
‘the conquerors and cultural leaders. The unity
of India was also recognized by foreigners.
They Best came into contact with the people
living on the Sindhu or the Indus, and so they
named the whole country after this river,
‘The word Hind is denved from the Sanskr

‘erm Sindhu, and ın course of time the country
came to be known as ‘India’ in Greek, and
“Hind'in Persian and Arabic languages.

We fied continuous efforts for the linguistic
and cultural unity of the country. In the third
century B.C. Prakri served as the lingua franca
of the country. Throughout the major por

acquired theseme position and served as the
stale langoage ın the cemotest parts of the
country, The process became prominent ın
the Gupta period in the fourth century A.D.
Although politically the country was divided
into numerous small states ın the post-Gopta
period, tho oficial documents were written in

Ac INDIA

Sanskrit.

Another notable fact is that the anctents epics,
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, Were
studied with the same zeal and devotion in the
land of the Tamıls as ın the intellectual cirles
of Banaras and Taxila. Origmally composed
in Sanskrit those epics came to be presented in
duferent local languages, But whatever the fores
1a which Indian cultural values and ideas were
expressed, the substance remamed the same
throughout the country

Indian history deserves our attention because
ofa peculiar type of social system which
developed in this country. In north India arose
the varnafcaste system which came lo prev
almost all over. the country. forengners
‘who came to India: in ancient times were
absorbed in one caste or the other The caste
system affected even the Christians and the
‘Muslims, The converts belonged to some caste,
and even when they left Hinduism 10 join the
new religion they continued to maintain some
of their old caste practices.

EXERCISES

z

1. “Point out the importance of ancient Indian history
In what ways does ancient Indian history show the basic unity of India 7

15. CHAPTER 2

The Construction of Ancient Indian History

Material Remains

‘The ancient Indians loft innumerable material
femains The stone temples in south India and
the bone monastes in cate Ind sl
stand to remind us of the great building act
du of the part But fe major park ofthese
remains lies buried in the mounds scattered all
over the country, Only a few have been exposed
to give us some knowledge of the life of the
ancient people.

Since most sites have been dug vertically
they provide a good chronological sequence of
material culture, Honszontat diggings, being very
‘expensive, are very few in number, with the
result that excavations do not give vs a full and
complete picture of material life in many phases
of arcient Indian history

Even in those mounds which have been
excavated the ancient remains have een preser-
vedinvarying proportions, In the dry climate of
western Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and north-
western India antiquities are found in a better
state of preservation, but the mofst and hund
climate of the middle Gangetic basin and in
the delle regions even iron implements suffer
corrosion and mud structures become difficult
to detect. I is only in the phase of burnt brick
structures or stone structures that impressive
and large-scale, remains are found in moist and
alluvial areas Excavations have brought to
fight the cites which the people established
around 2500 B.C. in north-westera India.

Similarly they tell us about the material cul-
ture which was developed in the Gangetic basi,
They show the layout of the settlements in
which people lived, the type of pottery they used,
the form of house in which they dwelt, the kind
of cereals they used as food, and the type of
tools and implements they handled. Some
people in south India buried along wath the dead,
their tools, weapons, pottery and other belon
ings in the graves, which were encircled by big
s of stone. These structures are called
‘megaliths, although all megaliths do not fall
in tus category By digging them we have come
to learn of the life which people lived ın the
Deccan from the iron age onwards. The science
which enables us to dig the old mounds in a
systematic manner, in successive layers, and to
form an idea of the material life of the people ig
called archaeology.

Material remains recovered as a result of
excavation and exploration are subjected to
various kinds of scientific examination, Their
dates are fixed according to the radio-carbon
method, for which facilities exist in‘ Indie. The
History of climate and vegetation is known
through an examination of plant residues, and
especially through pollen-analyss, Thus on this
basisitis suggested that agriculture was practised
in Rajasthan and Kashaiir as far back as 6000
B.C, The nature and components of metal arti-
facts are analysed scientifically, and as a result
the sources from where metals were obtained are

16. 4 ANCIENT INDIA

located and the stages in the development of
‘metal technology are identfied. An examination
of arimal bones enables us to find out whether
the animals were domesticated, and also to
point out the uses to which they were pot.

Coins
‘Although a good number of coins and inserip-
tions have been found ou the surface, many of
thom have been unearthed by éigging. The study
of coins 1s called mumsmatees. Ancient Indian
currency was not issued in the form of paper, as
18 the practice these days, but as coins because
paper came to be used in Indra much later, in
the fourteenth century. Ancient coms were mado.
of metal—copper, silver, gold, or lead, Coin
moulds made of burnt clay have been discov-
cred in large numbers. Most of them belong ta
the Kushan period, ie, the first three Chris-
van centuries, The use of such moulds in the
ost-Gupta penod almost disappeared,

Since there was nothing ıke the modern bank-
ing system inancient tomes, people deposited
money ın earihen ware and also mn brass vessels,
and maintained them as precious hoards on
which they could fll back ın time of need. Many
of these hoards, containing not only Tai
coins but alo those minted abroad such asin the
Roman empire, have been discovered nn different
parts of the country. They are preserved mostly
In museums at Caleutta, Patna, Lucknow, Delhi,
Jaipur, Bombay and Madras. Many Indian cons
are found in the museums of Nepal, Bangladesh,
Pakistan and Afghanistan. Since Britain ruled
‘over India for a long time, British officials
succeeded ın transferring many of the Indian
coins to private and public collections in that
country. Coins of the major dynasties have
‘been catelogued and published, We have catalo-
‘gues of coins inthe Indian Museum at Calcutta,
‘of Indian comsin the British Museum ia London,
and so on. But there is a large number of coins
which have yet to be catalogued and published,

Our carlest coins contain a few symbols, but

the later coins mention the names of kings, gods
or dates, The areas where they are found indicate
the region of their circulation. This has enabled
us to reconstruct the history of several ruling
dynasues, especially of the Indo-Greeks who
‘came to India from north Afghanistan and ruled
here in the second and first centuries B.C.

Coins also throw significant ght on econo-
mie history. Some coins were issued by the guilds
of merchants and goldsmiths with the permis-
sion ofthe rulers. This shows that crafts and
commerce had become important Coms helped
transactions on-a large scale and contributed to
trade. We et the largest number of coins in post.
‘Maurya times These were made of lead, potin,
copper, brome, silver and gold. The Guptas
issued the largest number of gold coins. All ths
dicates that trade and commerce Rourished,
especially in post-Maurya and Gupta times. But
the fact that only a few coms belonging to the
Post-Gupta period have been found indicates the
decline of trade and commerce at that tame.

Coins also contain religious symbols and
legends which throw light on the art and religion
of the time,

Inscriptions

Far more important than coins are insetip:
tions. Their study 1s called epigraphy, and the
study of the old writing used in inscriptions and
‘other old records is called palaeography. Inscrip-
tions were carved on seal, stone pillars, rocks,
copper plates, temple walls and bricks or images.

In the country as a whole the earkest nscrip-
tuons were recorded on stone. But ın the early
centuries of the Christian era copper plates began,
to be used for this purpose. Even then the pra
tice of engraving inscriptions on stone continued
in south India on a large scale. We bave also
in that region a large number of inscriptions
recorded on the walls of the temples to serve
as permanent records.

Lake coins, inscriptions are preserved in the
various museums of the countey, but the largest

17. “TE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 5

umber my be found in th of ofthe Chet
Eigrapnı at Mysoro. The aries! insnptions
Were ton ın he Prukrit Zangusge in the thud
entry BC. Sanskrit was adopted as an ee
raph medıumın the second century A.D and
Abuse became widespread the fourth and A
centuries, Even then Prakr continued to be
mployed.. Inserpuons began to be composed
À regional languages nthe ninth and tenth con
ruse Most nsrptlons bearing on the history
of Meury, post Maurya and Gupte tuck ave
been pobuhed ina secs ol collections called
Corpus Insauptomam Indcarum. But nat too
many insertions of post-Gupta times have
ppoured in such systematic compilations In te
ne of south indi topographical Hits of me.
Sapions have baen brought out Stil there are
moe thas 50000 sngeiptons, mostly of south
India, ‘which avait publeauon.

“The Hacappon mscnpuons, which await de-
caphermeat, seem to have been written in a pic-
tographe erpt un which eas and objects were,
expressed on the form of pıetures Asokan ıns-

tons were engraved in the Brahmi scrip,
wich vas weiten from lft o right. But some
Sere alo sicwed inthe Kharoth sept which
Vas wntten from night to eft However, the
Brabm script prevailed an the whole country,
except for the north-western part Greek and
‘Aramaic seis were employed in wating Aso-
kan inscciptons Afghanistan. Brahm con-
tinued tobe he main soript lo end of Gupta
times. An epigraphist can deapher most ins
criptions of the country up to about the eighth
‘century, ite has careful lernt Brahmi and its
Variations, But afterwards ‚wo noto strong
Tegionelvanations inthis cap, whuch called
by diferent names.

The carliestinseriptions are found onthe sels
of Harappa belonging to about 2500 B.C. They
have aot been deciphered so far. The oldest ins.
criptons deciphered so far wee isued by Asoka
in tho third century B.C. An -Asokan pila
suscription was found by Firoz Shab Tghlag sa

Meerut. He brought st to Delhi and asked the
pandits of his empire to decipher ı, but they
farted to do so. The same dificulty was faced by
the British when ın the last quarter of the eigh-
teenth century they discovered Asokan inscup-
tions. These epıgraphs were first deciphered in
1837 by James Prinsep, a civ servant in the eme
ploy of the East India Company ın Bengal

We have various types of inscriptions. Some
convey royal ordeis and decisions regarding
social, religous and admmisteative matters to
officials and people in general, Asokan unserip-
ons belong to this category Others are voire
records of the followers of Buddhism, Jaumst
Vaishnavism, Savsm, ete, who put up pills,
tablets, temples or images as marks of devotion.
Stil} other types calogwe the attributes and
achievements of kings and conquerors, and never
speak of their defeats or weaknesses. To this
category belongs the Allahabad inscription of
Samudragupta. Finally, we have many donativo
records which refer specially to gifts of money,
cattle, land, ete, mainly for religious purposes,
made nol only by kings and princes but also by
artisans and merchants

Tnseriptions recording land grants, made
mainly by chiefs and princes, are very important
for the study of the land system and adminis-
tation ın ancient India. Thess were mostly
engraved on copper plates They zecord the
grants of lands, rovenues and villages made to
monks, priests, temples, monasteries, vassals and.
officials. They were written in all languages, such
as Prakrit, Sansknt, Tami, Teluge.

Literary Sources

Although the: ancient Indiens knew writing
as early as 2500 B.C., our most ancient manu-
eriptsare not older than the fourth century A.D.
and have been found in Central Asia, In India
they were written on birch bark and palm leaves,
but in Central Asia, where the Prakrit language
had spread from India, manuscripts were also
written on sheep leather and wooden tablets

18. ANCIENT INDIA

“These writngs are called insenptions, but they
eas good as manuscnpss. When prusting was
rot known, manuseripts were valued unmensely.
‘Although old Sansknt manuscripts are found
Allover tie county, they mostly belong to south
India, Kashar and Nepal. At present inscrip-
ons ate mostly preserved ın muscunus, and
manuscupls in libraries. Most ancient books
‘contain figious themes. The religious literature
fof the Hindus includes the Vedas, the apies,
Ramayana and Mahabharara, the Puranas, etc.
‘They throw welcome light on the social and
cultural conditions of ancient times but it is
dificult 10 make use of Uiem in the context of
fume and place The Rig Veda may be assigned
to area 1500-1000 B.C, but the collections of
the Adiarra Veda, Yajur Veda, the Brahinanas
and the Upanishads belong soughly to 1000-
500 B.C, Almost enay Vedic text contains
inteupolations, which generally appear at us
beginning o: end but are not rave in its muddle
‘The Rig Veda mainly contains prayeus, while the
Inter Vedic texts mainly comprise mot only
prayeis but aso rituals, magic and mythological
Stories. However, the Upanishads contain
philosoplucal speculations.

‘The two oples and the major Pucanas seem to
have been finally compiled by cirea A D. 400.
‘Of the epies the Mahabharara 1 oldéi ın age and
possibly reflects the state of ales from Ihe 10th
century BC, to the 4th contury A.D. Ouginally
it consisted of 8800 verses and was called Jaya
Samhita or the collection dealing with victory.
“These were raised to 24000 and came to be known,
as Bharata, named alter one ofthe cariest Vedic
‘tribes. The final compilation brought the verses
10 100,000 which came to be known asthe haha“
Bharala or the Satasahasrı Samia It eontarns
manalıye, descriptivo and didactic matenat
‘Tho mam narrative which rollos to the Kaurava-
Pandava confit may bofong to later Vedic
tims, the descriptivo portion might be used for
post-Ved times, and the didactic postion gene-
sally for post-Maurya and Gupta times. Simi-

lady, the Rumayana originally consisted of
12000 verses, which were lute: aol Lo 24000,
This cpic has also its didactic portions Which
were added later, Asa whole the text sms 10
have been composed later than the Mahubln ana
In post-Vedie times we have a large corpus of
rituat literature Big pubhe sserifices meant fos
princes and men of substance belonging 4 the
three higher varnas are laid Jown e the Sta
tasutras, which provide for several poripous
royal coronation ceremonies. Stmilaly domestic
rituals connected with buth, naming, sacred
thread investie, maruiags, funeral, ete, a
aid down in the Guihyasutras Both the Sıau-
tasuiras and the Grihyasutras helong to crea
600-300 BC. Mention may uso be made of the
Sulyasutras, which prescribe various Kinds of
measurements for the constuction of sacrificial
altars, They mark the beginnumgs of geometry
and mathematics
‘The religious books ofthe Juas and the Bud
hists refor to historical persons and ineulents
‘The sartiost Buddhist texts wore wiilten In. the
Pal: language, which was spoken in Magadha or
They were finally compuled ın the
ury BC. in Set Lanka, but the cano
nical portions reflect the state of ans av the
age of the Buddh in India: They tellus not only
about the lie ofthe Buds but about some of
Risers «who ruled over Mage
asteun Uttar Prades
a.) interesting portion of
tho,non-canonical portion is provided by the
stories ofthe previous buths of Gautama Buds
1x was believed that before he was finally boro ay
Gautama, the Buddha passed through more
than 550 baths, in many cases sn the Fou of
animals Each bisth story as called a Jutaka
Which as a folk tale These Jatakats throw ın-
valuable light on social and econo mc conditions
ranging from the Ah to the serond century
BC. They also make incidental references to
ppoliucal events in the ago of the Budd
The Jaina texts were wulten ın Prakrit and

19. TIE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY 7

were finally compiled in the sixth century A.D
su Valabhı in Gujeeat They however contain
say passages which help us to teconstiuct the
politcal history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar ın the age of Mahavira The Jainu texts
refer repeatedly to trade and traders.

We have alo a large body of secular literature
To this class bolong the law-baoks called t
Dharmasutras and Smuts, which together wath
their conimentaries ane called’ Dhusmasastias

‘The Dhamasutias were computed in 500-200
B.C , and the principal Smsius were codified ta
ths fist six contunes of the Christian era They

lay down the dunes for different varnas as well
as fos kings and then officals. They prescribe
the rules according to which property 1s Lo be
held, sold and inherted, They also piesenbe
punichments for persons guulty of theft, assault,
mudos, adultery, elo

An uportanti-book 1s the Arthasasra ol
Kant The text 1s divided into fiteen books,
‘of whieh Books HT and III may bo regurdod as
‘of an eaclier dato They seem to have been the
work of different hands. Ths text was put ım
its (nal form in the beginning of the Christian
era, but its carkest portions reflect the state of
society and economy in the age of the Maui yas
It provides rich matertal for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.

We also possess tho works of Bhasa, Kalidas
and Banabhatta. Apart from then hterary value,
they mirror the conditions of the times to which
these waiters belonged The works of Kalidasa
comprise kanyas and dramas, the most famous of
which 15 the Abhtjnanasakungalam. Bosides being
great creative compos:tions, they provide us with,
glimpses of the social and cultural life of
northern and central India 1a the age of the
Guptas

In addition to Sanskrit sources we have some
‘of the earliest Tamil texts found an the corpus
of the Sangam Iterature. This was produced
over a period of three to four eenturies by poets
who assembled 10 colleges patronssed by kings.

Since such a literary assombly was called sangam,
the whole Inerature ıs kuown as the Sangam
literature The compilation of the corpus 15
attcibuted to the frst fout Chustian centuries,
although final compilations may have been com
pleted by the sixth century The Sangant Itera-
Lure 1s a very major source of our anformation
for the social, economic and political life of the
people living in doltaso Tamil Nadu tn the early
Christian contuties What xt says about trade
and commerce is attested by foreign accounts
and archaeological finds

Foreign Accounts

Indigenous erature can be supplemented by
foreign accounts, To India came tho Greck,
Roman and Chiese visors, ether as travelers
ox 1eligious converts, and they left behind ac-
counts ofthe things that they saw It is remark-
able that Alexander's invasion finds no monton
in Indian sources, and its ently on the basis
of the Grech sources that we have to seconstruet
the history of lus Indian explo

‘The Gteek vistors mention Sendiokotas,
a contemporary of Alexander the Great who
anvaded India ın 324 BC. Prince Sandrokotts
15 idemuod with Chandragupte Maurya, whose
date of accession à fixed at 322 BC This iden
tification has served as the shoct-ancho: in ane
ent Indian chronology The Indika of Megas-
tenes, who came to the court of Chandragupta
‘Maurya, has been preserved only ın fragments
quoted by subsequent classical writes, These
fragments, when Lead together, furmsh valuable
information not only about the system of Maut-
ya admiossattoa but also about social classes
and ceonom activites in the Maurya period.
The Indika is not free from credulity and
exaggerations, but this ss true of many other
ancient accounts

Greek and Roman accounts of the Art and
second centuries A.D mention many Indian
ports and enumerate items of trade between
India and the Roman empire. The Perplus of

20. 8 ANCIENT INDIA

the Erythtean Sea and Ptolemy's Geography,
both written in Greek, provide valuable dats
for the study of ancient geography and com-
merce, The date ascribed to the first ranges
between A.D. 80 and 115, while the second is
attributed to about A.D. 150. Plny's Naturals
Histor, which belongs to the frst century À D.
vas waittes in Latin, and tells us about trade
between India and Italy.

‘Of the Chinese travellers mention may be
made of Fa-hsicn and Hsuan Tsang Both of
them were Buddhists, and came to this country
0 vst the Buddhist shrines and to study Bude
dhism. The fist came in the boginning of the
Sith century A.D., and the second in the second
‘quarter of the soventh century A.D, Fa-hsien
describes the social, religous and economic
conditions of India ın the ago of the Guptas,
tn Han Tsang presents ¢ sna acount of
Inca in the age of Harsha,

Historical Seise

‘Ancient Indians are charged with the lack of
historical sense. It is obvious that they did not
‘writs history ın the manner 1835 done now, nor
dud they write hstory mm the way the Greeks did
‘We have a sort of history in the Puranas, which
though ehcyclopaedte im contents, pionde
dynastic story upto thebeginningof the Gupta
rule. Statements about events are madó n future
tenso, although they were wntten much after
the events had happened. The authors of the
Puranas were not unaware of the dea of change,
which is the essence of history. The Puranas
speak ol four ages called kia, rea, dvapara and
kali. Each succeeding age is depicted as worse
than the preceding, and as one age slides ato
the othör moral values and social institutions
suffer degeneration, The dea of time, which
1 another vital element ın history, 1 found in

inscriptions. They specify the years during the
reign of a king ın which important events take
place Several eras, according to which events
were recorded, were started in ancient India.
‘The Vikrama Samvat began an 58 B.C, the Saka
Sawvat in A.D 78; and the Gupta eretn A D
319. Inscriptions record events in the context
of time and place, and the Puranas and biogra-
phucal works discuss the causes and effets of an
event, All these are indispensable to historical
reconstruction, but they are not found ın any
systematic form in the Puranas

Indians display considerable tstoucal Sense
in biograplucal writngs which started with the
composition ofthe Harshacharita by Banabbasta,
in the seventh century. [1s a semi-biograplucal
work writen in ornate sty, which became the
despair of later umitators It describes the early
career of Hacshavardhana Although full of
exaggerations, it gives an excellent idea of the
court fife under Harsha and the social and rel-
ious lie 1 us ago. Later several other chartes
or biographies were wistten Sandhyakara Nan-
4's Romachan ta narates the story of confit
between the Kavarta peasanis and the Pala
prince Ramapal, resulting ın the laters victory.
Bithana’s Vikramankadevacharta vecounts the
achivements of lus patron, Vikramaditya VI
(1076-1127, the Chalukya king of Kalyan Lven
the biographies (cherita) ol some merchants of
Gujerat were written ın the twelfth-ihrteenth
centuries A.D But the best example of the ear»
hest histonea! writing ss provided by th Aayata-
rangé ot “The Stream of Kings’ watten by
Kathana inthe twelfth century It isa stung of
biographıs of the kings of Keshmit, and can be
considered to be the Ärst work wiuch possesses
several teats of history as 1t is understood in
our times.

21. THE CONSTRUCTION OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY
‘EXERCISES

Indicare the sources of ancient Indian history
What ıs meant by archacology?

Why aro the foreign accounts of India useful?

Mention the languages which were in use in ancient India.
“Early Indians Jacked historical sense,” Discuss

22. CHAPTER 3

The Geographical Setting

The hustsy of India cannot be understood
without some knowledge of its geogtephy. The
Indian subcontinent sas large m area as Europe
without Russia, Is total area is 4,202,500 square
lalomettes. The subcontinent 1s divided into
tes counteies—India, Pakistan and Bangla
des. India has 650,000,000 people, Pakistan
50,000,000 and Bangladesh 75,000,000. Indie
comprises twenty-two States and nine Umon
Territones. Some of the States are lager than
many European countres. For stance, Bibar as
as lasgeinorez as England, and Madhya Pradesh
26 larger than several European countries
‘The Indian subcontinent 1 à well-defined geo-
graphical unit, mostly stated ın the tropical
zone, IL is bounded by the Himalayas on the
north aad seas on the other three sides, The
Himalayas protect the country against thy cold
arete winds blowing from Siberia through Con-
‘ral Asa. This Keeps the climate of northern India
art waren throughout the year. Since the cold
is not so severe in the plains, people do not need
heavy clothing and can live in the open for
nger periods, Secondly, the Himalayas are
hugh enough to shield the country against in-
vasions froin the north This was specially true
in preandustcal tunes when communications
were very dificule. However, on the north-west,
the Suleiman mountain ranges which ace in
southward continuaron with the Humlayes,
ould be crossed through the Khyber and Go-
mal passes. The Sulaiman ranges are joined

southward in Baluchistan by the Kirther rangos
which could be ccossed through the Bolan pas,
‘Through these passes two-way truffe between
India and Contral Asia has been going on fiom
prehistone tunes, Vatious peoples from Tran,
Afghanistan and Soviet Central Asw came lo
Indi as Invaders and immigrants and vce
versa Even the’ Hindukush, the westward ea
tension of the Himalayan system, did not form
an insuperable barrier between the Indus system
andthe Oxus system, The passes Facilitated trade
and cultural contacts betweon India on the ono
hand and Central Asia and West Asa on the
other.

Nestled in the Hunalayas ate the valleys of
Kashmir and Nepal. Surrounded on all sides
by high mountains, the valley of Kasbir deve-
{oped its own way of fie. But t could be reached
though sevoral passes, It winter compoled
somo of its people Lo go to the plans and its
summer attracted the shepherds of the plans.
Economt and cultural interaction between the
plains and the valley was continuous The Pamir
plateau did not prevent xt ftom becoming à
transmitting centco of Buddhism for the ad-
‘of Central Asta, The valley of Nepal,
size, 1 accessible to the people of the
Gangetic plans through a number of passes,
Lake Kashmir at also became a centre for cube
vation of Sanskrit, Both the valleys became the
repositortes of the largest number of Sanskrit
manusetipts

23. (THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

ARABIAN

NOJA

NA OCEAN

‘sed apor Survey of india map wah he polo a he Surejor General o nda,
© Goverment of nd copys 1862

‘Tre termoral water of Ian ontnd no the es 4 4 tue of the autel males
near from the propre base le,

Figure. Indlin-Piylsl Features

24. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

‘The foothills of che Hunalayas lent themselves
toeasierclesraucethan hejungles on thealluvsal
soil of the plains It was easy to cross rivers 1m
these areas because of theit smaller width, and
hence the earhest routes sknted along the foot-
ls ofthe Himalayas from the west to the cast
and vce versa’ Naturally the earliest agricultural
monts and states were founded ın the foot-
ism the sith century B.C, and trado routes
followed the serar route.

‘The heart of historial Indın 1s formed by its
Important rivers which are swalten by the tropi-
cal monsoon rams These consist of the pisins
of the Indus mu the northwest, the Ganga-
‘Yamuna deab un the auddle, the middle Ganges
dasın an the east and the Brakmapatra basin is
the exticme cast, As we proceed from the plains
of the Indus system through the Gangetic basin
to the Brahmaputra basin we find the annual
rasa gradually increasıng from 25 em to over
250 cm The Indus vegetation based on 25 to
37emrainfall and possibly the western Gangetic
vegetation based on 37 to 60 em rainfall could
be cleared with stone and copper implements
and made fit for cultivation, but this was not
possible in the case of the middle Gangetic voge-
tation based on 60 to 125 em ramfal, and eer-
tainly not in the ceso of the lower Gangetic
and Bıahmaputra vegetation based on 125 ta
250 cm ratnfall. The thickly forested areas,
‘hich also contained hard soil, coud be cleared
only with the help of the can implements which
appeared at a much later stage. Therefore the
natural resources of the western arca were uti
lized fist, and large-scale human settlements
generally spread from west to cast.

Once brought under cultivation, the Indus-
Gangete plains produced rich crops and suppot=
ted successive cultures. The Indus and the
western Gangete plains mamly produced wheat
and batley, white the muddlo and lower Gangetic
plans mainly produced rice, which also became
the steple diet in Guyarat and the south of the
Vindbyas. The Harappaa culture onginated and

fourished in the Indus valley, the Vedie culture
originated in the Panjab and flourished ın the
western Gangetic basin: the post-Vedie culture,
winly based on the use of ron, thrived in the
middle Gangete basin. The lower Gangetic
valley and north Bengat fuse came into limelight
inthe age of tho Guptas. and, finally, the
Brahmaputra valley covering Assam gained
importance in early medheval times, Important
powers fought for the possession of these plains
and valleys. Especially the Ganga-Yamuna doab
proved to be the most covetsd and contested
‘The rivers served as arteries of commerce and
‘communication. In ancient tumes 1 was duficult
to make roads, and so men and material were
moved by boat. The river routes therefore helped
mulitary and commercial transport Evudeatly
the stone pillars made by Asoka were carried
to diferent parts of the country by boat The
importanco of rivers for commumeation con
nued til the days of the East India Company.
Further, the sivers inundated the neighbouring
areas and mado them fertile; they also supplied
water to the canals cut from them. However,
they caused heavy Roods which periodically
destroyed towns and villages in the northern
plains, and so many ancient buildings bave been
‘washed away beyond kecovery. Nevertheless,
important towns and capitals such as Hastina-
pur, Prayag, Varanas, Patatiputia, and others,
were situated on the banks of the rivers In
modern times urban sites are selected qu the
rarlway and Lou janetions or in the industoal
fof musing zones But in pre-industial times.
owns were mostly situated on uver banks.
Above all, the rivers provided political and
cultural boundaries; these were also formed by
mouataın barsiets, Thus in the eastern part of
the Indian península the area known as Kalinga,
covering the coastal belt of Orisa, was situated
between the Mahanadı on the north and the
Godavari on the south. Similariy, Andhra
Pradesh mostly lay between the Godavari on

25. THE GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

aan INDIA
Pl ANNUAL RAINFALL

SS)
20-60 ”
UI under 20

Le A

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of the Surveyor
General of Indu,

© Government of Indie copyright, 1982

The territorial waters of India extend into the seato a distance of twelve
‘mules measured from the appropriate base line

Figure 2. India—Annual kamfalt

26. 14 ANCIENT INDIA

the north and the Krishna on the south. The
deltaic plains formed by these two rivers at
their mouths shot into Ristoxical importance
y the beginning of tho Christian era when they
became sindded with towns and ports under the
Satayahanas and their successors, Fully,
amd Nadu was situeted between the Krashna
on the moith and the Kavert on tho south.
The Kavers delta extended in the south
roughly to the Vaigai river, and in the north to
the South Pennar vives. It formed a distinct
geographical zone and became the seat of the
‘Chola power a Ittle before the beginning of the
Christian ora, This area was different from
north Tamil Nado, which consisted of uplands
and came into prominence under the Pallavas
in the fourfäsınch centunes AD, The eastern
part of the peninsula 1s bounded by the Coro-
mandal coast. Although the coasthae is flanked
by the Eastern Ghats or the stops, the Ghats are
not very high and have several openings caused
by thecastward flow of the rivers into the Bay of
‘Bengal Thus communteation between the cast-
ern coast on the one hand and the other parts
of Andhra and Tamil Nadu on the other was
ot dificult in ancient times. The port exes of
Arikamedu (modern nam), Mahabalipuram
and Kavenıpattanam were situated on the Coro-
mandal coast
Tn the western part of the peninsula we do
not have such distinct regional units But we
can locate Maharashtra between the Taptı (or
Damanganga) on the north and the Bhima on
the south. The atea covered by Karnataka seems
to have been situated betweon the Bhima and
the upper regions of the Keithnz on the north
and the Tungabhadra on the south, For a Jong
les de Deen dr
: powers lying Lo
the Chalekyas of
. found it difficult
to extend thor suay to the south of the Tunge-
bhadra, so also the Pallavas and Cholas found
it dificult to extene their avthonty to its north.

‘The coastal area in the extreme south-west of
the peninsula was covered by the modera State
of Kerala. The sea-coast along the western part
of the peninsula is called the Malabar const,
Although the coast came to have several ports
and small kingdoms, communication between
this coast and theadyoining areas of Makarashtra,
Karr dake and Kerala was rendored dificalt
by the high Western Ghats which do not have
100 may passos

In betweon the Indus and the Gangetic sys-
toms in the north and the Vindhya mountains
on the south les a vast stretch of land, wach 1s
divided into two units by the Aravalli mountains,
‘The area west of the Aravalli is coverod by the
Thar desost, although a part of Rajasthan also
Les in thés region. The vast expanse of the desert
made human settlements Impossible in ancient
times. However, a few fertile oases scatterod in
the desort weve settied, and from early timos i
has been possible to cross the desert by means
of camels. Tho soutiveasters portion of Rajas-
‘than has been a comparatively fertile area since
ancıent times, and because of the existence of the
Khetri copper mines ın this region human settlo-
ments aroso in Uns area in the chalcolithie
period.

Rajasthan chades off into the fertile plains of
Gujarat, which aro drauned by the waters of the
Narmada, the Tapa, the Mahs and the Sabar-
rt, Siruated at the end of the north-western
portion of the Deccan plateau, Gujarar meludes
the less cainy region of Kathiawar pol.
‘The coastal area of this Stato is fairly indented
allowing the existence of several harbours.
Theiefore fiom ancient tunes Gujarat has
been famous for its coastal and foreign trado,
and its people have proved 10 be enterprising
traders.

South of the Ganga-Vamune doab, and
bounded by the Chambal river on the’ west,

and the Vindkya moun-
lamas and the Narmada river on the south, lios
the State of Madhya Pradesh. Tts northern part

27. ‘THF Grant

consists of fertile plains, AL present Madhya
Pendesh is the Inıgest State in the country, and
can be broadly divided into two part, easıcın
and wesicin, The castein peut, mostly covared
by the Vindhyas, did not become important
historically tul Gap tunes inthe fourth and
ch eentuues AD Bul western Madhya
Pradesh includes Malwa, which has been the
scene of Iustoncal cavities from the sath,
century BC ends Malwa served as an
important hinterland for the Gujarat ports, and
many wars were Fought Between the Devean and
the northern powers tor the possession of Muda.
und Galeras The Sahay and the $
Tuight For the possession of this Key area in the
hrs and second centuries. A.D ‚and the Mare
thas and the Rajputs an the eighteenth century.

Each one of the areas bounded by ico, and
in some cases by mountanns, and sometumes
dential with deltas and plateans, constituted
à political and admmstative wait in which
different auling dynastio, rose an fell On
account of daffcull communatn in a viol
country and the defenubilny of the natural
frontiers, was not easy for the sulmp class of
fone soon to Establish ls rule ovas all the other
regions In course of tune every tegion se info
a distinet cultural unit having us own style of
life and Janguage, Butin nosthern and werten
Inda most languages were derived from the
same Indo-Aryan stock, and hones held many
‘elements incommon What is further important,
almost all over tie country Sunskıit came to bo
cultvated and understood

The Vandhya mountains out right actos the
country from wést ta cast and form the boundary
between north and south India The speakers of
the Dravidian languages lived south of the
Vindhyas, und of the Aryan languages north of
it In between lived primitive peoples ın the
Vindhya regions where they aro still found, The
coastal arcas along the Fasten and Westein
Ghats attracted settlers and traders, and the
south eainied oma Flourishing foreign Lade, The

ahanıs

At serre 15
Vindhyas de sol constitute uisurmountable
bainets In ancıent fumes im spite of the lieu
ts of comm” aleation people moved hom north
10 south, and vice versu Ths lod to a giveand-
ade in culture and language Again and again
‘the notthetn powers mioved down to the south,
and the southern rulers moved up to the noth,
Soabsodud the traders, masronaries and cultural
leaders, particularly the brahmanas, The two
way ae semaued constant and holped the
development ol a

Atthough most Légions hut well-defined
natural frontiers, not every region possessed the
resources necewsiry to Keep life going, Thotefore
from prehistoric mes the common need for
meta and other resources had produced à
netwoik of fnteiconnestions between the duT-
trent regions of the eouncy.

‘The utilization of tho natural resourees of the
‘county fis an umportant bearing on its histor
Unu Han settloments developed on a large
Seale the Indian plans ahownded in thickly
Fores areas, whist puovaded gane and supple
ted for ge, fuel and timber In early tunes, when
burnt m ks weis not much in use, Unber
houses aunt palisades were constructed. They

uti, the ist impot=
lant cupital of india. For construction and tool.
making all Kinds of stones eluding sandstone
‘aro avalable in the country. The earliest human
settlements aie naturally found in India in the
hilly areas and in (hose river valleys which are
situated between the fils. In historia! times
there were more templos and sculptures made
of stone in the Doccan and south India than in
the plains of northern India,

The country abounds in copper mines. The

est eopper minos are found an the Choranag-

plateau, pattcutariy un the district of Singh=
um. The copper beltas about 130 km long and
shows many sigas of ancient workings The
«arliest people who used copper implements in
Buhar exploited the capper mines of
and Hacasibagh, and many copper tools have,

pu

28. ANCIENT INDIA

COPPER, IRON-ORE AND GOLD

eN DEPOSITS IN INDIA
Qs
¢ Pe a ow ge
z —
>

Faure 3. Indla—Copper, Ionere ant Gold Depots

29. "TAS GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING nr

been discovered in south Bihar and parts of
Madhya Pradesh. Rich copper deposits are also.
found in the Khetri mines in Rajasthan. These
‚were tapped by both pre-Vedic and Vedie people,

who lived in Pakistan, Rajasthan, Gujarat and +

the Ganga-Yamuna doah Numerous copper
celts have been found in the Khetri zone, and
they seem to belong to a period anterior to
ea 1000 B C Since copper was the first metal
to be used, itis ınvested with great purity by the
Hindus, and copper utensils aro used in religious
tual.

‘The country today products no tin, this was
scarce even ın ancient times. There 15 reason 10
believe that ıt was found in Rajasthan and Bihar,
but its deposits have been used up. Since bronze
an be made only by mixing tin with copper, we
do not find many bronze objects im prehistorio
mes, The Harappans possibly procured some
un from Rajasthan, but their mam supply
came from Afghanistan, and even this was limi-
ted. Hence although the Harappa people used
bronze tools, their number compared with those
found in Western Asia, Egypt and Crete is very
small, and their tools carry a smaller percentage
of tin Therefore India had no proper Bronze
Age, thats, an age in which tools and implements
were mostly made of bronze. From the early
centuries of the Christian era India developed
intumate connections with Burma and the Malaya
Peninsula which possessed plenty of tin. This
made possible the use of bronze on a large scale,
specially for the statues of the gods in south
India, Tin for the Bihar bronzes of Pala times
was possibly obtained from Gaya, Hazaribagh
and Ranchi, for ın Hazaribagh tin ores were
smelted til the maddle of the last century.

India has been rich in iron ores, which are
found particularly m south Bihar, castern
‘Madhya Pradesh and Karnataka Once the art of
smelting, using bellows (and making steel)
‘was learnt, iron could be used for war, and more
usefully, for the clearance of jungles and for
deep and regular cultivation. The formation of

the first empire a Magacha in the sixth to fourth
‘centuries BC owed much to the availabilty of
ıron just south of ths region. Tho farge-cele

uso of von made Avanti with is capital at

Un, an important kingdom wn the sxth and

Afth centuries B.C. The Satavahanas and the

Other powers which arose south of the Vindhyas

may have utizad the con ores of Andlra and

Kamatıka.

‘Andhra possesses resources in lead, which
explains the large numbers of led cols in the
Kingdom of the Satavahanss, who ruled over
Andhra and Maharashtra in the frst two or
turies of the Christian exe

The east coins cllod the punchemarked
coins, were mado larely of sve, although ths
metal rarly found m the country. However,
ser mins existed in early tues In the Kharag-
pur his in the distuct of Monge and they -
are mentioned as late as ths me of Akbar. This
accounts for the us of the white metal in the
earliest poneh-macked coins found ın Bihar.

Gold is found in the Kolar goldSelés of
Karnataka. A very cari taco of gold has been
found at a New Stono Age sie of around 1800
BC in Karnataka. We have no indication of
its exploration til the begiming of the second
century A.D Kolar is considered to bo the eae
est capital of the Ganges of south Karnataka.
Mocha the gold used in cal times was obtained
from Central As and the Roman empire Gold
coins therefore came nto regular use inthe fast.
five centuries of the Chratan era. As the local
resources were not sufficient to maintain the gold
carreney overlong spell of time, once the supply
from outside stopped, gold coins became rar.

In ancient times Tia als produced a variety
of precious stones, including pearl, espealy
An central India, Orissa and south odia Precious
stones formed an important item of trado in the
articles which were cagey sought for by the
Romans i the early centuries of the Christian
era.

30. ANCIENT INDIA
EXERCISES

Deseribe the principal geographical regions of India,
Give an account of the main river systems of Indi

Mention the importar: motels found in India. To what use were they put in ancient
times?

31. CHAPTER.4

The Stone Age

The ON Stone Age

Man has been ving in India roughly from
500.000 B.C Re used tools of unpolshod,
Uundiessed, rough stones, which have been found
an south Tndis and 1n the Soan or Sohn river
rally un Pakistan, Palarolihie sites have also
‘been discovered in Kashinir The chips of stone
were pebbles used for hunting, cutting and thor
purposes In this period man barely mannged
to gather lus food and vod on hunting, He
had no knowledge of cgltwation and house
building This phase generally continued til
8000 BC.

Palzeolilhic tools, which could be as old as
100,000 8 C., have been found in the Chotanag-
pur platea Such tools belonging to 25,000
B C—10,000 B.C have been found in Kurnool
disbict m Andhra Pradesh about 55 km from
Kurnool, In association with them bone maple-
ments and animal remains have also been
discovorsd Animal remains found in the Bean
valley un Miazapur district in Uttar Pradesh show
thal goats, sheep and cattle were domestica-
ted around 25,000 B.C. However ın the carlost
Palcolthie phase man lived on hunting and
food gathering, The Puranas speak of people who
lived on roots and fruits; some of these people
have boon Ning in the old way an the hills and
caves tl modern times,

The Old Stone Age or the Palacolithic culture
of Indin doveloped in the Pleistocene period or :
the Jee Age, which is a grologial period. The 41 Paolo Tools. Hands Choppers ond Clee

32. 2

Pleistoceno period comes immediately before
tha geological period called Holoceno or recent
period, in which we live and which began about
10,000 years ago. Wo do not know when ths
Pleistocene period exactly began, but human re
mains associated with stone tools have been
ated an east Africa as early a 3.5 milton years
ago In India the first human occupation, as
suggested by stone tools, is not earlier than the
Middle Plastocene, which perhaps began about
500,000 years ago In tho Pleistocene period 10:
sheets covered a great portion of the earth's
surface, particularly ın the higher altitudes and
‘their peripheries. But the tropical regions,
excepting the mountains, were free from ice,
On the other hand they underwent a period of
great rainfall.

Phases inthe Palaeolithic

‘The Old Stone or tho Palscoithe Age in
India is divided into threo phases according to
the nature of tha stono tools used by the people
and also according to the natu of change in
tho climate. The first phase is caled Early or
Lower Palacolithi, the second, Middle Palace
thic, and the tird, Upper Palacolthic. The
Lover Palaalthic or the Early Old Stone Age
coves the greater pat of tho Ice Ags Is charac-
tesis feature i tho us of hand-axes and leu.
vers. Tae axes found in India are more or less
siilar to those of Weston Asia, Europe and
Asien, Stone tools were esd mainly for chop»
ping. The Early Old Stone Age sites are found à
the valley of river Soan in Panjab, now in Pais:
tas. Lover Palaeolithic tool have also been found
in the Blan valley in Mirapur distri ın Uttar
Pradesh, Tho Bolan ses contain caves and
rockshelters which would have served as easonal
camps for human beings, Handraxos have beon
found in a deposit of the timo of the second
Himalayan glaciation. In this period climate
became less humd.

‘The Middle Olé Stone Age ot Middle Palaco-
lithic industries are all based upon flakes. These

axe INDIA

fakes are found in difleront parts of India
and show regional variations. The principal
tools are varieties of scrapers made of flakes,
We also find a large number of borers and
blado-like tools The Middle Old Stone Age
sites in India are Found in the Soan Valley
Here we notice a crudo pebble industry ın strata
contemporary wish the third Himalayan glacia-
tion. The artifacts of this age are also found at
several places on the river Narmada, and also
at several places south of the Tungabhadra river,

‘Tie Upper Palaeolithic phase vas less hard
I coincaded with the last phase of the Tee Age
when climate became comparatively warra In the
world context it is known for the appearance
of new Mint industries and of men of the modera.
type. In India we notice the use of blades and
burins which have beon found in Andhra,
Karnataka, Maharashtca, Bhopal and Chota:
‘agpur plateau. Caves and rockshelters for use
‘by human beings in the Upper Palaeolithic
phase have beon discovered at Bhimbetka, 40
‘kms south of Bhopal Hand-axes and clenvets,
blades, scrapers and a few burins have been
found there. An Upper Palacolithio assemblage,
characterised by massive flakes, blades, burins
and scrapers has also been found in the upper
levels of the Gujarat dunes.

eis dificult to estimate the beginnings of the
Palaeolihic Age. Te is said that in the world
context human remains associated with stone
tools aro as old as 3 5 million years. But it seems
that through several stages the modern human
being (Homo sapiens) first appeared in the
Upper Palacolitlus Age.

Tt would thus appear that the palaeolitiue
sites aro found in practically all parts of the
country except the alluvial plains of the Indus
and the Ganga.

The Late Stone Age

‘The Upper Palacolthic Age came to an end
with the end of the Lee Age around 8000 BC
and the climate became warm and dry. Ci

33. "THE STONE AGE a

18259
190018

hha

42 Mesoline Taos from Bndhenpus (Wet Benge!)
‘and Tomevelly (Pant Nado)

made changes brought about changes ın fauna
and flora and mado it possible for human beings
to move to now areas Since then there have not
been any major changes in climatic conditions
From 8000 B.C. began an intermediate stage in
stone age culture, which is called the Mesolithic
‘Age. It intervened as a transitional phase bete
ween. the Palaeolithic Age and the Neolithic or
‘New Stone Age, and is also called the Late
Stone Age. In tho case of India it started about
8000 BC. and continued up to about 4090 BC,

‘The characteristic tools of the Late Stone Age
are microliths, The Late Stone Age sitos aro
found ın good numbers ın Chotanagpur, central
India, and also south of the rıver Krishna,

So Tar only a few finds of the Late Stone Age

have been dated scientifically, but there Is no
doubt that these finds preceded the Nooli-
thic Age.

It is interesting to note that on the northera.
spurs of the Vindhyas in the Belan Valley all
the three phases of the Palaeolithic followed by
the Mesolithic and then by the Neolithic have
‘been found in sequence.

‘The New Stone Age
‘Although in the world context the New Stone

43 Neoible Tools

34. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

‘Age began much oir, in 7000 B.C, neolithic

settlements in the Indian sub-continent are not
older than 6000 B.C. Some settiements found
in south India and eastern India are as late as
1000 B.C.

‘The pedple of this age used tools and im-
blements of polished stone. They particularly
sed stone axes, which have been found
in tage numbers throughout the greater part
of tbs country, ‚This cuting tool was put to
vanous uses by the people, and in ancient
legends Patesurama became an important axe»
wielding hero

Based on the types of axes used by neolithid
settlers, we notice three important areas of neo-
Inthe settlements. One area is to be found in
the north in the valley of Kashmir at a place
called Burzahom at a distance of about 20 km
from Scinagar. The neolithic people lived there
où u plateau in pits, and probably had a hunts
ing and Fishing economy. They did not seem to
have been acquainted with agriculture or domes-
tication of animals. They used not only polished.
tools of stone, but what is more interesting, they
used numerous tools and weapons made of
bone. ‘The only other place which has yielded
considerable bone implements in India is
Chiradd, which is 40 km west of Patna on the
northern side of the Ganga. These bone imple-
ments have’ been found in a late neolithic set-
up in an area with about 100 om rainfall. The
settlement became possible because of the open

land available on account ofthe joining together
of foe res, sea, St, Cada ad Ohr
hr at th

‘Te people of Burrahom used coarse grey
pottery. It is interesting: that the Burzahom

domestio dogs were buried with their masters
in thei graves: Pit dwelling and the placing of
domstic dogs in the graves of the masters do
‘aot seem to be the practice with neolithic people
in any other part of India, Tho earliest date for
Burzahom 1s about 2400 B.C., but the bones
recovered’ from Chirand cannot be dated

earlier than 1600 B.C. and they possibly belong
to a stone-copper phase.

‘The second group of neolithie people lived ın
south India south of the Godavari river. They
usually settied on the tops of geanute tills or on

44 Bursahon Pu Duels

AS Neolthe Bone Tools fom Barton

35. ‘THR STONE AGE 2

EOLITHIC CULTURES

EXCAVATED NEOLITHIC SITES ©,
MODERN TOWNS a

en aucuns |

36. 4

plateaus near the river banks. They used stone
axes and also some kind of stone blades Fire
baked earthen figurines suggest that they kept'a
large number of cattle. They possessed cattle,
shesp and goats. They, used rubbing stone
querns, watch shows that they were sequeinted
with the art of producing grains

‘The third area ftom which neolithic: tools
have been recovered 15 in the Hills of Assam.
Neolithic tools ave also found in the Garo hills
in Meghalaya on the north-eastern frontier of
India, Wo have no means of dating them. In
addition to this we also find a number of neo-
thie settlements on the northern spurs of the
Vindiyas in Mizapur and Allahabed districts
of Uttar Pradesh, Neolithic sites in Allahabad
Aistict are noted for the cultivation of rice in
the sixth millenium B.C, Those found in Balt-
chistan also seem to be fairly old.

Some of the important neolithic sites or those
with neolithic layers that bave been excavated
include Mask, Brahmagli, Hallur, Kodekal,
Sanganakallu, T, Nscsipur and Takkalakota in
Karnataka, and Paiyempall in Tamil Nadu.
Pikital and Utnur are important neolithie
sites in Andhra Pradesh, The neolithic phase
seems 10 have covered the period from about
2500 B.C, to 1000 B.C. although the earliest
scientifically determined date for Utnur is
2300 B.C.

‘The neolithic setlers in Piklihal were cattle-
herders. They domesticated cattle, sheep, goats,
«to, They set up seasonal camps surrounded by
cowpens made with posts and stakes. In these
‘enclosures they accumulated cow dung, Then
the entire camping ground was put to fre and
cleared for camping in the next season, Both
ash mounds and habitation sites have been
discovered in Pikikal.

The later neolithic sellers were agricuturst,

ANCIENT INDIA

who lived in circular or rectangular houses
made of mud and reed. It is held that the pri
mitivo people living in circular houses owned
property in common. In any case these neolithic
people led a settled life. They produced ragi
and horsegram (kulath). Their polished tools
also included microlith Blades.

Since in the meoltthis phase several setle.
ments came to be acquainted with the culti-
vation of cereals and the domestication of
animals, they needed pots in which they could
store their foodgrain and milk. They further
needed pots for cooking and eating. Heace
hand-made pottery is found in the early stage.
Later they used footwheels to turn up pots.

Neolithic celts have also been found in the
(Orissa hill areas, and it is likely that rice culte
vation and small-scale settlements began an
this part of the country quito early.

‘The period between 9000 B.C. and 3000 B.C.
saw a rematkable progress of technology in
Western Asia, because the people developed
the arts of cultwation, weaving, building houses,
domestication of animals, ete. But the Neoli-
this Age in Indian subcontinent began around
the sixth millennium B.C. Some of the impor-
tant crops, including rice, wheat and barley,
came to be cultivated in the subcontinent in this
period and a few villages appeared an this part
of the world, It appears that the people were
now on the threshold of ciation.

‘The people of the Stone Age suffered from
one great hmitation, Since they had to depend
entirely on tools and weapons made of stone,
they could not found settlements far away from
the hilly areas They could settle down only in
the hilly river valleys. Further, even with great
effort they could not produce more than what
they nceded for their bare subsistence.

37. 2s
EXERCISFS

How old is man in India? How did he hive ın the Old Stone Age?
Trace the various phases in the Palacolithic Age of India.
What 1s meant by ‘neoliths"? Give an account of the material life of the neoli-
thie people in India.

How did the neolithic culture differ from the pal

lithic culture?

38. CHAPTER 5

The Stone-Copper Phase

Chaleaithie Settlements

Towards the end of the neolithic period began
the use of metas, The metal to be used frst was
copper, and several cultures were besed on the
use of stone and copper implements. Such a
caltuce 18 celled chalcolitin. The cares settle
ments belonging to this phase are found in
sobthrsastern Rajasthan, the western part of
Madhya Pradesh, western Maharashtra and
also in coste India, In south-castero Rajas-
than two sites, one at Akar and the other at
Gilund. have been excavated, They lie in the
dy zones ofthe Bangs valley, western Madhya
Pradesh, in Malwa, Keyatha and Eran have
been exposed. But the most extensive excava-
uons have taken place in western Maharashtra,
Several chacolithic ste, such as Jorwe, Nevasa,
Daimabad in Ahmadnagar district, Chandoli,
Songaoa' and Inamgaon in Pune district, and
Nask have been excavated. All these Maharast-
tra sites were located in semi-arid areas mostly
où browa-black soil which had ber and babul
vegetation but fell in the riverine tracts. In
addition to these we have Navdatol siuated on
the Narmada. Some chalcolitiic ingredients
intruded into the neolithic sites in Andbra
Pradesh, but copper objects are not found there
Several chalvolithic sites have been found in
the Allahabad region presumably on account
of their proximity to the Vindhyas. In eastern
India, besides Chirand on tho Ganga, mention
may be made of Pando Rajar Dhibi in Burdwan

district and Mahishdal in Midnapore district in
West Bengal.

51 Wiitepamted bockrandred Ware from Afar, circa
15098.

Chalcolibic Cultures

The people belonging to this culture used
small tools and weapons made of stone in which
the stone blade occupied an Important position.
In many places the stone blade industry four
rished although stone axes continued to be used.
It is obvious that such areas were not situated
far from the hills, but at the same time many
are found in siverine tracts. In certain sel:
ments copper implements are found in good
numbers, This seems to be the caso with Abas
and Gilund, which lay more or less in the dry
ones of the Banas river valley in Rajasthan,
‘At Ahar stone axes or blades are completely
absent. On the other hand axes and other objects
made of copper are numerous because raw cop»

39. 2

"THE STONE-COPPER PHASE

pen €

wu 9
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Men p uowtiedox E

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uy 9 arar L emprngeeiD 9 umm §
PE O o D
musas NT T | | OT HLTTOOIVHD!

a

40. 28 ANCIENT INDIA

er js locally available, But in Guiund we find &
stone-biade industry. Flat, rectengular copper
axes are found in Jorwe and Chandoli in
Maharashtra, and copper chisels dt Chandol.

The people of the stone-copper phase used
ferent types of pottery, one of which 1 called
back-and-red and seems to have been widely
prevalent. ftwas thrown on wheel and occasion.
ally painted with white Leu designs, This is true
not only of settlements in Rajesthan, Madhya
Pradesh and Mehesashtra but also of hahita-
tions found in Bihar and West Bengal. People
living in Madhya Pradesh and Maharasbtra
produced channel-spouted pots, dishes-on-stand
end Bowb-onstand. It would be wrong to think
that all the people who used black-and-ced
pottery possessed. tho same culture. We can
notice diferences in their forms of pottery and
implements.

‘The people living in the stone-copper age in
southreastem Rayesthun, western Madhya Pradesh
and western Maharashtra domesticated animals
and cuitivated foodgeains. They kept cows,
sheep, goats pigs and bulfelocs, and hunted
deer, Romauns ofthe cam] have also been found.
Ii notelear whether chey were equainted with
he horse. Some animal co sans are rdentifed
as belonging ether to the horse or donkey or
wild ass, Peopie certainly ats beef, but they did
not take pork on any considerable scale, What
is remarkable is that theso people produced

wheat and rice. In addition to these staple crops +

they also cultivated bajra. They produced several
pulses such as the lent (masur), black gram,
green gram, and giass pea, Almost ail these
foodgrains have been found at Navdatoli situa-
ted on the bank of the Narmada in Mabarash-
tra, Perhaps at ro other place in India so many
coreals have been discovered as a result of
digging. The people of Navdatoli also produced.
ber and linseed. Cotton was produced in the
black cotton soil of the Deccan, and ragi, baja
and several millets were cultivated in the lower
Deccan.

52 Poner fram Nardool, circa 1590 B €.

In easteın India fish hooks have been found in
Bihar and West Bengal, where we also find rise.
This suggests that the people belonging to the
Stone-copper phase in the eastern regions lived
on fish and rice, which is still a popular diet in
that pitt of the country.

‘The chaleolithic people were generally not
acquatoted with burnt bricks, which wore sel-
‘dom used. Occasionally iheir houses were made
‘of mud bucks, but zuostly these were coustruc-
ted with wattle and daub, and seem to have been.
thatched houses, At Inamgaon, an the earlier
chalcolithic phase in western Maharashtra,
large mud houses with ovens, and circular pit
houses, have been discovered. In the later phase,
(1200-1000 8.C ) we have a house wich five rooms,
our rectangular and one circular, This would

41. THB STONE-COPPER PHASE »

ES

53 Pontet Pottery Beckum, Jarre, nee
wer.

suggest that families were large. Settlements be-
‘came stable and widespread in this phase, which
asealled the orme culture, The culture's so calle,
because ats type-sty is provided by Jorwe, a
village situated on tho Praveta river. À goad
number of sites possess the taits of the Jorwo
culture Every Jorwe village was a nucleated
settlement with more than 35 houses of diferent
sizes, circular ot rectangular in shape The
chaleolithie economy therefore was a village
economy, Some settlements, such as Inamgaon
and those at Eran and Kayathe in central and

54 Jameson | Iromerib Reconructin of Howes

42. 20 ANCIENT INDIA.

western Madhya Pradesh, were fortified and
surrounded by a moat, but it is obvious that

craft, They were clearly expert copper smiths
and also good workers in stone, To this culture
belong a large number of very small sized
stone tools which are called micros, People
knew the art of spinning and weaving because
spindle whorls have been discovered in Mata,
Cotton, fax and silk threads have beon found an
‘Maharashtra, This shows that these people were
well acquainted with the manufacture of cloth

Regional differences in regard. to cereals,
structures, pottery, ett appear in the stone-
copper phase Eastern’ India produced rice;
western India cultwated barley and wheat
Chronologeally certain settlements in Malwa
and central India, such as those in Kayatha
and Fran, were the earliest; those of wostern
“Maharashtra and eastom India were of a much
inter date

We can form some ideas about the bu
practices and roligious calts of these people
In Maharashtra peoplo buried their dead in
ras under the floor of their house in the nogth-
to-south position. They did not use separate
cemeteries for this purpose, as was the case
with the Harappans. Pots and some copper
‘objects ware deposited in tho graves obu-
ously for the usa of the dead in the next world.
Terracotta figures of women suggest that the
chalcolihic people venerated the mother god-
dess. Some unbaked nude clay figurines were
also used for worship, A figure of the mother
‘goddess similar to that found in Western Asia
has been found in Inamgaon. In Malwa and
Rajasthan stylized bull torrcottas show that
the ball served as a religions cut.

Ta the stone-copper phase we find the begin-
rings of social inequalities. In the graves at
Chandoli and Nevase in western Mab
some children were buried along with copper-
boad necklaces around their necks; other chile

dren had grave goods consisting only of pots.
‘At Inamgaon an adult was buried with pottery
and some copper, In one houso in Kayatha
‘were found 29 copper bengles and two unique
axes. At the same place were found in eacthen
Pots necklaces of semi-precious stones such
as steutite and caraslian beads. It is evident
that those who possessed these objects were
afiuent

The dates, which have been scientifically
established, show that this phase of culture
was not older than 1800 B.C, and it seems to
have continued in some aress till 1000 B.C,
and in other ateas til 800 B.C or even late
‘The old: tools continued till they were ult
mately replaced by iron tools. But in many
parts of the country the blackand-red pottery
Continued till the second century B.C.

Importance of the Chalcoitle Phase

„Except for the alluvial plans and tho thickly
forested areas, traces of chaleoithic cultures
have been discovered almost al over the coun-
try, In ths phase people mostly founded rural
settloments on ewer banks not far removed
from the hills As stated earlier, they used
roccoiths aud other stone tools supplemented
by a lie use of copper tools. It seems that
most of them know thé art of copper smelting.
Almost all ehalcolthie communities used black-
andred wheel-turned pots. They vers the fest
to use painted pottery. Their pots were meant
for cookıng, eating and storing, They used the
dota, but there 1s no trace of the shalt In south
Tndia the neolithic phase imperceptibly faded
into the stone-copper phase, and so these
cultures aro called eoluhuechaleohuhic. Tn
Other parts, especially in western Maha-
rashtra and Rajasthan tbe chaleolithic people
seem to have been coloniters. Thor earliest
seftlements appear in Malwa and certral India,
such as those in Kayatha and Bran; those in
western Mebarashtra appeared later; and those
in West Bengal were perhaps the last to emerge.

43. ‘THE STONE-COPPER PHAGE a

The chalcolidue communities founded the
first villages im India and coltvated far more
cereals than is known m the case of tho neo-
Auhie communities. Tn particular they culte
vated barley, wheat and fen in western India,
and cs in southern and castera India, Their
cereal food was supplemented by non-vog
varian food In western India we have more of
animal food, but sh and 1109 formed impor»
tant elements in the ditt of eastern India
More remains of structures have been found
in western Maharasltea, western Madhya
Pradesh and soutircastern Rajasthan, The
settlaments at Kayatha and Eran ın Madhya
Pradesh and at Inamgaon ın western Maha
rashira were fortified On the otter hand, tho
remans of sttuctures in Ciurand and Pando
Rajat Dhib in eastern india were poor, giving
indications. of postholes and round houses.
The burial practces were diferent In Maha-
rashtra the dead hody was placed in the north-
south posiuon, but m south Indra in the cast
west position Almost completo or extended
burial oblained in Maharashtra, but post-
extraction or fractional burial prevaded in
West Bonga

Limitations of Chaleolithie Cultures
‘The general weakness of chalcolithic cultores
is evident from the burial of a large number
fof children in westen Maharashtra In spite
of a food-preducmg economy the rate of infant
mortality was very high. We cannot identify 1ts
causes which might include lack of nutrition,
absence of medical knowledge or outbreak of
opidemues. At any rate the chalcolithie social and
economic pattern did not promote longevity.
‘The stons-copper culture had an essentially
rural background. During its phase the supply
of copper was linuted, and as a metal copper
had its limitations. By itself a tool made of
copper was pliant. People did not know the
art of mixing tin with copper and thus forging
the much stronger and useful metal called

bronze, Bronze tools facilitated tho rise of the
caclist culations in Coste, Egypt and Meso-
potamia, but they were practially absent in the
chalcolithic phase in the major part of India.

‘The people of the Stone-Copper Age did
not know the art of wating; nor did they live
in cities as the people of the Bronze Age did
We notice ail thee elements of evilzation for
te rst me in the Indus region of ce Indian
subeontiaent Although most Stone-Copper Age
culture existing in the major part ofthe country
were younger than the Indus valley civil
tion, they didnot denve any substantial bene
from the advanced technologeal Knowledge
of the Indus people

‘The Copper Age in Sadia

‘More than forty hoards consisting of copper
‘objects have been found ın a wide area ranging
from the Chotanagpur plateau to the upper
Gangette basia But nearly half of them are
concentrated in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, in
‘other areas we encounter stray finds of such
hoards. The cope: hoards compnse celts,
harpoons, antennae swords and anthtopomor-
phic figures, These artifacts served. several
purposes They were meant not only for fishing,
hunting and fighting but also for artisanal and
agricultural use They presuppose yood tech.
nological skill and knowledge on: the part of
the coppersmith, and cannot be the handiwork
of nomadic people ot hunters. At several
places ın the upper Gangetic basin these abjects
have been discovered m association with ochro=
coloured pots and some mud structures. This
shows that the people who used the copper
hoards lod a settled life, and were one of the
atest primitive agucultorists and artisans
to settle m a good portion of the doa. Most
ochre-coloured pottery sites are found in the
upper portion of the doab, but copper
hoacds are found not only im this area but
‘lo m the plateau areas of Bihar and the
‘neighbouring regions. Many copper celts have

44. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

55. Copper Took fu Genge-Hamına Doub

been found inthe Khetr zone of Rajesthan.

The period covered by the ochre-coloured
pottery culture 1s roughly placed between 2000
BC. and 1800 BC. When the oëre-coloured
settlements using copper objects disappeared,

Y upper Gangetic bess

À for mote than a century or 50; nor were they

the doab does not show much habitation till
about 1000 B.C, We learo of some habitation
À by people using black-and-red ware, but their

habitation deposits are so thin and antiquities
50 poor that we cannot form a clear and dis-
tinct idea of their cultural equipment. In any
case in the upper portion of the doah, in the
the Metal Age soally
bons with the seitlements of the copper
using ochte-coloured pottery people How
ever, at no place did these settlements last

considorable m sire and spread over a very
wide territory. Why and how these settle
ments came lo an end is not clear, but the
sanciity and religious purity attached to copper
vessels, utensils, ete. in Hindu religion may
have started in the Copper Age.

‘The copper-hoard people were contempora-

tues of the Harappans, and the ochre-coloured

pottery area in which they lived was not far
removed from that of the Harappans. We may,
therefore, expect some givewnd-take between

these copperusing people and the bronze-
using Harappans.

EXERCISES

1. Weich metal did the Indians use ‘first? How did it affect their life? .

2, Give an account of the Indian culture in the Stone-Copper phase,

45. CHAPTER6

The Harappan Civilization

Geographical Extent treated earler, but it Is far more developed
The Indus or tho Harappan cultura is older than these cultures. It arose in the north-west-
than the chaleolthie cultures which have been ern part of the Indian subcontinent, It is

fü De AA
61 Ralıkangen z Geveral View showing Excavated Tr

46. 4 ANCIENT INDIA

called Harappan because this civilzation was
discovered flat in 1921 at the modern site of
Harappu situated in the province of West Panjab
in Pakistan. The Harappen culture covered
parte of Panjab, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujarat,
‘Rajasthan and the fringes of western Uttar
Pradesh. It extended from Jammu an the north
to tho Narmada estuary in the south, and from
the Makran coast of Baluchistan 1m the west
to Moocut un the north-east, The area formed
a trianglo and accounted for about 1,299,600
square kilometres, which is larger than Paki-
stan and cortainly bigger than ancient Egypt
and Mesopotamia. No other cultural zone in
tho third and second millennium B.C. in the
world was as large as the Harappan zone.

‘Although over 250 Harappan sites are known,
only str can be regarded as cites. OF these the
two most important cites were Harappa in
Panjab and Mohenjo-daro in Sindh, both Form-
ing parts of Pakistan. Situated at a distance of
483 kılometres they were linked together by
the Indus. A third city lay at Chanhu-daro
about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh,
and a fourth at Lothal in Guyarat at the head
of the Gulf of Cambay. A fith city tay at
Kalibangan in northem Rajasthan. A sixth
called Banwali is situated in Hissar district
in Haryana Tt saw two cultural phases, pre-
Harappan and Harappan, similar to that
of Kalibangan. To the Harappan period bo-
Jong the romans of mud-brick platforms, and
of streets and drains. The Harappan culture is
noticeable ja lts nature and flourishing stage
at all these six places. Tt is also found in its
mature phase in the coastal cities of Sutka-
gendor and Surkotada, cach one of which
marked by a citadel. The lator Harappan phase
is found in Rangpur and Roydi in the Kathiae
war peninsula in Gujarat,

Toma Planning and Structures
‘The Harappan culture was distinguished by
its system of town-planning, Harappa and

THE CITADEL
HARAPPA

“CE

62 Harppa—Pln ofthe Cry

Mohenjo-daco each had its own citadel or
‘acropolis, which was possbly occupied by

47. ‘THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

EXTENT OF
THE HARAPPA CULTURE

eee

Ego

Figure 6 Harappa Culture

48. 35 ANCIENT INDIA

members of the ruling class. Below the citadel
in each city lay a lower town containing brick
houses, which wore inhabited by the common
people. The remarkable thing about the ar-
rangement of tho houses in the cites is that
they followed the grid system. This is true of
almost all Indus settlements regardless of size
Roads cut across one another almost at right
angles, and the city was divided into so many
blocks.

‘The most umportant publie place of Moheny
aro seems to bo the Groat Bath, comprising
the tank which is situated in the eitadel mound.
lts an example of beautiful brickwork, It mea
sures 11.88x7.01 metres and 243 metres deep.
Flights of steps at oither end lead to the sur-
face. There are side rooms for changing clothes,
‘The floor of the Bath was made of burnt bricks.
Water was drawn from a large well in an ad-
jacent room, and an outlet from one corner
of the Bath led to a drain It is suggested that
the Great Bath served rituel bathing, which was
30 vital to any religious ceremony in India,

la Mohenjo-daro the largest building 1s à
gravary, which is 45.71 metres Jong and 15.23

metres wide. But in the citadel of Harappa we
find as many as six granaries. We come actoss
2 series of brick platforms which formed the
basis for two rows of six granaries. Each gra-
nary measured 15.23 metres x 6.09 metres and
lay withm a few metres of the rivers bank The
combined floor space of the twelve units would
be about 838 1025 square metres. Approxima-
aly it had the same area as the Great Granary
at Mohenjo-dato To the south of the granaries
at Harappa lay working Roors consisting of
the rows of circular brick platforms These
were evidently meant for threshing grain be-
cause wheat and berley have been found in the
crevices of the floors. At Harappa were also
built two-roomed barracks, which possibly
accormodated Iabourors

At Kalibangan also we notice in the south-
ern part brick platforms, which may have been
used for-granaries. Thus it would appear that
granaries constituted an important part of the
Harappan cities.

‘The use of burnt bricks in the Harappan
cates is remarkable, because in the contempo-
rary buildings of Egypt dried bricks were mainly

63 Great Both, Moeodire

49. THB HARAPPAN' CIVILIZATION 31

64 ombre Proetion of the Granary ot Harappa

used. We find the use of baked bnoks ın con-
temporary Mesopotamia, but they were used
o & much larger extent in the Harappan cats.

‘Tho drainage system of Mohenjo-taro was
very impressive. In almost all cies every big
or small house had ıts own courtyard end
bathroom. In Kalıbangan many houses had
their wells. Water fowod from the house to
the strests which had drains Sometimes these
rams were covered with bucks and some-
‘umes with stone slabs. The strest drains were
equipped with manholes, Tho remains of streots
and drains have also been found at Banvali
Altogether the drainage system and the quality
of the domestic bath-rooms and drains aro
remarkable, and the drainage system of Hara-
pa is almost unique Perhaps no other civiliza-
tion gave so ınuch attention to health and
cleanliness as the Harappan.

Agriculture
Comparatwely raialess, the Indus region 15
not so fertile these days. Its prosperous villages
and towns show that it was fortile in ancient
times At present 1 has only a rainfall of about
15 em. In the fourth century B.C. one of the
ins of Alexander informs us that Sindh
was a fertile part of the country. In earlier nes
the Indus possessed more natural vegetation
which atteactod more rainfall It supplied tim-
bor fuel for baking bricks on a large scale, and
also for construction. In course of timo,
natural vegetation was destroyed by the oxten-
sion of agriculture, large-scale grazing, and
supply of fuel À far more important reason for
tho forülity of the arca seems to have boen the
anual inundstion ia the Indus river, Walls
made of burnt bricks raised for protection
show that loods took place annually The Indus

50. ANCIENT INDIA.

6S Coral Draw, Motero

cartiod far more aitaviat soit than the Nile in
Egypt and deposited x on the flood plains
Just as the Nile created Egypt and supported
its people, so also the Indus ereated Sindh and
fed its poople The Indus people sowed seeds in
the flood plains 1 November, when the flood
water receded, and reaped ‘their harvests of
wheat and barley in April before the advent of
the next flood. No hoe or ploughshare has been
discovered, but the furrows discovered 12 the
Pre-Harappan phase at Kalibaagen show that
the folds were plooghed in Rajasthan ın the
Harappac period The Harappans probably
sed the wooden ploughshare, We do not know
whether the plough was drawn by men or ox
Stone siekles may have been used for harves-
ting the crops Gubarbands or malas enchosed
> by dias fo stonng water ere a feature in paris
of Baluchistan and Afghanistan, but channel
‘or canal irigation seems to have been absont,

‘The Harappan villages, mostly situated near
the food plains, produced sulfistent foodgrains
not only lo feed themselves but also the town
people. They must have worked very hard to
meet theic own roquicements as well as those
of the artisans, merchants and others, who
lived in the city and who “were not directly
concerned with food-producing activities,

The Indus people produced wheat, barley,
as, peas, ote. They produced two types of wheat
and barley. A good quantity of barley has been
discovered at Banwall. In addition to this,
they produced sesamum and mustard. But the
position seems to have been divlrent with the
Harappans at Lothal, It seems that as early as
1800 B C the people of Lothal used rice whose
remains have been found Foodgrains we
stored in huge grananes ın both Mohenjo-
aro and Harappa and possibly in Kalıbangan.
Probably, cereals were received as taxes from
peasanis and stored in granary for the pay-
muent of wages. This can be sad on the analogy
of Mesopotamian cities where wages were
paid in bariey. The Indus people wore the earliest
people to produce cotton Because cotton was
fst produced im this area the Greeks called if
sindon, which 15 derived. from Sindh. u

Domestication of Animals

Although the Harappans practised agrioul-
Lure, antmals were kept on a large scale Oxen,
bulfaloes, goats, sheep and pigs were domesticar
ted The humped bulls were favoured by the
Harappans From the very beginning dogs were
regarded as pots Cats were also domesticated,
and signs of the fect of both dogs and cats
havo been noticed They also kept asses and
camels, which were possibly used as beasts of
burden. Evidence of the horse comes front a
superficial level of Moheyo-daro and from a
doubtful terracotta figurine from Lothal. The
remains of the horse have been reported from
Surkotada, situated on the west of Gujarat,
and belong to around: 2000 B C., but itis clear

51. THB HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION, El

that this animal was not in regular use in
Harappan times. Elephants were well known to
the Harappans, who wote also acquainted with
the rhinoceros The contemporary Sumenan
cites in Mesopotamia practically produced the
same foodgiains and domesticated the same
‘animals as the Harappans did. But the Harappan
people in Gujarat produced rice end domestica
fed elephants, which was not the case with the
people of Mesopotamian cities.

‘Technology and Crafts

“The Harappan culture belongs to the Bronze
Ago The poople of Harappa used many tools
and umplemeats of stone, but they were very.
‘well acquamted with the menufscture and use
of bronze, Bronze was made by the smiths by
mixing tin with copper. Sino none of the two.
metals was easily available to the Harappans,
‘bronze toolsare not prolife in Harappa The im-
parues of the ores show that copper wasobtain-
od fromthe Khetri copper mines of Rajasthan,
although st could also be brought from Baluchi-
stan Tin was possibly brought with dificulty
from Afghanistan although ats old workings
are stated to have beou found in Hazaubagh
in Bihar. The bronze tools and weapons recover-
ed from the Harappan sites contain a smaller
Porcontage of tm However, the kit of bronze
goods left by the Harappans 15 considerable,
Which suggests that the bronzesmiths constıtu
ted an important group of artisans in the Harap-
pan society. They produced not only mages
and utensils but also various tools and weapons
such as axes, saws, knıves and spouts. Several
other important crafts flourished in the Harap-
Pan towns. A piece of woven cotton has been.
recovered from Mohenjo-daro, and texulo ım-
pressions found on several objects, Spindle
whorls were used for spinning Weavers wove
‘eloth of woo! and cotton, Hugs brick structures
suggest that brick-laymg was an important
raft. They also attast the existence of a class

of masons The Harappans also practised
‘boat-making, Aswill bo show later, seal-making
and terracotta manufacture were also impor
tant exafis The goldsmiths mado jewellery of
silver, gold and precious stones; the first two
may have been obtamed from Afghanistan and
the last from south Indie. The Harappans were
do experts in beadmaking

The potter's wheel was un full use, and the
Basappans produced their own charactensto
pottery, which was made glossy and shining,

Trade

The Hauappan cits did not possess the
necessary raw material for the commodities
they produced. They did not use metallic money.
We have no idea about their currency. Most
probably thoy carried on all exchanges through
barter In return for finished goods and posst-
bly foodarains, they procured metals from the
neighbouring areas by bouts and bullock-carts.
They pracused navigation on the coast of the
Arabian Sea They knew the uso of wheel, and.
carts with solid wheels wars ın uso in Harappa.
At also appears that the Harappans used some
kind of modern ekka,

‘The Harappans had commercial links
Rayusthun, Afghanıstan and Iran. Their cites
also carried on commerce with those ın the
land of the Tigris and Euphrates. Many Harap-
pan seals have been discovered in Mesopotie
mia, and ıt seems that the Harappans imita
ted somo cosmetics used by tho urban people
of Mesopotamia. The Mesopotamian records
from about 2350 B.C refer to trade relations
with Moluha, which was the ancient nache given
to tho Indus region. The Mesopotamian texts
speak of two Intermediate trading stations
called Dilmun and Makan, which lay between
Mesopotamia and Melua. Dilmun can probab-
ly bo identifed with Bahrav on the Persian
Gulf. Thousands of graves avait excavation in
that port city

52. 40

Political Organization

We have no clear idea about the political
organization of the Harappans. In sharp con-
trast to Egypt and Mesopotemma no templos

66 Mother-podéts, Mobeni dora

ANCIENT INDIA

have been found at any Harappan site We
have no religious structures of any kind excep,
tho Great Bath, which may have been used fo
ablutions, Therefore it would de wrong t
think that priests ruled in Harappa, as they die
in the cits of Lower Mesopotamia. There ar
some indications of the practice of fre cult a
Lothal m Gujrat m the Inter phase, but m
temples were used for the purpose. Perhaps the
Happen sul ware more cool wit

than with conquests, and Harappı,

Vas posi ruled ty a loss of merchant,

Religious Practices

In Harappa numerous terracotta figurines of
‘women have been found. In one figurine a plant
\s shown growing out of the embryo of a woman.
Probably the ımage represents the goddess of
earth, and it was intimately connected with the
onsin and growth of plants The Harappans
therefore looked upon the carth as a fertility
goddess and worshipped her in the same manner
as the Egyptians worshipped the Nile goddess

* Isis. But wo do not know whether the Harappans

vere a matnarchal people like the Egypt
In Egypt the daughter inherited the throne or
property, but we do not know about the nature
of inheutance in the Harappan society.

Some Vedic texts show reverence to tho earth
goddess, although she is not given any pro-
xowmenes. Ut took a long time for the worship of
the supreme goddess to develop ın Hinduism,
Only from the sixth century À D. various
mother-goddesses such as Durga, Amba, Kad,
Chad, etc, cere to be regarded as goddesses
in the Puranas and ın the Tantra literature
la couse of ume erry vigo came to hate
its own separate goddess.

‘The Male Deity in the Indus Valley

The male deity 1s represented on a seal
This god has three heads and has horns. He i
represented ın the suing posture of a yogi
placing ono foot on the other. This god is sur-

53. THE ARAPPAN CIVILIZATION a

rounded by an elephant, a tiger, a thinoceros,
and has & buffalo below his throne, At his
feat appear two doer The scal immediately
tecalls to our mind tho traditional image of
Pasupati Mahadova, The four animals surtoun~
ding the god look towards the four directions
of the earth, They may have served as vehicles
for gods, because ın later Hinduism every god
15 supposed to have his own conveyance foL his
movements In addition to the use of the image

the phallus worship, which became so intinate-
ly connected with Siva ın later umes. Numor-
ous symbols of the phallus and female sex
‘organs mado of stone have been found ın Harap=
pa. They were possibly meant fo wo:ship.
The Rig Veda speaks of the non-Asyun people,
who wore phallus worshippeis. The phallas
worstup which started in the days of Harapps
came to be recognized as a respectable form
of worshup ın Hindu society.

‘Tree and Animal Worship

‘The people of the Indus region also worshipp-

ed trees The picture of a god is represented on

a seal in the midst of the Branches of the papal

This tree continues to be worshipped to this
day.

Animals were also worshipped in Harappan
times, and: many of thera aro represented on
seals. The mest important of them is the hump-
ed bull, Even today, witen-such a bull passes
in the market streets the pious Indians give way
10,1 Simlary the anumals surrounding Pesupati
Mahadeva indicate that these were worshipped.
Obviously the inhabitants of the Indus region
worshipped gods in the form of trees, animals
and human beings. But the gods were not placed
Im temples, a practice which was common in
ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, Nor can
‘we say anything about the religious belisís of
the Harappans without being able to read their
senpt, Amulets have been found in large num-
ders. Probably the Harappans believed that

ghosts and evil forces were capable of harming
them and therefore used amulets against them,
‘The Atharva Veda, which 1s considered to be a
non-Aryon work, contains many charms and
spells, and recommends amulets for warding
Of diseases and evil forces

‘The Harappan Seript
‘The Herappans invented the act of wnting
like the people of ancient Mesopotamia.
Although tho eauliest specimen of Harappan
script was noticed in 1853 and the completo
senpt discovered by 1923, it has not boen decı-
pphered so far. Some try to connect 1 with the
Dravidian or the proto-Dravidian language,
others with the Sanskrit language, and stil
others with the Sumerian language, but none of
these readings is satisfactory. As the seript has
not been daciphered, we cannot judge the Harap-
pan contribution to literature, nor can We
Say anything about their idees and belits.
Unlike the Egyptians and Mosopotamians,
the Harappans did not write Jong inscriptions,
Most msemptions were recorded on seals, and
contain only a few words. Those seals may have

54. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

been used by propectiod people to mark ang
lidenofy there private property. Altogether me
Have about 250 fo 400 pictographs, and in tbe
form of a picture cach letter stands for some
‘sound, idea or object. The Harappan sent
lis not alphabeica! but maunly pietogeaphis
| Actompts have been made to compare it wit
¡the contemporary scripts of Mesopotamia and
| Baypt: But it isthe indigenous product of the
Indus region, and does not show any connection
with the scripts of Western Asia,

Weights and Measures
‘The kuowledge of script must have helped the

recording of private property and the keeping
lof accounts. The urban people of the Indus
¡region also needed and used. weights and me
À sures for trado and other transactions, Numer
lous articles used for woights have been found,
They show that o weighing mostly 16 or its
multiples were used; for instance, 16, 64, 160,
1320-and 640. Interestingly the tradition of 16
‘has continued in India til modera timos and
(su recently 16 annas made one rupes. The
‚1 Harappans also knew the art of measurement.
IWe have como across sticks inscribed with
measure marks; ono of these is mado of bronzs,

Harappan Pottery

‘Tho Harappans were great experts in the
uso of the potter's wheol We come across
‘numerous pots painted ia various colour.
Harappa pots wore generally decoratod with
the designs of trees and circles, The images of
men aro also found on some pottery fragments,

Seals

‘The greatest artistic creations of the Harap-
pan culture ate the seals, About 2000 seals
have been found, and of these a great majority
carry short insenptions with pictures of the
e one-horned bull, the buffalo, the tiger, tho
69 Bur Sea, Monero rhinocecos, the goat and tho olephant. z

55. “THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION 4°

Ba

610. Seal from Kahbangar

BS

‘Tue Hacappan artisans made beautiful images
of metal. A woman dancer made of bronze is
‘the best specimen. Except for a necklace she 15
naked We get a few pieces of Harappan stone
sculptures One steatite statue wears an orna-
mented robe over the left shoulder and under
the right arm, and its short locks at the back
of tho head are kept tidy by a wovon fillet.

‘Terracotta Figurines

We get many figurines made of fire-baked
earthen clay, commonly called terracotta. These
were either used as toys or objects of worship.
They represent birds, dogs, sheep, cattle and
monkeys. Men and women also find place, and
the second outnumber the first. The seals and
images were manufactured with great skill, but
the terracotta pieces represent unsophisticated.
artistic works. Tho contrast between the two
sets indicates tho gap betweon the classes which
used them. The first were used by members of
‘tho upper classes, and the second by the common
people, The Harappan culture is poor in artis-
tic works made of stone. We do not come
across any massive work of art in stone as we
find in the case of sculptures of anciónt Egypt
and Mesopotamia.

Origio, Maturity and End

‘The Harappan culture existed between 2500
B.C. and 1750 B.C. Its mature phase lay between

¡2200 BC. and 2000 BC, but throughout the

period of its existence rt seems to Rave rotained
ithe same kind of tools, weapons and houses.
(The whole style of Ife appears to be uniform.
We notice the same town-planning, the same
seals, the same toreacotta works, and tho same
¡long chart blatos But the view stressing
¡changelossness cannot be pushed too far. We
‘do notice changes 1m the pottery of Mohenjo-
aro over a period of time. Around 1750 B, C.
the two important cites of the Harappan cale
oro, Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, disappeared,
but the Hareppan culture at other sites faded
out gradually and continued im its degenerate
phase in the outlying fringes in Guyarat, Rayes-
than and western, Uttar Pradesh.

Tt is as difficult to explain the origin of the
Harappan culture as its end. Several pre-Harap-
pan sattloments have been found in Baluchis
tan and in Kalibangan in Rajasthan, but the,
connection between them and the mature
Harappan culture is mot clear, though the
Harappan culture may hava evolved out of
these indigenous settioments. Nor do we have
clear proof of outside influence on the Harap-
pan cities. Contact with tie Mesopotamian
cities may have provided some stimulus to the
development of tho Harappan culture. But
there can be no doubt about the Indiannoss
of the Harappan culture. Cortam elements
distinguish it from the contemporary cultures
in Western Asia, Tt planned its towns with
their chess-board system, streets, drainage
pipes and cess pits. On the other hand the
Mesopotamian cities show a haphazard growth.
Rectangular houses with brick-lined bathrooms
and weils together with their stairways are
found in all Harappan cities, Such town-plar
ing ls not to be found in the cities of Western
Asie. No other people in antiquity had built
such an excellent drainage system except perhaps.
oso of Creta in Knossos, nor did the people

of Western Asia show such skill in the uso of
burnt bricks as the Harappans did. The Harap-

56. 4 ANCIENT
pans produced their own characteistic pottery
and seals, tho latter ropresonted tho Local anal
world. Abow all, they invented their own
typical sent, which bears no resemblance
to the Egyptian and Mesopotamian scripts
Although the Harappan cultare was a Bronze
‘Age culture, thoy used bronze on a very mitad:
scal, and largely continued to uso stone im
plements. Finally, no contemporary culture
spread over such a wide arca as the Harappan
aulture did. The structures of Harappa cover
5 km in car, andın that way are the largest
of their type m the Bronze Age No urban
complex of the Hetappan magnitude has been
discovered so fat

While the ancient cultutes of Mesopotamia
continued to oxst even after 1750 BC, the
Harappan culture disappeared at about that

us causes have been suggested.

2 Ht 10 the deercasing fertility on
account of the increasing salinity of the soil
caused by the expansion of the neighbouring.
desert Others attribute ıt to a sudden subs
dence or uplift of the land which caused floods.
And still others point out that the Harappan
culture was destroyed by the Aryans.

In the later phases of the Harappan culture,
some exotic tools and pottery indicate the slow

INDIA

porcolation of new peoples ın the Indus basin,
À few signs of insecurity and violence appear
an the last phase of Mohenjo-daro. Hoards of
jewellery were buried at places, and skulls were
hudiled together at ono place We also notice
new types of axes, daggers, knives with mid-
vibs and flat tangs appear in the upper levels
of Mohenjo-daro Although basically they
seam to be Indian, they may betray somo foreign.
anfluence, Traces of new peoples appear ın a
cemetery belonging to the late phase of Harappa,
‘where new kinds of pottery occu: ın the iatest
levels, New types of pottery also occur in some
Hauappan sites in Baluchistan At several sis
in Panjab and Haryana Pamted Grey Wate,
generally associated wılh Vedie people, has bean
found ın conjunction with some fate Harappan
pottery. All this can be attrıbuted to the bare
‘arian horsoxiding people who may have come
from Iran through the his. But tha new peoples
did not come in such numbers as to completely
overwhelm the Harappan cits in Panjab
and Sindh Although the Rig Vedic Aryans
settled down mostly in the land of the Seven
Rivers, in which the Harappan culture once
flourished, wo have no evidence of any mass-
scala coaftontation between the Harappans
and tho Aryans

‘EXERCISES

1, How were the Harappan itis plannod?

culture called the Bronze Age culture?

Describe the sources of the Ivellhood of the Harappan people.
Give an account of the crafts and technology of the Harappans. Why ıs the

4. Write a note on the religious practices of the Harappans.

5. Give an account of the Hareppan pottery and terracotlas,
Account for the end of ths Harappan civilization.

57. CHAPTER 7

Advent of the Aryans and the Age of the Rig Veda

Onginal Home and Identity

The Aryans spoke the Indo-European langue
ges, which ate current sn changed! forms all
ovel Europe, Iran and the gieater part of
the Indian subcontinent. Originally the Aryans
seem to have lived somewhere ın the aren east
of the Alps, in the region known as Eurasia
Certain names of animals such as goats, dogs,
horse, ete, and names of certain plants such
as pine, maple, etc, are similar to on another
in all the Indo-European languages These
common words indicate the fauna and flora
of Eutasia They show that the Aryans were
acquaınted with rivers and forests Cunously
enough, common words for mountains exist
only an a few Aryan languages although the
Aryans crossed many hulls. Their earliest
life seems to have boon mamly pastoral, agrı-
culture being 2 secondary occupation. The
Aryans did not lead a settled fo, with tho
rosult that they could not leave behind any
solid material remams. Although the Aryans
used several anımals, the horse played the
most significant role in their ifo. Its swiftness
enabled them and some albed peoples to make
successful inroads into Western Asia from
about 2000 BC. onwards,

On their way to India the Aryans first appear-
od in Iran, whore the Indo-Iranians lived for a
long time. We know about the Aryans in India
ftom the Rig Veda, which is the earhest specı-
men of the Indo-European language. The

Rg Veda is a collecuon of prayers offered to
‘Agni, Indra, Mitre, Varuna and other gods
by vatious mites of poets or sages. Ht consists
of ten mundalas oF books, af which Books IE
to VII form its calisst portions Books I and
X seem to have boon the latest additions. The
Rig Veda has many tings an common with
‘the Avesta, which isthe oldest text in the asian
language The two texts use the seme names
for several gods and evon for social classes
Some Aryan names mentioned in the Kassite
inscriptions of 1600 BC. and the Mitaom
inscriptions of the fourteonth century BC.
found an Iraq suggest that from Iran a branch
of the Aryans moved towards the west,

A little earher than 1500 B.C the Aryans
appeared in India We do not find clear and
definite archaeological traces of their advent.
Possibly they used socketed axes, bronze dicks
and swords, which have been discovered in
northewestern India. The earliest Aryans lived
in the geographical area covered by astern
Afghanistan, Panjab and fringes of western
Uttar Pradesh. Some rivers of Afghanistan such
as the rivor Kubha, and the river Indus and its
five branches, ate mentionad in the Rig ed.
‘The Sindhu, identical with the Indus, is
the river par excellence of the Aryans, and it is
repeatedly mentioned, Another river mentioned
1s tho Serasvat, now lost in the sands of Rajas-
than; the area represented by itis covered by
the Ghaggar river. Possibly the Aryans obtained

58. 4 ANCIENT INDIA

Copper from the Kio minos of Rajasthan.
‘The whole region wm which the Aryans fist
seiled an Tata is callod tho Land of tha Suven
Rivets.

‘Tho Acyans came 10 dia in several waves.
‘Tho earliest ave 1s repond by the Rig
Vedic people, who appeared in the suboontment
in about 1500 B.C They came into confit
with the mdigonous rohabitants called the
desas, dasyus, ete Sines tha dasas are also
mentioned im the ancient Iranıan Ütorature,
they seem to have bean a branch of the early
Aryans. The Rig Veda mentions tha defeat of
Sambar by Divodasa, who belongod to the
‘Bhmata clan, In this case the torm dasa appears
in the name Divodasa. Possibly the dasyus 1
the Rig’ Veda soprosont tho original inhabi-
‘tants of the country, and an Aryan chief who
overpowered them was called Trasadasyu, Tho
Aryan chiof was soft towards the dasas, but
strongly hostile 10 the dasyue. The term dasyue
hatya, sinughter of the darpus, ls repeatedly
mentionod in the Rig Veda. The despus possi
bly worshipped the phallus and did not keep
atte for dairy products,

Tribal Conflits

We know lilo about tho weapons of the
adveisaras of the Aryan peoples, although wo
‘hear of many defeats inflicted by Indra on the
memes of the Avant In tho Rig Veda Indra
is calod Purandara, which moans that ho was
the Break of Forts. But wo cannot identity
‘the forts held by the pre-Atyans; some of them
may have been Harappan settlements. However,
¿hero a no doubt about the Arjun suc,
and thoso came becauın the Aryans pomersed
harots drive by horse, and introdacod them
ortho Gist ume into West Asia and India The
‘Aryan solis wero probably equipped also
‘with coats of mail (varman) and better arms.

‘Tho Aryans Were angagod in two types of
confits: Aes thay fougne with tho pre-Anyans,
arid secondly, thay fougit amongst (hemsshe,

Intra-teibel conflicts rocked the Aryan communi
tues for a long timo, Divided into five tribe
callod panchayana, the Aryans fought amongst
thomsclves and somotimes enlisted the support
of the non-Atyan peoples for the purpose
‘The Aharalas and the Tetsu wore the ruling
Aryan cs, and toy were supported by pint
Vasishtha The country Bharatavarsha was
eventaally named after the tor Bherata, which
appears ft un the Rig Veda. Tho Bharata coling
clan was opposed by a host of ten kings, fie
of whom were heads of. Aryan tribes and the
renaining five of non-Aryan peoples. The
battle that was fought betwoon the Bharatas
fon the one hand and the host of ten kings on
the other is Kaown as tho Battle of Ton Kings
This battlo was fought on the civor Parushni,
dental with the rivor Ravi, and it gavo victory
to Sudas and ostablishod the supremecy of the
Bhasatag OF the dofeated tribes the most im
portent was that of the Purus. Subsequently
the Pharatas joined hands with the Paros and
formed a now ruling tbo called the Kurus. The
the Panchalas, and
‘they together established theierulo in the upper
Gangoie basin whore they played an impor:
tant part in Iatar Vedio timos,

Material Tife

We can form some ¡dea of the material tite
of the Rig Vodic Aryans. They owed their
success in India to their possession of horses,
chariots and also possibly somo better arms
nada of bronze of which wa have no archaeologi-
cal evidence When they settled in the western
part of the subcontinent, they possibly used
Copper supplied by the Khetti mines in Rajas-
than. The Rig Vedic people possessed better
Anowledgo of agriculture, Plouglishare is men
tioned inthe carisst pastofthe Aig Veda though
some consider it an Interpolation. Possibly
this ploughshare was mado of wood. They were
acquainted with sowing, harvesting and thro-
Sting, and knew about the different seasons.

59. ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND THE AGE OF THE RIO VEDA a

Jn pte of al thi there ate so many references
to the cow in the Rig Veda that the Rig Vo
Aryans seem to have been e pastoral people.
Most of their wars wore fought for the sake of
cows. ‘Tho term for war in the Rig Veda.is
avi or search for cows. The cow seems to
fave beon the most important form of weelth,
and whenever we hear of gifts made fo priests
Js stated terms of cows and women slaves
and ever in terms of the messuroment of land.
Tho Rig Vedio people may have occasionally
oczupied pioss of land, but land did not form
3 wollestablished type of private propeuy

“The Rig Veda mentions such artisans as the
cagponter, the chaciot-maker, the weaver, the
leather worker, the potter, ote This indicates
that they practised al these crafts: Tae term
ayas" used for copper or bronze shows that
melalworking was known. But we lave no
clear evidence of the existence of trade. It 15
doubtful whether the Aryans were acquainted
rath sea 01 ocean, because the word sumudra
mentioned in the Rig Veda mainly denotes a
collection of water At any cate the Aryans did
notlveja ities, possibly thay lve in some kind
of fortified mud settlements which stil avait to
be identiñed satisfactorily by tho archaeologists.

Revontly a sio called Bhagwanpure has been
escavatod in Haryana and thres sits in Panjab,

+ and in all these cases Paintéd Grey Ware has
¿sen found along with Yate Harappan' pottery.
The dato assigned to the Bhagwanpura finds
ranges from 1600 B.C. to 1000 B.C, which
is also roughly the period of the Rig Veda.
‘The geographical area of these four: sites also
coincides with that of a good portion of the
area represented by the Rig Veda. Although
‘Painted Grey Ware has been found at all these
sites, nether Iron objects nor ceroals have beon
encountered. We may therefore think of a pre-
Iron phase of the PGW which coincided with
the Rig Vedic phase. It is interesting to nots
that at Bhagwanpura a thirten-roomed mud
house has been discovered. This might indicate

eather a house for a large extended family or
for a tribal chiof. Cattle bonos have been found
in good quantity in all these stos

Tribal Polity

“The admnwstratico machinery of the Aryans
in die Rig Vedie period worked with the tribal
chief in the contre, besaise of his successful
leadership un war. He was cad roya. I sams
hat ın the Rig Vedhe period tse King's post was
hereditary. However, the king did not exercise
unlimited power, For he had to reckon with the
Abal organizations. Although his post vas
Reroditary, we have also some traces of election
by tho bal assombly called the sam: The
Xing was called the protector of his rbb. He
protected ts cattle, fought 15 wars and offered
prnyers to gods on sts behalf

vera tribal assemblios such as: the sabho,
sai, wdatha, gana are mentioned inthe Rig
Veda. These assemblies excrosed deliberative,
miltary and regions functions. Even women
ationded the sabhe and siditha x. Rig Vedio

165. But the two most important assomblis
from the politcal point of view seem to have
been the sable and the som. These two
were so Important that the kings ahowad sugar.
mess 10 win their support

Tn the day-to-day administration, the king
was assistad by a few functionaries. The most
important funclionary seems to have’ been the
purohita The two priests who played a major
part ın the time of Rig Veda aro Vasshtha
and Visyamitra, They inspired the tribal chief
to actiow and lauded their exploits in return for
handsome rewards in cows and women slave.
‘The next important funetionary seems to bo
the senan, who used spears, axes, swords, ete,
We do uot come across any oficor concerned

ih the collection of taxes. Probably the
princes received from the people. voluntary
cfocings called bale: Presents and spoils,
of 'war ‘were porhaps distrbuted in some
Vedie assombliss. The Rig Veda dos not

60. 8 ANCIENT INDIA

mention any offer for administering justi.
But it was not an ideal society There were
cases of theft and burglary, and especially we
‘ear of the theft of cows, Spies were employed
10 keep an eye on such unsocial actwiis.

‘The tiles of the oficiels do not indicate
their administration of erntocy. However,
some offers seem to have been attached to
territories, They enjoyed positions of authority
Jn tho pastre grounds and settled villagss, The
‘officer who enjoyed authorty over the pasture
round 15 called wrafipat. Ho led the heads of
the famıhes called ulpas, or the heads of the
fighting hordes called gramanis, to battle. In the
beginning the gramanı was just the head of à
smalt til fighting unit, But when the unt
settled the graman became the head of the
village, and in course of time he became ıdantı-
cal with the wrapati

The king did nos mainta any regular or
standing army, but m tyes of war ha mustored
à miliéa whose military functions were per
formed by diffrent tribal groups fled vara,
gana, grama, sardha. By and large it was a
trial system of government ın which the mii
tary element was strong. There was no cil
system or territorial administración. because
people were in a stage of perpotual expansion,
migrating ftom one area to another.

Tribe and Family

Kinship was the basis of social structure, and
a man wos identified by the clan to which he
‘belonged, as can be soen in the names of several
Rig Vedic kings. People gave Shar primary
loyalty to the tribe, which was called Jana.
‘Tho term jana occurs at about 275 places in the
Rig Veda, and the term janapada or territory
is not used even once. The people were attached
to the tribe, since tho territory or the Kingdom
was not yet ostablished

Another important term which stands for the
tribe in the Rig Veda is vis Tt is mentioned 170
‘times in that text, Probably the vis was divided

into groma or smaller tribal units meant for
Aghting. When the gramas clashed with one
another it caused samgrama or war. Tho most
numerous varna of vaisya arose out of the vis
or the mass of the tribal people

The term for family (kula) 1s mentioned
rarely in the Rig Veda. It comprised not only
mother, father, sons, slaves, et, but many
more people also It seems that family ın early
Vedic phase was indicated by the term griha,
which Frequently occuts in this text. Im the
‘earliest Indo-European languages the same
term 1s used for nephew, grandson, cousm,
te This would mean that differentiation ın
family relationships leading to the setting up
of separate houscholds had not proceeded
far, and tho family was a very large joint unit.
e was obviously a patriarchal family headed
by the father, as was the case in the Roman
society Tt seams that sovera! generations of the
fumly lived under the same roof Because it
was a patriarchal society, the birth of a son
was desired age and again, and especialy
people prayed to the gods for brave sons to
fight tho wars In the Jig Veda no desire is
expressed for daughters, though the desire for
chilien and casio is a securrent theme ıh the
hymns.

‘Women could attend assemblies. They could
offer stenfces along with their husbands We
havo an instance of five women who composed
hymns although the Inter texts mention 20
such women, Obviously the hymns were com-
posed orally, and nothing written belongs to
that period.

“The institution of marriage was established,
although symbols of primitive practices survived.
We hear of a proposal made by Yami, the
twinsister of Yama, for establishing love
relations, but the offer is ressted by Yama.
We have some indications of polyandry. For
snstanee, the Maruts are stated to have enjoyed
Rodasi, and the two Asvin brothers are ropresen-
ted as ling with Surya, the daughter of tho

61. ADVENT OF THE ARYANS AND

sun god. But such instances are not too many.
Possibly they indicate matnlineal traces, and
we have a few instances of sons being named
after their mother, as ın the case of Mamateya,

We also notice the practice of levirate and
widow remarriage in the Rig Veda There are
no examples of child-macriage, and the mar-
riageable age ım the Rig Veda seems to
have been 16 to 17

Social Divisions

"The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of
the physical appearance of people in north-
westera India ın about 1500-1000 BC. Varna
was the term used for colour, and it
seems that the Aryans were fair and the in
digonous habitants dark ın compleuon The
colour distinction may have partlly given
ise to social orders, but sts importance has
bein exaagerated by those western writers who
believe ın racial distinctions. The factor whieh
contributed most to the creation of social
dwisions was the conquest of the indigenous
Ímhabitants by the Aryans, The dasas and the
desyus, who were conquered by the Aryans,
were treated as slaves and sudres, The tribal
chiofs and the priests acquired a larger share of
the booty, and they naturally grow at the cost
of the common people, which created social
inequalities ın the tribe Gradually the tribal
society was divided into threo groups—warniors,
priests and the people—on the same pattern
as in Iran The fourth division called the sudras
appeared towards the end of the Rig Vedic
period, because it ıs mentioned for the first
time ın the toath Book of the Rig Veda, which
is the latest addition.

We repeatedly hear of slaves who were gtven
as gifts to the priests. They were malaly women
slaves employed for domestic purposes It is
clear that in Rig Vedic times slaves were not
used directly in agriculture or other producing
activites.

a the age of the Rig Veda divisions based on

THE AGB OF THE RIG VEDA 0
‘occupations had started But ths division was
not very sharp We hear of a family ın which a
member says “Tam a poet, my father is a
physician, and my mother 1s a grinder Earning
Ivelibood through different means we hve
together . ” We hear of gifts of catle, chariots,
horses, slaves, ete Unequal distribution of
the spoils of war created social mequalities,
and this helped the rıse of princes and priests
at the cost of the common tribal people,
But since economy was mainly pastoral and
not food-producing, the scope for collecting.
regular tributes from the people was Very
Iunuted. We do not find gifts of land and even
those of cereals are raro Wo find domestic
slaves, but not the wage-earners Tribal elements
in society were stronger und social

based on collection of taxes or accumulation of
landed property were absent. The socioty was
stil tribal and largely ogehtarıan

Rig Vedic Gods

Every people discovers. ts religion m ats
surroundings. The Aryans found it dificult to
explain the advont of rains, the appearance of
the sun and the moon, and the exstence ofthe
mer, mountains, ofc. So they porsoniied
these natural forces and locked upon them as
living beings to whom they gave human or
animal attributs We have a large number of
such divintes ın tho Az Vedo, whichis full of
ymas composed un their honour by the poets
of various families The most emportant divinity
sn the Rig Veda s Indra, who 1 called Purandara
or breaker of Forts, Indra played tho role of a
warord, leading the Aryan soldirs to victory
agamst the demons Two hundred and Aly
hymns are devoted to him. Ho is considered to
bo the rain god and thought to be responsible
for causing. tanfull Tho second position is
occupred by Agni (fre god) to whom 200 hymns
are devoted. Fire played a significant par in
the life of the primitive peoples because of its
use in burning forests, cooking, etc. The cult

62. 50 ANCIENT INDIA

of fire commanded an important place not
only in India but also m Tran, In Vedie times
Agni acted as a kind of intrmediary betwoon
the:gods on the one hand and the people on
the otter. Tho_oblaons oifer to Agn were
supposed to be carciod ia the form of smoke to
the sky, and thus transmited to the gods. The
third Important positon ıs occupied by Varuna
who pecsonifed water. Varuna Was supposed to
‘uphold th natural order, ad whatever happen
où in the word was thought o bs the refschon,
of hs desires Soma was considered to bo the
god of plants, and an intoxicatmg drink 1
named after tum, The Rig Veda Has à large
number of hymns, which oxpla the propara-
on of tis drink from plants that have not
‘oon satisfactorily demuñod so far, Tho Maruts
person the storm ‘Thus wo have a large num
bar of gods, who represent the different forces
of nature in one form or another, but are also
assigned human actvies

We also find some femalo diviutis such as
‘Aditi, and Ustas who represented the appoar-
anco of the dawn But thoy wore not prominent
in the time of the Aig Veda; ın the patrarchal

setup of the period the malo gods were far
moto important than the ferais.

The dominant mode of worshipping. the
gods was through the recitation of prayers and
offing of sacrifices. Prayers played an 1m
portant part in Rig Vedic umes Both collective
and individual prayers were made Originally
every wibe or clan wes the votary of a speci
god. It seems that prayers wero offered to
ods un chorus by the members of a whole
tbe. This also happened ın the caso of sacı-
fees Agni and Indra were uvited to partake of
sacnfies made by ‚the whole tribe (sana)
‘Ofisrngs of vogotablos, barley, te, were made
to gods But Rig Vedic times tho procass was
mot accompanied by any ritual or sacrificial
formule, At this stage the exegial power of
the word was nat considered so important as
it cams to be in later Vedic times: Why did
people worship gods in the time of the Rig
Veda ? They did not worshup gods for their
spuatual uplift or for ending the mseries of
cxisionco. Thuy asked mainly for pray (Child
zen), pas (cate), food, wealth, health, ete

EXERCISES .

come to India?

What is meant by the Aryans? Where did they Ive originally and how did they

2. Give an account of the material Ifo of the Rig Vedie people sit correct to coll

‘them an agricultural commumty?

3 Describe the politcal organization in the age of the Aig Veda To what extent

was it tribal 1m character?

Why is the Rig Vedro society called tribal and patriarchal?
‘What gods did the Rig Vedio people worship and why?

63. CHAPTER 8

The Later Vedic Phase :

Transition to State and

Social Formation

Expansion in-the Later Vedic Period
(e. 1000-600 B.C)

‘The hustory of the later Vodie period 1s based
marron the Vedie texts which wore compiled
after the age of the Ruz Veda, The collections
‘of the Vedic hymns or mantas woro known as
the Sambilas The Rig Veda Sumhıta 1s the

oldest Vedic text, on the basis of which we [A

have described the early Vode age. For purposes
of singing, the prayers of the Rig Veda were
set to tune, and this modified. collection was
known as the Sama Veda Samhita, In addition
to the Sama Veda, m post-Rıg Vedie times two
‘other collections were composed These were
the Your Veda Samhıla and the Atharva Veda
Sambita Tho Yawr Veda contains not only
hymas but also rituals which have to aocom-
pany their rocıtation, The rituals reflect the
social and poltical mieu ın watch they arose,
‘The Atharva Veda contains chaims and spells
to ward off evıl and diseases Its contents throw
light on the belefs and practices of the hon-
Aryans. The Vedic Samhitas were followed by
the composition of a sehes of texts known as
the Brahmanes. These are full of utalıstic
formulae and explain the social and religious
aspects of rituals’ All these later Vedio texts
werd compiled m the upper Gangetic basin in
area 1000-600 BC In the same period end ın
the same area, digging “and exploration have
brought to light nearly 500 sites inhabited for
the first timo, These art called: Painted Grey

81 Panted Grey Wave

Ware (PGW) sites because they were inhabited
by people who uscd carthen bowls and dishes
made of pantod grey potisry They also used
iron weapons. With the combined evidence
From the later Veduo texts and PGW iron-phase
archacology we can form an idea of the life of
the people ia the first half ofthe frst millennium
BC. in western Uttar Pradesh and adjoining
areas of Panjab, Haryana and Rajasthan,
The texts show that the Aryans expanded
from * Panjab over the whole of western

64. a

Uttar Pradesh covétod by the Gangs-Yanuna
doab The Bharatas and Porus, the WO major
tribes, combined and thus formed, the: seam”
people In the beginning: they fived between
the Sarasvati and the Drishadvatı just on the
fringe of the doa. Soon the Kurus occupied
Delhi and the upper portion of the doab, the
area called Kurukshetsa or the land of the
Kurus Gradually they coalesced with a people
called the Panchalas, who occupied the ruddlo
portion of the cond The authority of the Kurt
Panchala people spread over Delhi and the
upper and middle pacts of the doab. They
set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in
tho disriet of Mosrut, The history of the Kuru
tube is important for the battle of the Bharata,
‘hich 1 the main theme of the great epic called
the Mahabharata. This war is supposed to have
been fought around 950 B.C. between the
Kauravas and the Pandavas, although both of
them belonged to the Kura clan As a result
practically the whole of the Kura clan was
wiped out.

Excavations at Hastinapur, datablo to the
period 900 B.C. to 500 B.C, have revealed
settlements and faint begnaings of town lu
But they do not at all answer the deseription of
Hastinapur in the Mahabharata because the
epic was finally compiled much later in about
the fourth century A.D. when material le had
advanced much. In Inter Vedic times people
‘hardly knew the use of borat bricks The mud
structures that have been discovored at Hastina-
pur could not be imposing and testing,, From
‘traditions we learn that Hastınapur was fooded,
and the remnants of the Kuru cian moved to
Kausambi near Allahabad.

Tho Panchala kingdom, which covered the
modern districts of Barelley, Badaun and Faru-
Khabad, is famous for its philosopher Kings and
brabmana theologians

Towards the end of the later Vedie period,
around 600 B. C. the Vedic people spread from
the doab further cast to Kosala m oastera Uttar

Ks ANGENT INDIA,

Pragggh and Vidoha in north Bihar. Although
Kasalarıs associated with the story of Rar,
Ke is not mentioned in Vedic ‘itorature. I
castorn Uttar Pradesh and north Bihar th
Vedic people had to contend against a peopl
‘who used copper implements and the black-and
‘ed earthen pots. Tn wostern Uttar Pradesh they
possibly came up against the people who use
pots of ochre or red colour and copper imple
ments: they had been living there from about
1800 BC They possibly also encountered thm
habitations of some people using black-and-ced
ware. Iris suggostod that at a few places they
came against the users of the late Hacappan
culture, but these people seem to represent a
conglomerate culture which cannot be charac-
terised as purely Harappan Whoever be the
‘opponents of the later Vedic peoples evidently
ey did not occupy any largo and compact!
area.and their mumbor in the upper Gangetic
basin does not soem to have been large. The
Vedic people succeeded in the second phase of
their expansion because they used iron Weapons
and horse-dravn chariots,

‘The PGW--Iron Phase Culture and
Later Vedie Economy

From around 1000 B.C, iron was used in
the Gandhara area in Pakistan Iron smplements
‘buried with dead bodies have been discovered
in good numbers. They have also been found in
Baluchistan At about the same time the use of
iron appeared in eastern Panjab, western Uttar
Pradesh acd Rajasthan. Excavations show
that icon weapons such as arrow-heads and
spoar-heads came to be commonly used im
Western Uttar Pradesh from about 800 B.C,
With iron weapons the Vedic people may have
defeated the few adversario: that may bave
faced them ın the upper portion of the doab,
‘The ston axe may hava been used to clear the
forests in the upper Gangetic basin, although
because of ramfall ranging between 35 cm
10 65 cm these forests may not have been 50

65. THE LATER YEDIC PHASE 33

—]

DISTRIBUTION

-OF
PAINTED GRAY WARE

66. 5 atom mon

DE

NO

22 hon Ok fem POW Lan Aral

thick, Towards the end of the Vedic period
knowledge of iron spread ın eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Videhe. fron imploments have been
discovered in this area from the seventh century
BC, and the metal itself is called syama or
Krishna ayas ın the later Vedie tens.

Although very few agricultural tools made of
iron have boon found, there 15 no doubt that

ic people, Late Vedi texts
speak of sx, exght, twelve and even twenty-
four oxen yoked to the plough, This may be
fan exaggeration. Ploughing was done with the
help of the wooden ploughshace, which would
possibly work ım the light son of the upper
Gangetic basin, Enough bullocks could not ba
avalable because of cattle slaughter ın sacri-

|fces. Therefore agriculture was primitive, but

| [thoie is no doubt about sts wide prevalence.

The Satapatha Brahman speaks at length about
the ploughing rituals According “to ancient
legends Janaka, the king of Videha and father

| of Sita, teat his hand to the plough. In those
days even kings and prmces did not hesitate to
take to manual labour Balarama, the brother
ishna, is called Haladhara or wielder of
See plousiung came to be
| protubited for the members of the upper varnas,
The Vedic people continued to produce
barley, but during this period rice and wheat
became their chief erpps. In subsequent times

: wheat became the staple food of the people in
| Panjab and western Uttar Pradesh For the
* first ume the Vedie people came to be acquaint
ed with rics in the doab It 1s called wrih in
the Vedie texts, and ıts remains recovered from
Hastınapur belong to the eighth century B.C.
“The use of rice is recommended in rituals, but
that of wheat only sately. Various kinds of
¿Jentls were also produced by the later Vedie
{peo}
‘The later Vedis pariod saw the rise of diverse
arts and crafts. We hear of smiths and smelters,
who bad certainly to do something with iron
working from about 1000 B.C. Numerous

copper tools of the pro-1000 B C. period found

Vedie and non-Vedic societies. Tho Vedic
people may have used the copper mmes of
Khatri m Rajasthan. Ta any case copper was
one of the first metals to be used by the Vedic
people. Copper objects have been found sn.
Painted Grey Ware sites. They were used mainly
for war and hunting, and also for ornaments,

Weaving was confined to women but was
practised on a wide scale, Leather work, pot:
tery, and carpentar's work made great progress
The Inter Vedic people were acquainted with
four types of pottery: black-and-red ware,
black:slipped ware, painted grey ware and red

67. ‘THE LATER VEDIC PHASE 5

ware. The last type of pottery was most popular
with them, and has been found almost atl over.
western Uttar Pradesh. However, the most dis-
tinetive pottery of tha period 1s known as
Painted Grey Ware, It consisted of bowls and-
‘shes, which were used either for rtuals or for
eating or for both, but by the upper orders
Glass hoards and dangles found an the
PGW layers may have been used. as prestige
objects by a few persons On the whole
both Vodi texts and excavations indicate the
cultivation of specialized crafts. Jowel-workers
are also mentioned in later Vedie texts, and they
possibly catered to the needs of the. richeé

sections of society
Agrculture and varıous crafts enabled the
later Vedic people to lead a settled If. Excavar
tions and explorations give us Somo des about
settlements im later Vedio times Widespread
Painted Grey Ware sites are found not only in
western Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, which was
the Kuru-Panchala area, but also an the adjotn-
ang parts of Panjab and Haryana, which was the
Madra area and in those of Rajasthan, which
was the Matsya area Altogether we can count
nearly $00 sites, mostly betonging to the upper
Gangetic basin Only a few sites such as Hastina-
pur, Atranjikhera and Nok have been excavated,
Sines the tuckness of the matenal remains of
habitation ranges from one metre to three
metros, it seems that these settlements lasted from
fone to thres centurtos Mostly these were entirely
new settlements without having any immediate
lived in, mudbrick

and cereals (noe) recovered
from theses show that the Painted Grey Ware

people, who com to be the same as the later
Vedie people, were agricultural and led a settled
life But sine they cultivated with the wooden
ploughsharo, the peasaats could not produce
enough for feeding those who ware engaged in

other ocupations Henco peasants could not"

contributo mich to the rise of towns;
Although: the tornnagara 18 used in later

Vedie tests We can tice only tó Felt beginnings

of towns towards the end of thi Tater "elle

ter "Ve
period, Hastinapur and Kausambi (near Alaha-
bad) can be regañtéd as péimutiVa ns belo

ing to the end of the Vedit period. They may
be called proto-ufban ‘sites. The Védic texts
also refer to the seas ahd sea voyages’ This
suggests some kind of commerce’ which ‘may
have been stimulated by the rise of now arts
and crafts

‘On the whole the later Vedic phase registered
a great advance ın the material life of the people.
‘The pastoral and somi-nomadic formé of Ining
were relegated to the background Agriculture
became the primary source of livelihood, änd
life becarno settled and sedentary. Supplemented
by diverse arts: and crafts the Vedic’ people
now: settled down permanently ın the upper
Gangetic’ plans. The peasants living in the
plains produced enough to maintain themselves,
and they could also spare a marginal: part of
their produce for the support of princes and
priests

Political: Organization 3

In later Vedio times popular assembles-lost
in importance, and royal power increased. at
their cost The vidorha completely disappeared,
‘Tho tabhe and samırı continued to hold the
ground, but ‘their character “changed They’
came to be dominated by princes and ich
nobles «Women were no longer permitted, to
sit on the sabha, and 1 was now dominated by
nobles and brahmanas.

"The formaton ef wider kingdoms made ta
king more powerful. Tribal authotity tended:
16 become tertitorial. Princes ruled over tribes,
but their dominant tinbes became identical
territors,. which might be inhabited by tribes
other than théir own Invths beginning ‘each
arcaswas named after ¢he'tribe which settled
‘there. frst, but eventually tHe tribut name

68. 56 ANCIENT INDIA

became current as tho territorial name. At
first Panchala was the name of a people, and
then it became the name of a region. The teem,
rashtra, which indicates territory, first appears
in this period.

‘Theking’sinfluence was strengthened byrituals,
Hee performed the rajasuya sacrifice, which was
supposed to confor supremo power on him. He
performed the assamedha, which meant unques-
üoned contrél over an area in which the royal
horse sun ‘uninterrupted, He also performed
the vajapeya or the chariot race, in which the
royal chariot was made to win the race agaunst
his Kinsmen. All these rituals impressed. the
people with the increasing power and prestige
of the king

During this period collection of taxes and
tnbutes seems to have become com
mon, They were probably deposited with an
officer called sang Tho epics tell us that
st the tuno of big sacrifices large-scale distri
butions were made by the princes and all sec
tions of people were fed sumptuously. In the
discharge of his dutios the King was assisted by
the pres, the commander, the chief queen and
à fow other heh functionaries. At the Tower
dr atracos ves pot rá ca
by emblies, which may have been
controlled by ih chef ofthe dominant bes.
‘These assemblios were also entrusted with the
triat of local casos. But even in later Vedic
times the king did not possess a standing army.
Tribal units were mustered in times of war,
and, according to one ritual for success ın war
the King had to eat along with Jus people (ns)
from the same plate

Social Organization

‘The later Vedie society came to be divided
into four varaus called the brahmanas, rajanyas
or kshatriyas, vaisyas and sudras. The growing.
cult of actifs enormously added to the power
of the brahmanas In the begianing the brah-
mass were only one of the sixteen classes

of prests, but they gradually overshadowed
the other priestly groups and emerged as the
most important class. They conducted satus
and stories for their ents and for themselves,
and also officiated at the festivals associated
with agrcultural operations. They prayed for
the success of their patron in war, and in return
‘tho king pledged not to do any harm to them.
Sometimes the brahmanas came into conflict
with the rajanyas, who represented the order
of the warrior-mobles, for positions of supre-
macy But when the two upper orders had to
deal with the lower orders they made up th
ierences. From the end of the later Ve
period it began to be emphasized that the two
should cooperate to rule over the rest of society
‘The vaisyas constituted the common people,
and they were assigned the producing functions
such as agriculture, cattle-breeding, ete Some
‘of thom also worked as artisans Towards the
end of tho Vedic period they began to engage in
trado, The varyas appear to be the only tribute-
payers in later Vedic times, and the kshatriyas
are represented as living on the tributes collec-
ted from the vausyas The process of subjugat-
Ing the mass of the tribesmen to tho positon,
of tributepayors was long and protracted.
We have several rituals prescridod for making
the refractory people (pis or vaya) submissive
to the prince (rajanya). All the three higher
varzas shared one common feature; the) were
entitled to upanayıma or investiture with the
sacred thread according to the Vedic mantras.
‘The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred
‘thread ceremony, and with this began the
imposition of disabilities on the sudras

The prince, who represented the rajanya
order, tried to assert hs power over al the three
other varas, According to the Avareya Brah-
mana, a rlation to the prince the brahmana is
desenbad as a sooker of livelihood and an
acceptor of gifts but removable at will. A
valeya is called tribute-paying, eat for being
beaten, and 10 be oppressed at wal, The worst

69. THE LATER VEDIC PHASE s

position is reserved for the sudra. He 15 called
the servint of another, to bs made to work at
wall by another, and to be beaten at will

But generally the later Vedic texts draw a
line of demarcation between the three higher
orders on the one hand, and the sudras on the
other. There were, nevertheless, several public.
rntuals connected with the coronation of the
king in which the sudras participated, presum-
ably as members of the original tribe. Certain
sections of artisans such as rathakara or chariot
maker enjoyed a high status, and were entitled
to the sacred thread ceremony Therefore even
ın later Vedie times varna distinctions had not
advanced very fat

In the fanuly we notice the increasing power
of the father, who could even dismhent his
son In princely families the right of primo-
genture was getting stronger Male ancestors
came to be worshipped, Women were generally
given a lower position Although some women
theotograns took part ın philosophic discussions
and some queens participated in coronation
ıtuals, ordinarily women were thought 10 be
inferior and subordinate to men

The institution of goira appeared ın later
edie tomes Literally st moans the cow-pan or
the placo where cattle belonging to the whole
clan ate Kept, but in course of time tt signified
‘descent from a common ancestor. People began
to practise gotra exogamy. No marnage could
take place between persons belonging to the
seme goya or having the same ancestor.

Asramas ox four stages of life were not well
‘established in Vedic timos. In the post-Vedic
texts we hear of four asramas: that of brahma-
chart or student, grihasthe or householder,
vanaprastha or partial retirement and samyasa
or completa retirement from the world. But
only three ars mentioned in the later Vedio
texts, the last or the fourth stage had not been
well established in later Vedic. timos.

Gods, Rituals and Philosophy

In the later Yedic period the upper doad
developed to be the cradle of Aryan culture
under brahmanıcal ınfuenes. The whole of the
Vodie literatura seems to have been compiled
in this area in the land of the Kuru-Panchalas.
‘The cult of sacrifice was the corner-stone of this
culture and was accompanied by numerous
rituals and formulae.

‘The two outstanding Rig Vedio gods, Indra
and Agni, lost their former importance, On the
other hand Prajapati, the creator, came to
‘occupy the supreme position in the later Vedic
pantheon, Some of tho other minor gods of the
Rig Vedic period also came to the forefront
Rudra, the god of animals, became important
in Inter Vedic times and Vishne camo to be
concsived as th preserver and protector of the
people who now lod a settled life instead of a
seminomadie life as thoy did in Rig Vedic
times. In addition, some symbolic objects be-
gan to be worshipped, and we notice signs of
idolatry ın later Vedic times As society be-
came divided into social classes such as brat
mans, rajanyas, vsisyas and sudras, some of
the social orders came to have their own deities
Pushan, who was supposed Lo look after cattle,
came to be regarded as the god of the sudrus,
although in the age of the Rig Veda cat
reanng was the primary occupation of the
Aryans

People worshipped gods for tho same
material reasons in this period as they dit in
earlier times However, the mode of worship
changed considerably Prayors continued to
be recited, but they ceased to bo the dominant
mode of placating the gods, Sacrifices became
far more important, and they assumed both
public and domastie character, Public sacri-
fices involved the king and the wholo of the
community, which was still in many cases
identical with the tribo. Private sacrifices were
performed by individuals in their houses bo=
‘causa in this period the Vedic people lod à

70. 38 “ANCIENT INDIA +

sotted life and mpintained. woll-established
housoholds, Individuals offered oblations to
‘Agni, and each one of these took the form of a
ritual or: sacrifice.

‘Suctifces involved the killing of ammals on
a large scale and especially the destruction
of cattle wealth. The guest was known as
goghna or one who was fed on cat

Brakmanas were only one of the: sixteen
types of priests. The prests who officiated at
sactifices were rewarded generously and given
dakshinas or gifs.

Sucnflees Were accompanied by «formulas
which had to ba carefully’ pronounced by the
factficr. The sactiicer was known as the
‘yajamana, the performer-of yayna, and much
of his success depended on the magical power
of words uttered in the sacrifices. Some rituals
performed by the Vedic Aryans are common
10 the Indo-European peoples, but many rituals
seom to hava developed on the Indian soil

‘These formulae and sacrifices were ¿nvented,
adopted and elaborated by the priests called
the beahmanas The brahmunas, claimed a
monopoly of priestly knowledge and experte,
They mvented a largo number of rituats, somo
of which were adopted from the non-Aryans.
‘The reason for the invention and elaboration
of tha rituals 1s not clear, though mercenary:
‘motives cannot be ruled out, We hear that
as many as 240,000 cows were given as dak-
shina ot gilt to the officanng “priest m the
rajsıya sacsifice.

In addition to cows, which were usually
given as sacrificial gifs, gold, cloth and horses
were also given. Sometiines the priests clamed
portions of tortitory as dokshing, but the grant
of land as sacrificial fet is not well established
in the later Vedic period. The Satapatha Brah-
mana states that in the arramedha, north, south,
‘east and west, all Should ba given to the priest.
If this teally happened, then what would re-
‘main to the Kang? This therefore’ merély indı-
‘ates the desire of the priasts to grab as much

land as possible But really considerable trans-
fer of land to priests could not have taken
place. There 1s a reference where land, which
was being given to the priests, refused to be
transfarred to them

Towards the end of the Vedie period we
route a strong reaction against priestly don
ration, against cults and rituals, especially in
the land of the Puñchalas and Videha where,
around 600 B.C., the Upanishads were com
piled, These philosophical texts ctiticized the
rituals and Jard stress on the value of right
belief and knowledge They emphasized that
the knowledge of the self or arma should be
acquired and the relation of arma with Brahma.
BRoulá be properly understood. Brahma emer-
ged as the supreme god, comparable to the
powerful kings of the period. Some of the
kshatciya princes im Panchala and Videha
also cultivated this typo of thinking and created
the atmosphere for the reform of the priest-
dominated religion Their teachings also pro-
moted the cause of stability and integration
Emphasis on the changelessness, indestructibr-
ly and immortality of arma or soul served
the causo of stability which was neaded for the
rising state power. Stress on the relation of
atma wath Brahma served the causo of loyalty
to, superior authority.

‘The later Vadie period saw cortain impor-
tant changes. Wo find the beginnings of terri
torial kingdoms. Wars were fought not only
for the possession of cattle but also for that
of territory. The famous Mahabharata battle,
Fought between the Kauravas and the Pan
davas, is attributed to ths period. The predo-
sisantly"pastoral society of carly Vedic’ times
became agricultural. ‘The tribal pastoralists
came to ba transformed into peasants who
could’ maintain their chi? with frequent trie
Dbutes. Chiefs grow at the expense of the tribal
peasantry, and handsomely rewarded the priests
‘who supported their patrons against the com-
mon people called the vaısyas The sudras were

71. THE LATER VEDIC PHASE El

sulla small serving order The tribal soci
broke up into a varna-divided society. But
varna distinctions could not be carried too far.
In apite of the support of the brahmanas the
rajdayas or the kshatnyas could not estab-
lish a state system. A state cannot be set up

without a regular system of taxes and a pro-
fessional army, which again depends on taxes.
But the existing mode of agriculture did not
leave scope for taxes and tobutes in suficıent
measure.

EXERCISES

Rig Vedie life?

Trace the expansion of the Aryans in the later Vedie period.
Desoribe the materia! lie of tho later Vedic people. How was t diferent from the

‘What 15 meant by the Painted-Grey Ware culture? .
Give an account of the political set-up ın the later Vedic period

How was society organizod in later Vedic times?

developed in the later Vodie age?

72. CHAPTER 9

Jainism and. Buddhism

‘Numerous religious sects arose ın the middle
Gangetic basin in the sith century B.C. We
hear of as many as 62 religious sects in this
period Many of these sects were based on
regional customs and rituals practised by
diorent peoples living ın north-east India,
‘Of these sects Jainism and Buddhism were the
most important, and they emerged as the most
potent religious reform movements

Causes of Origin

In post-Vedie times society was clearly divid-
ed mio four varnas- brahmanas, "kahatriyas,
vaısyas and sudras, Each varna was assigned
well-defined functions, although it was em
ghesied that varna was based, on bicth and
the two higher varnas were given some pri
vieges The brahmanas, who were given the
functions of priests and teachers, claimed the
highest status in society. They demandad se-
veral prviloges, including those of receiving,
gifts and exemption from taxation and punish-
ments. In post-Vedse texts we have many in-
stances of such privileges enjoyed by them.
‘The tstacmyas" ranked second in the varna
hieraschy. Thoy fought and governed and lived
on the taxes collected frorh the peasants. The
vaisyas wore engaged in agriculture, cattle-
searing and trado, They appear as pracipal
taxpayeıs. However, along with the two higher
vatnas they were placed in the category of
da or the twics-born. A dija was entitled

to wearing sacred thread and studying the
Vedas from which the sudras were kept out
The sudras were meant for serving the tros
higher varnas, and'along with women were
barred, from taking to Vedic studies. They
appear as domestic slaves, agricultural slaves,
craftsmen and hıred labourers in post-Vedic
tomes, They were called cruel, greedy and
thieving 10 habits and some of them were
treatad as untouchables. The higher the varna
the more privleged and purer a person was.
‘Tho lower the varna of an offender, the more
severe was the punishment prescribed for him.

‘Naturally the varna-divided society seems to
have generated tensions We have no means to
find out the reactions of the vaisyas and the
sudras The kshatriyas, who acted as rulers,
however, reacted strongly against the ritualistic
domination of the brahmanas, and stom to
have led a kind of protest movement against
the importance attached to birth in the varna
system, The kshatrıya reaction against the do-
‘ination of the priestly clas called brabinanas,
who ciamed various privileges, was one of the
causes of the origin of new religions. Var-
dhamana Mahavira, who founded Jainism, and
Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism,
bslonged to the kshatriya clan, and both dis-
puted the authority of the brahmanas,

But the seal cause of the nse of these new
religions fay in the troduction of a new agrı-
cultural economy in north-sastera India, North.

73. JAINISM AND BUDDRISM 6

cast Indie, including the regions of eastera
Uttar Pradesh and northern and southern
Bihar, has about 100 cm of rainfall, Before
those areas came to be colonized on a large
scale, they were thickly forested, The thick
junglas Gould not be cladred without the aid of
iron axes, Although some people lived in this
arca before 600 B.C, they used implements
of stone and coppar, and they led a precatious
life on rıver banks and confivences, where
land was opened to settlement through the

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93 Pinchmarked Coins

process of erosion and fcoding In the miele
Gangetic basin lacgo-cale habitations began
from about 600 B.C, when iron came to be
uscd ın this area. On account of the moist
nature of the sod 1 this area too many iron
tools of carlost times have not survived, but
quite a few axes have been recovered from
the layers belonging to circa 600-500 B.C The
use of aron tools made possible clearance,
agriculture and largo settlements. The agri
cultural economy based on the iron plough-
share required the use of bullocks, and it
coulé not flourish without animal husbandry.
But the Vedie practice of killing cattle ınds-
erimnately ın sacrifices stood in the way of
ha progress of new agnculture. The carte
wealth slowly decimated ‘because tho cow
and bullocks were killed ın numerous Vedic
sacrifices. The tribal people Iving on the south-
ern and eastern fringes of Magadha alo killed
tattle for food. But if the new agrarian eco-
nomy had to be stable this falling had to be
stopped.

The poriod saw the rise of a large number of
cities in north-eastern India, We may refer, for
example, to Kausambı near Allahabad, Kusl-
nagar (im the Deoria district of Uttar Pradesh),
Banaras, Vaisal (in the newly crested district
of the same name in north Bihar), Chirand
(em the Chapra district) and Rajgır (situated at
a distance of about 100 km from Patna). Besides
others these cities had many artisans and traders,
who began to use coms for the first time, Tho
arllest coins belonged to the fifth century B.C.,
and they are called punch-marked coins. They
circulated for the first time in eastern Uttar
Pradesh and Bihat. Tho use of coins naturally
facilitated trade and commerce, which added to
the importance of the vaisyas. In the brahman-
cal society the vaisyas ranked third, the
first two being brahmanas and kshatriyas
Naturally they looked for some religion which
‘would improve their position. The vaisyas extea-
ded generous support to both Mahavira and

74. a. 2

Gautama Buddha. The merchants, called the
setrls, made handsome gifs to Gautama Buddha
and his disciples. The
for it First, Jainasm and Buddhism ın the 1
stage did not attach any importance to the
existing varna system Second, they preached
the gospel of non-violence, which would put
an end to wars between different kingdoms and
consequently promote trade and commerce.
Third, the brahmanical law-books, called the
Dharmasutras, decned lending money on inter-
est. A person who lived on interest was
condemned by them Therefore the vaisyas, who
lent money 00 account of growing trade and
commerce, wore not held inrestoem and were
eager to improve their social status.

Où the other hand we also notice a strong
reaction against various forms of private pro-
perty Old-fashioned people did not like the use,
and accumulation of coins made certainly of
aier and copper and possibly of gold. They
detested new dwellings and dresses, new sys-
tems of transport which amounted to luxury,
and they hated war and violence Tho new forms
of property created social inequalities, and
caused misory and suffering to the masses of
the people So the common people yearned to
return to primitive life, They wanted to get back
to the ascetic deal which dispensed with the
new forms of property and the new style of hfe.
Both Jainism and Buddhusm preferred simple,
puritan, ascetic living. The Buddhist and Jaina,
monks were asked to forgo the good things of
life. Thoy were not allowed to touch gold and
silver. They were to accept only as much from
their patrons as was sufficient to keep body and
soul together. They therefore rebelled against
‘the material advantages stomming from the now
life in the Gangetic basin. In other words ws find
the same kind of reaction against the changes.

material life in north-eastern India ın the
sich contury B.C. as wo notice against the
changes introduced by the Taduitrial Revolution
jn modern times. Just as the advent of Indus-

ANCIENT INDIA

tial Revolution made many people think of
return to the pre-machine age life, sumularly
people in the past wanted to return to the pre
iron age life

Vardhamana Mahavira and Jainism

Vardhamana Mahavira was born in 540 B.C,
an a village near Varsal, which 1s dentical with
Basarh 1n the district of Vaisal ın north Bihar,
His father was the head of a famous kshattiya
clan, and his mother a Lichchhavi princess
‚They were also connected with the royal family
of Magadha. High connections made it easy
for Mahavira to approach princes and nobles
in the courge of hs mission.

In the beginning Mahavira led the hfe of a
householder, but in the search for truth he aban-
düned the World at the age of 30 and became
an ascetic He kept on wandering for 12 years
from placa to place He would not stay for more
than a day in a village and for more than five
days in a town. During the course of hıs long
journey, it 18 said, he never changed his clothes
for, 12 years, and abandoned them altogether
when he attained perfect knowledge or Æarvalya
at the age of 42. Through kaivalya he conquered
very and happiness Because of this conquest
ha ıs known as Mahavira or the great hero or
Jina, i ¢., the conqueror, and hus followers ara
known as Jainas He propagated his religion
for 30 years, and his mussion took hum to Kosala,
Magadha, Mithila, Champa, ete, He passed
away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place
called Pavapurı near modern Raigir.

Janism taught five doctrines: (1) do not
commit violence, (2) do nor speak a lie, (3) do
not stoal, (4) do not acquire property and (5)
observe continence (Brakmacharya). Wt is said
that only the A doctrine was added by Maha-
vira, the other four being taken over by him
from previous teachers Although Parsva, the
‘predecessor of: Mahavira, had asked his follow.

75. JAINISM. AND BUDDEISMS 6

ers to cover the upper and lower portions of
their body, Mahavira asked them to discard
clothes completely. This implios that Maha-
vira asked his followers 10 lead a more austere
Ife „On account of this.ın later times Jatmısm
was divided into two sects : srerambaras or
those who put on white dress, and digambaras
or those who keep themselves naked

Jaiism recognized the existence of the
gods but placed them lower than the Jima Tt
did not condemn the vaina system, as Buddhism
did. According to Mahavira, a person 1s bora
in a high or ın a lower varna in consequence
of the sins or the virtues acquired by hum ım the
previous birth Mahavira looks for human val-
es even sn a chandala, Th hıs opınıon through
pure and meritorious life members of the lower
castes can attain liberation. Jamism mainly
auns at the attainment of freedom from worldly
bonds. It is not necessary to use any ritual
for acquiring such liberation. It can be obtained.
through full knowledge and action. Fell know-
ledge, action and Iıberation are considered to
be the three gems or ratnas of Jamism

‘Spread of Jainism

In order to spread the teachings of Jainism,
‘Mahavica organized an order of his followers
which admıtted both men and women It is
said that his followers counted 14,000, which
is not a large number Since Jamism did not
very clearly mark self out from the brahumani-
cal religion, ıt farted to attract the masses.
Despite this Jainism gradually spread into south
and west Indus According to a lato tradition,
the spread of Jainism in Karnataka attributed
to Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 B.C). The
‘emperor became a Jaina, gave up his theone
and spent the last years of hus fe ın Karnataka,
as a Jaina ascetic, But this tradition ss not
corroborated by any other source. The second.
cause of the spread of Jamsm in south India
is said to be the great famine that took place in
Magadha 200 years after the death of Mahavira,

“The famine lasted for 12 years, and so in order
to protect themselves many a Jena wont to the
south under the leedershyp of Bhadrababu, but
the rest of them stayed back in Megadba under
tha leadership of Sthalzbaho. The migrant
aires spread Jauusm in south India At the
end of the famine they came back to Magadha,
where they developed difoences with the local
Jainas. Those who came back from the south
aime that even during the famine hey strictly
‘observed the religious rules, on the other hand,
‘they allege, the Jaina ascotics living in Magadha
had violated those rules and bacome lax. In
Order to sort out these differences and to comple
ths main teachings of Jainism a council vas
convened in Puaiputra, modern Patna, but tho,
southern Jamas boycotted the counal and
refused. to accept its decisions. From now
‘onwards the southerners began to be called
digambaras, and the Magadhans suetambaras.
However, epigraphic evdence for he spread of
Jam in Karnataka 1s not caer than the
‘ued century A.D. In subsequent centuries,
especially from the sixth century, numerous
Jaina monastic establishments called basadis
Sprang up ın Karnataka and were granted land
by the Kings for their support

Jainism spread to Kalinga in Onssa in the
fourth century B.C, and ın tho fist century
BC. it enjoyed the patronage of the Kaling
king Kharavela who had defeated the princes
of Andhra and Magadha. In the second and
first centuries B.C it also seems to have reached
the southern distacts of Tamil Nadu. In later
centuries Jainısm penetrated Malwa, Gujarat
and Rajasthan, and even now these areas have a
good number of Jainas, mainty engaged in trade
and commerce. Although Jainism did not win as
much state patronage as Buddhism did and did
not spread very fast ın early times it tll retains
its hold in the areas where it spread. On the
other hand Buddhism has practically disappear -
ed from the Indian subcontinent,

76. 64 ANCIENT INDIA

of Jainism
first serious attempt to
mitigate the evils of the varas order and the
ritualistic Vedis religion The early Tanas
discarded Sanskrit language mainly patronized
y the brahmanas. They adopted Praknt langa-
age of the common people to preach their
doctrines Their religious literature was wien
in Ardhamagadi», and the texte were finally
compiled im the sixth century A.D in Gujarat
ata place called Valabhi a great centre of edu-
cation. The adoption of Prakrıt by the Jaines
helped the growth of this language and its
Iiterature Many regional languages developed
ut of Prakeit languages, particulanly Sauraseni,
out of which grew the Marathi language The
Jamas composed the earliest important works
in Apabhramsa and its first gramm. The
Jayna fiteratuce contes epics, Puranas, novels
and drama. A large portion of the Jaina writing
18 stll an the form of manuscripts, which have
not been published and which are found ı the
Jaina shnnes of Gujarat and Rajasthan In
„early medieval times the Jarnas also made good
uso of Sanskrit and wrote many texts in this
language Last but not the least, they contribu-
tod to the growth of Kanada, in which they
wrote extensively.

Gavtama Buddha and Buddhism

Gautama Buddha or Siddhartha was a con-
temporary of Mahavira. He was born in 563
RC ina Sakya kshatıiya Family m Kapılavaste,
which is situated in the foothills of Nepal.
‘Gautama's father seems to have been the elected
tulor of Kapilavastu, and headed the republi-
can clan of the Sakyas. His mother was a princess
From the Kosalan dynasty. Thus, like Maha-
vire, Gautama also belonged to a noble family.
Born in a republic, he also inherited some
republican. sentiments.

From his early childhood Gautama showed
a meditative bent of mind, He was married easly,
ot marriod life did not interest him. He was

moved by the misery which people suffered in
world, and looked for solution. At the age
of 29, like Mahavira agun, he left home. He
Kept on wandering for about seven years and
then attained knowledge at the age of 35 at
Bodh Gaya under a pipa! tree. From this time
onwards he began to be called the Buddha or
tho enlightened.

Gautame Buddha delivered his fst sormons
at Sarnath ın Banaras. He undertook long
sourneys and took his message far and wade.
He had e very strong physique. which enabled
Kim to walk 20 10 30 km a day Bo kept on
wandering, preaching and meditating con-
tinuously for 40 years, resting only in the rainy
season every year During this long period ho
encountered many staunch supporters of val
sects moluding the brahmanas, but defeated
them in debates, His missionary aciwities did
not diserimunate betweon the rich and the poor,
the high and tho low, and man and woman.
Gautama Buddha passed away at the ego of 80
in 483 BC. at a place called Kusinagar,
identical with the village called Kasia. ın the
distnet of Deora in eastern Uttar Pradesh.

Doctrines of Buddhism
The Buddha proved to be a practical refr-
mer who took note of the reahties of the day.
He did not avolve himself 1 fruitless conteover-
sie regarding the soul (alan) and the Brahma
which raged strongly in his time; he addressed
himself to the werldly problems He sad that
the world 1s full of sorrows and people sur
on account of doses, If desros are conquered,
nirvana will bo attained, thet is, man will bo
{tee from the cycle of birth and death,
Gautama Buddhe recommended an eight-
fold path (astangika marga) for the elimination
of human misory. This path is attributed to
Sim in a text of about the thicd century B.C,
It comprised right observation, right determina-
tion, right speech. right action, right livelihood,
right exerose, ight memory and right medita-,

77. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 65

tion, If a person follows this eightfold path he
would not depend on the machinations of the
priests, and yet he will be ablo to reach hi
destination Gautama taught that a person
should avoid the excess of both luxury and
austenty. He prescribed the middle path.

‘The Buddha also laid down a code of conduct
for his followers on the same lines as was done
by the Taına teachers, The main ıtoms ın this
social conduct are (1) do not covet the pro-
party of others, (2) do not commit violence,
(3) do not use intoxicants, (4) do not speak a.
lie, and (5) do not indulge incorrapt practices,
‘These toachmgs are common to the social con-
duct ordained by almost all regions

Special Features of Buddhism and the Causes
of its Spread

Buddhism does not recognize the existence
of god and soul (arman). This can be taken as
a Kind of revolution m the history of Indian
religions, Since early Buddhism wes not en-
meshed un the clap-trap of phulosophical discns-
sion, it appeeled to the common people, It
particularly won the support of the lowar orders
as it attacked the vana system Poople were
taken into the Buddhist order without any
consideration of caste, Women also ware admit-
ted to the sangha and thus brought on a par
with mon. In comparison yath brahmanism,
Buddhism was liberal and democratic

Buddhism made a special appeal to the
people of tho non-Vedie arcas where it found
a virgın soil for conversion. The people of
Magadha responded readily to Buddhism
because they wore looked down upon by thé
‘orthodox brahmanas. Magadha was placed
outside the pale of theholy Aryavarata, tho land
of the Aryas, covering modern Uttar Pradesh
The old tradition persists, and the people of
north Bihar would not like to be cromated
south of the Ganga in Magadha,

‘The personality ofthe Buddha and the method
adopted by him to preach his religion holped.

tho spread of Buddhism, Ha triod to fight evil
by goodness and hatred by Tove He refused to
be provoked by slandar and abuse, Ho main-
‘tained pose and calrı under dificult conditions,
and tackled his opponents with wat and presence
of mind. Its sd that on one occasıon an ıgno-
rant person abused him The Buddha listened on
sony, and when tho purson had stopped
abusing, the Buddha asked: “My son, if a
parson does not accept a prosont what wil hap-

His advecsary replied. “Tt remains
with the person who has ofeted ut." The Buddha
thon said "My son, 1 do not accopt your

The uso of Pali, the language of the people,
also contributed to the sproud of Buddhism.
It faeditated the spread of Ruddhust doctines
among the common people, Gautama Buddha
also organized the sangha or the religious order,
whose doors were kept open to everybody,
irrospective of caste and sex. The only condition
required of the monks was that they would
farthfully observe the rulos and regulations of
the sangha Once they were enrolled as members
of the Buddlust Church they had to take the
vow of continence, poverty and faith, So there
are three main elements in Buddhism. Buddha,
‘sangha and diamma As a result of organized
preaching under the auspices of the sangha
Buddhism made rapid strides oven in the
ufeume ofthe Buddha The monarchies of
Magadha, Kosala and Kausambi And several
republican states and their people adopted this
religion.

Two hundred years after the death of the
Buddha the famous Maurya king Asoka embrac-
ed Buddhism. This was an epoch-making evant
Through his agents Asoka spread Buddhism
into Central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka,
and thus transformed ıt into @ world religion.
Even today Sn Lanka, Burma, Tibet and parts
of China aad Japan profess Buddhism. Although
Buddhism disappeared from the land of is
bieth, xt continues to hold ground in the coun-

78. & ANGENT INDIA

tries of South Asa, SouthEast Asie and East
Asia

Couses of the Decline of Buddhism

By the twelith contuty A.D., Buddhisin be-
came practioally extinet in India. Tt continued
to exist an a changed form ın Bengal and Bikar
Ail the ewolth century, but after that this cel
gion almost completely vanished from the

country. What were its causes? We find that in -

the bogioaing avery religion 15 inspired by the
pint of reform, but eventually it succumbs to
rituals and ceremonies it originally denouaced.
Buddhism underwent a similar metamorphosu.
TE became à vietım to the evs of brahmansm
against which it had fought ın the beginning.
To meet the Buddhist challenge the brahmanas
reformed their religion, They stressed tho need
for preserving the cattle wealth and asyured
women and sudras of adımusion to haiven
Buddlusm, on the other hand, changed for
the worse. Gradually the Buddhist monks were
cut off from the mainstream of people's hie;
they gave up Pali, the language of the people,
and took to Sanskrit, the language of mtellec-
‘uals. From the fst contury A.D. they practised.
idol worsiup on a large scale and recawed
mumerous. offerings from devotees. The rich
‘offerings supplomented by generous royal
grants to tho Buddhist monasteries made the
life of monks easy. Somo of the monasteries
such as Nalanda collected revente from as
many as 200 villages. By the seventh contury
A.D. the Buddhist monasteries had como to be
dominated by onse-loving p ople and became
centres of corrupt practices which Gautama
Buddha had strictly prohibited. The nsw form
of Buddhism was known as Vajrayana The
‘enormous wealth of the monasteries with women,
living in them lod to further degeneration,
Buddhists cama to lock upon women as objects
of lust, The Buddha 15 reported to have said
to his favourite discplo Ananda “If women
‘were not admitted nto tho monasterios Buddhism

‘would have continued for thousands of years,
but because this admision has been granted
at would lest only five hundred yea

For their riches the monastares came to be
coveted by the Turkish invaders. They became
specral targoto of tha invaders’ groed The
Turks killed a largo number of Buddlust monks
in Nalanda, although some of the monks
managed to escape to Nepal and Tibet In any
case by the twelfth century A.D. Buddhism had
practically disappeared from the land of sts
birth.

Importance and Tflenee of Buhl

Despite its ultumate disappearance as an organ-
tant zn Buddhism lt as abiding mark
on tha history of India ‘Tae Buddhists showed a
eon avacenes of te problems that fc the
people of nrtreast India in th sth entry
Bc. The new ion ploughshare agneultire
trade, and the use of coins enabled the traders
and nobles to accumulate wealth, and we hear
of people possessing cighty kotis of wealth AM
this naturally created sharp social and economic
inequalities, So Buddhism asked people not to
sccumulas wath Accord poverty breeds
Hatred, cruelty und violence. Fo eradicate these
evils the Buddha adviso that farmors should be
provided wth gran and other Facies, the trade
ces oth wath, and te Ibourer wth wage
‘These measures war recommended to remove
poverty xn this world, Bucdhism futher taught
that he poor gave alms to the monks they
would be bore wealthy am the next word

“Tho odo of conduct presnbod fo the monts
represents canon against the mater cond

. tions of northreast India in the sixth and fit

centuries B.C. Itimposas restrictions on the food,
dress and sexual behaviour of the monks They
cannot accapt gold and silver and they cannot
take to sale and purchase. These rules were
relaxed after the-death of the Buddha, but the
early rules suggest a return 10a kind of primitive
communs, a charastenstic of the tribal society

79. JAINISM AND BUDDHISM 9

in which poople did not practise rade and plough
agriculture, The code of conduct prescribed
for monks partially reflects a revolt against tho
use of money, private property and luxurious
faving, which appeared ın the sixth century B C.
im north-east India. In those days property and
money wore regarded as luxuries.

‘Although Buddhism tried to mitigate ‘the
ceils resulting from the now material life in the
suxth century BC, 1t also tried to consolidate
the changes in the social and economic life of
the people, The rule thatdebtors were not per“
mitted to be members of the sangha naturally
helped the moneylenders and richer sections of
society from whose clutches the debtors could
not be saved. Similarly the rule that slaves
could not join the sangha helped the slave-
‘owners Thus the rules and teachings of Gautama
Buddha took full account of the new changes
in the material Ife and strengthened them
ideologically :

‘Although the Buddhist munky had renounced
the world and repeatedly cnticise? the greedy
brahmanas, ın several ways they resembled the
brahmanas. Both of them did not participate
directly m production, and lived on the alms or
gs gıven by society. Both of them emphasised
the virtues of carrying out family obligations,

tecting private property and respecting polit
‘al authority. Both of them supported the social
order based on classes; for the monks however
the varna was based on action and attnbutes
but for the brahmanas it was based on birth.

‘Undoubtedly the objective of the Buddhist
teaching was to secure the salvation of the in
‘dual or nirvana. Those who found it difficult to
adjust themselves to the break-up-of the old
tribal society and the rise of gross social inequa-
lites on account of private property were pro
vided with some way of escape, but it was
confined to the monks. No escape was provided
for the lay followers, who were taught to come
to terms with the existing situation

Buddhism made an important impact on

society by Keeping its doors open to women and
sudras. Since both women and sudras woro placed
in tho samo category by brahmanism, they were
char gwen sacred thread nor allowed to read
the Vedas: Their conversion to Buddhism freed
them from such mark of inferonty.

With its emphasis on neo-wolenee and the
sanctity of animal Le, Buddhism boosted the
cattle wealth ofthe country The carios! Budd
text Suttanipata declares the cat to be gwers
of food, beauty and happiness (anade armada
suthada), and. thus pleads for their protection,
Ths teaching came significantly at atime when
the non-Aryans slaughtered animals for food,
and the Aryans in the name of religion. Tho
brahmanıcalınsistenee on the sacredaess of the
cow and non-violence was apparently derived
from Buddhist teachings

Buddhism erated and developed a new avare-
‘ness inthe field of intallestand culture, Je taught
‘the people not to take things for granted but to
argue and judge them on merits, To a certain
extent the place of superstition was taken by
Logic. This promoted rationalism among people.
In order to preach the doctrines of the now 1
gion the Buddhusts comple anew type of üra-
ture, They enormously enriched Palı by the
writings. The oarly Pl iteraturo can be divided
into threo categories, Tho frst contas the say:
ings and teachings of the Buddha, the second
deals with the rules to be observed by members
of the sangha, and the third prosots the phlo-
sophical exposition of the dhamma.

The literary activites of tho Buddhist monks
continued oven in tho Middle Agos, and somo
famous Apabhramsa writings in cast India were
composed by them. The Buddhist monasterios
developed as great contres of learning, and can
be called residential universes. Mention may
be made of Nalanda and Vikcamasils in Bihar,
and Valabhı in Gujarat

Buddhism let its mark on the art of anciont
India The frst human statues worshipped in
India wera probably those of tho Budáha, The

80. $, ANCIENT INDIA

Faith davotees portrayed tho various events in
the life ofthe Buddha ın stone. The panels found
at Gaya in Bihar and at Sanchi and Bharhut in
Madhya Pradesh are illuminating examples of
rise activity. From the first century À D
the panel imagos of Gautama Buddha begin to
be mado. The Greok and tks Indian sculptors
worked togsthar to craato a new Kmd of art

in this region betray Indian as woll as foreign
influence, For the residence of the monks rooms
‘wore hewn out of the rocks, and thus began the
cave architecture in the Barabar hills ın Gaya
and in western India around Nasik. Under the
impetus of Roman trade Buddhist art flourished.

inthe Ruste dei, and under that of Conta
an contacts it thuove ın Mathura and

Un tho noreste of India. whch is Gandhara
known as the Gandhara art. The images made
EXERCISES

sixth century B C.

in northeast India." Explain

Trace th

Who was Vardhamana Mahavira and what were his tea
origin and development of Jainism sn India.
Give an account of Jainism. What did ıt contribute to Indian society?
Who was Gautama Buddha? State his teachings

Explain the social aspects of Buddhism.

Why did Buddhism spread in India and abroad?

Account for the decline of Buddhism

Discuss the importance and influence of Buda

Explain the causes of the orıgın of the religious sects in north-east India in the

“The sixth century B.C. 15 remarkable for tha origin of numerous religious sects

ings?

81. CHAPTER 10

Territorial States and the First Magadhan Empire

From the sith century B.C. the widespread
use of iron in eastern Uttar Pradesh and western
Bihar facditated the formation of largo tar
toral states, Because of on weapons the warrior
class now played an important part, The new
agricultural tools and implements enabled tho
peasants to produce far more foodgrains than
thay required for consumption. The extra pro-
duct could bo collected by the princes to mest
theit military and administrti 5: The
surplus could alo be made avaiable to the
towns which had sprung up in the sixth century
BC These material advantages naturally on-
abled the people to stick to their land, and also
to expand at the cost of the neighbouring areas.
‘Tho cise of large states with towns as thre base
of oparations strengthonod the territorial idea
People owed strong allegiares to the Janapada
or tho taritory to which they belonged and nat
to tho jana or he tubo to which they belonged,

‘The Mahajanapadas

In tho age of the Buddha we find 16 largo
states called mahajanapadas. They were mostly
situated north of the Vindhyas and extended
from the north-west frontis to Bihar. OF these,
Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti soom to
havo boon considerably powerful. Beginning,
from the east wa hear of tho of Anga
which svete modes tabs of ent
and Bhogalpor. Tt had its capital at Chanipa,
which shows signs of habitation from the sixth

century BC. Eventually tho kingdom of Anga
vas swallowad by its powerful neighbour
Magadha,

Magadha embracad ths modern distrcts of
Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad, and grow
to bo the leading stato of the time. North of
the Ganga in tho division of Tirkut was the
stato of the Vajjs which included tight clans,
But the most powerful woe the Lichehkavis with
their capital at Vasali which is identical with
tho village of Basarh in the district of Vaisali
‘The Puranas push tho antiquity of Vasal to a
much carte period, but archacologically Basart
as not silo carl than the lat century B.C,

Further west we find the kingdom of Kasi
with sts capital as Varanasi Excavations at
Rajghat show thatthe earliost habitation started
around 700 BC, and the city was enclosed by
mud-wallsın the sth contury B.C. In tho begine
ning Kasi appears to be the most powerful of
the states but eventually it had to submit to,
tho power of Kosala.

Kosala'embraced the area occupied by castor *
Uttar Pradesh and had its capital at Sravasti,
which #5 identical with Sahet-Mahet on the
borders of Gonda and Bahraich distracts ın Utar
Pradesh, Diggings indicate that Sahct-Mahet did
not possess any largo settlament in the sixth oen-
‘tury B.C, Kosala contaned an important city
called Ayodhya, which is associated withthe story
in the Ramayana, But excavations. show that
it was not setled on any scale before the sixth

82. ANCIENT INDIA

INDEX
MAHAJANAPADA ANGA
TOWNS

bea: a

vee

ein

Can
y

avd pon Sy) of oa
© Gomrament of eda copy

83. “TERRITORIAL STATES AND THE FIRST MAGADICAN FAIRE a

tury BC. Kosala also included che taal re-
publican territory of Sakyás of Kapilavastu, th
birthplace of the Buddha The capital of Kapila
vasta has been identified with Piprahwa in Bastı
istrict, but Lumbini, which hes at à distance
‘of 15 km from Piprahwa in Nepal, served as
another capital of the Sakyas

Tnthe neighbourhood of Kosale lay the repub-
tucan cian of the Mallas, whose terntory touched
the northera border of the Vajp state, One of
the capitals of the Mallas lay at Kusinara, where
Gautama Buddha passed away Kusnara is
identral with Kasia in Deoria district,

Further west lay the kındkom of the Vatsas,
along the bank of the Yamuna, with sts capital
at Kausambı The Vatsas were a Kuru clan whio
had shifted from Hastınapur and settled down
at Kausambi near Allahabad. Kausambi was
chosen because ır was situated near the confluence
fof the Ganga and the Yamuna. In the sh cen-
tury BC. ıt had a strong fortified capital, as can
be gathered from excavations,

We also hear of the older states of the Kurus
and the Panchalas which were situated in west-
ern Uttar Pradesh, but they no longer enjoyed
the political mportance which they had attained
yn the later Vedie period,

In central Malwa and the adjoining parts of
Madhya Pradesh lay the state of the Avants.
Ik was divided into two parts. The northern part
ad its capital at Ua, and the southern part
at Mahishamati, Excavations show, that both
these towns became faurly important from the
sixth century B.C. onwards, though evantuslly
Uljain surpassed Mahishamatı. It developed
largeseale working in tron and erected strong
fortification

‘The political history of Indi from tho sat
contury B.C, onwards is the history of struggles,
betiveon these states for supremacy. Ultimately
‘the kingdom of Magadha emerged to be the
ox powerul and suceeded m found an
empire, É

Rise and Growth of the Mogadhan Empird

Magadhacame mito promunence under th
leadership Bimbisara, who belonged tothe Has
yaiká dynasty. He was a contemporary of the
Buddha. Ho started the policy of conquest and
aggcandisemont wh endéd withthe Kalinga wit
of Asoka Bimbisara aoquisd Anga ahd placed
itunder the vesreyelty of Ajatasateu at Chapa:
Ho also strengthened his pontion ‘by marriage
llanera: He took thrbo wives, His first wie
vas the danger of the king of Kosa‘ and ths
sister of Prasenat, The Kotelan bride BOB
hum as dowry a Kasi village inf reine
of 100,000, which suggests that ovens werd
asiese in terms of ins Tho macriage bought
aff the hostiley of Xosala and gato tim a fee
and in dealing withthe othe states, His second!
wie Chellana was 4-Lichchhovi princes from
Val, and Jus third wat was thE daughtor of
tho chief of the Máda clan Of Panyab. Marrago
relations withthe different prncely faites govt
enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the
vay for the pansion of Magu wetwac nd
northwards

Magadta’s ‘most senous nal as “Aa
with ts capital at Ujhin. Is king Chanda!
Pradyota Mahasena fought Bumbusarg, but ult?
mately tho two thought it wie to become fs
Later when Pradyota was attacked by aude}
atthe Avanti king’s request Bumbisara dent!
royal physician Jivaka to Ujhin, Bimbo’ i
also sad to.havo recewed am embrssy and a
Totter from tho ruler of Gandhara with Waieh
Pradyota had fought unsubcesfil. Só through
las conquests’ ard diplomacy Bimbisara mada
Magadha the: paramount power 3h: thé sixth
century BC. Hs kingdom is said to hav
consisted of 80,000 villages, whichis conven’
tional number

‘The atest capital of Mogadha var Ral,
which was called ‘Girivraeat that ure! is
surrounded. by five hill, the openings u which”
és se by tn salon al ads. THs made
Raigir impregnable, += »

84. n

According to the Buddhist chronicles Bim-
bisara ruled for S2 years, roughly from 544
B.C, to 492 B.C. He was succeeded by bus son.
Ajatasatru (492-460 BC) Ajarasatru killed
his futher and seized the chrono for himself.
His rugn saw the high watermark of the Bim-
bisara dynasty. He fought two wars and made
preparations for the third. Throughout his ran
he pursued an aggressive policy of expansion
‘Ths provoked against him a combination of
Kasi and Kosala, Thero began a prolonged
confit between Magadha and Kosala. Ult
‘mataly Ajatasatru got the best of the war, and
the Kosalan kang was compelled to purchase
peace by giving his daughter in marnage to
Ajatasatru and leaving him in sole possession
of Kas. =

Ajatasatra was no rospector of relations
Although hus mother was a Lichehhavı princes,
this did not prevent him ftom making war
against Vassali. The excuse was that the Lich-
chhavis ware the alles of Kosala. Ho created
dlissensions in the ranks of the Lichchhavis and.
finally destroyed their independence by invade
ing their terilory and by defeating thom in
battle. It took him full 16 years to destroy
Valsai. Exentually he succeeded in dome so
because of a war engine which was used to
throw stones liks catapults. He also possessed
a chariot to which a mace was attached, and it
facihtated mass Killngs. The Magadhan empire
was thus enlarged with the addition of Kasi
and Vaisah.

Ayatasatr faced a stronger nval io the ruler
of Avant. Avanti had defeated the Vatsas of
Kausambı and now threatened an invasion of
Magedha. To meet this danger Ajatasatru began
fortifeation of Rajgır The remains of the walls
tan be sil sen. However, to inves did ot

ize ın his lifetime,
Fa aaa by Udayin (460-444
BC). His reign is important because he built
‘the fort upon tha confluence of the Ganga and
Son at Patna, This was done because Patna lay

ANCIENT INDIA

in tho contre, of the Magadhan kingdom, which
now extended from the Himalayas in the north
‘othe hills of Chotanagpur in the south. Patna’s
rositon, as will be seen later, was crucially
strategie.

Udayin was succesded by the dynasty of
Sısunagas, who temporarily shifted the capital
to Vaisali. Their greatest achievement was the
destruction of the power of Avanti with ats
capital at Ujjain This brought to an and the
100year old rivalry between Magadha and
‘Avanti, From now onwards Avanti became a
partof the Magadhan empire and continued to
be so tif the end'of the Maury rulo.

‘The Sisunagas were'sucteeded by the Nandas,
who proved to be the most powerful rulers of
Magadha, So great was theır power that Alexan-
der, who invaded Panjab at that time, did cot
dace to move towards the east. The Nandas
added to the Magadhan power by conquering
Kalinga from where they brought an image
of the Jina as a victory trophy. All this took
place ın the reign of Mahapadma Nanda. He
clamed to be ekarat, the sole sovereign who
destroyed all the other ruling princes. It seems
that he acquired not only Kalinga but also
Kosala which had probably rebelled against

‘The Nandas were fabulously rich and encı-
mou powerful Itissald that they maintained
200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry end 6000 war
slephants. Such a huge army could be main-
tamed ony through an fective sto ter.
Tt was because of these considerations that
¿candor dd not advance spain thet)

‘The later Nandas turned out to be weak and
unpopular. Their rule in Magadha was supplant-
ed by that of the Maurya dynasty under which
the Mogadhan empire reached the apex of
glory

Causes of Magadha’s Success
‘The march of the Magadhan empiro during.
the two centuries preceding the rise of the.

85. TERSITORIAL STATHS AND THU FIRST MAGADHAN EMPIRE B

Mauryas 1s hike the march of the Iranian empire
during the same period. The formation of dic
largest stato ın India dung this parod was the
work of several enterprismg and ambivous
rulers such as Bimbisara, Ajıtasatru and
Mahapadına Nanda, They employed all means,
fair and foul at their disposal to enlarge thew
kingdoms and to sisgthen their states. But
this was not the only pason for the expansion
of Magadhue

‘Thera were somo other important factors,
Magadha enjoyed an advantagoous geographi
cal position in the ago of iron, because the
richest iron doposits were situated not far away
from Rayer, the carlisst capital of Magadha
‘The ready availabilty of te, rich ıron ores ın
the neighbourhood enabled th Magadhan
princes to equip themselves with allectwo
‘weapons, which were not easily available to
‘tha vals
Madhya Pradesh, and were not far from the
Kingdom of tha Avantis with thai capital at
Ujjam. Around 500 B.C. iron was certains
forged and smaited ın Upain, and probably
the smiths manufsötursd weapons of good
quality. On account of this Avanti provod to be
tho most serious competitor of Mazadha for
the supremacy of north India, and Magadha
took about a hundred years to subjugate Uyain,

Magadha onjoyed certain other advantages
“Tho two capitals of Magadha, tho fest at Raj
ur and the second at Patalinutra, were situated
atvary strategic points. Rayeir was surrounded by
a group of five hills, am so it was rendered
impregnable in those days when there were no
‘easy means of storming citadels such as cannons
‘which came to be ınvontgd much later. In the
fit century the Magadhan princes sifid their
capital ftom Raygir to Pataliputra, which ocou-
pied a: pivotal position commanding commu-
nications on all sides, Pataliputra was situated
vat the confluence of the Ganga, the Gandak
and the Son, and a fourth rver called the Sarayu
Joined the Ganga not far from Pataligutra. In

fon munes ara also found ih eater,

pre-industrii days, when communications were
Aiffcult ths army could move north, west,
south an wast by follow mg the courses of the
ess. Further, the position of Patna itself was
rendeied inwlnerable because of ifs bang
surtounded by rivers on almost all sides. While
the Son and the Ganga surrounded it on the
north and west, the Poonpun surrounded it
on the south and cast, Pataliputre therefore
was a tcs watacdort Galadurga), and u was
not easy to capture this town in (hos days.

Magadha lay at the contra of tho middle
Gangetic plain. The allıvıum, onco cleared of
the gungles, proved immensely forte, Because
‘of ‘heavy Fainfall the arca could ba mado pro-
ductwvo ovon without wengation. The country
produced vancuus of puldy, which are men
tioned an the exely Buddhist tots, This arca ws
far mots productive than tho areas to the west
of Allahabad Thrs naturally onabled the
peasants to produce conséerable surplus, which
sould bo mopped up by tho rulers in the form
of taxes.

‘The princes of Magadha also bencôted from
the nse of towns and use of coins. On account
of trado and commerce ın north-east Inaba, the
princes could levy tolls on the sale of commodi-
os and accumulate woalth to pay and maln-
tan tar army.

Magadha onjoyod special advantage ih
mitéry organvation. Although the fedian
states woro well acquainted with the use of
horses and chariots, it was Magadha which
first used elephants on a largo scal in its wars
Against its neighbours. The casiern part of the
country could supply elephants to tho princes of
Magadha, and we learn fcom Greok sources that
‘tho Nandas mauntained 6000 clophants. Elephants
could be used in storming fortresses and in
marching over marshy and other areas lacking
roads and other means of communication.

Finally, wo may refer to tho unorthodox
character of tho Magedhan society. JE was
inhabited by the Kiratas and Magadhas, who

86. 1 ANCIENT INDIA

were held in low ostesm by the orthodox brah-
mauss. But it underwont & happy reciel admız-
ture on account of the advent. of the Vedi

people. Sinceit was recently aryanized jt showed
‘more onthustasm for expansion than the king-

doms which hod ben brought under’ the
Vedic influence eather. On account of ail
those reasons Magadha succeeded in defeating
the other kingdoms and in founding the first
empire in India,

EXERCISES

1. Deseribe the political condition of India in
2, With the help of a sketch-map trace the expans

je sixth century B.C.
ion of the first Magadhan empire,

3. Account for the success of Magadha in founding an empire.

87. CHAPTER 11

' Iranian and Macedonian Invasions

{ranian Invasion

In north-east India smaller principalities and
republics gradually merged with the Magadhan
empire. But the north-west India presented a
diferent picture in the first half of the sixth
century BC. Several small principalities such
as those’ of the Kambojas, Gandharas and
Madras fought one another, This area did not
have any powerful kingdom like that of Mage-
da to wold the warring communities into one
organized Kingdom. The area was also wealthy,
and could be easily entered through the passes
in the Hindukush

‘The Achaemenan rulers of Iran, who expan-
ded their empire at th same time as the Maga~
dhan princes, took advantage of the political
disunity on the north-west frontier. The Iranian
ruler Darius penetrated into north-west India
in 516 B.C. and annexed Panjab, west of the
Indus, and Sindh, This ares constituted the
twentieth province or satrapy of Iran, the total
riumber of satrapies in the Iranian empire being
28. The Indian satrapy included Sindh, the
north-west frontier and che part of Panjab
that In to the west of the Indus. It was the most
fertile and populous part of the empire. It pai
a tribute of 360 talents of gold, which accounted
for one-third of the toral revenue of Iran from
its Asian provinoes, The Indian subjdets ware
also enrolled in the Tranian army. Xerses, the
suocessor of Darius, employed the Indians in
the long war against the Greeks, It appears

that India continued to be a part of the Iranian
empire till Alexander's invasion of India,

Results of the Contact

The Indo-Iraniafi contact lasted for about
200 years, It gave an impetus to Indo-Iranian
trado and commerce. The cultural rosulls wore
more important, The Iranian scribes brought
into India a form of writing which came fo be
known as the Kharosthi soript. It was written
from right to left like the Arabic. Somo Asokan
inscriptions in north-west India were weitton
in the third century B.C. in this script, which
continied to be used in the country tll the third
century A.D. Iranian coins are also found in
the north-west frontier region which points to
the existence of trade with Iran. But it is wrong
% think that the punch-marked coins continued
in India as a résult of contact with Iran. How
ever, Iranian infuanee on the Maurya sculpture
is clearly perceptible. The monuments of Asoka's
time, especially the ballshaped capital, owed
something to the Iranian models, Tranian in-
fuencé may also be traced in the preamble of
Asoka's odiots as well as in certain words used
in them: For instance, for tho Iranian term
pt the Asokän seribe used the term lpi Fur
ther, it seems that through the Iranians the
Grocks came to know about the great wrath of
India, which whetted their greed and eventually
led to Alexander's invasion of India,

88. %

Alexander's Invasion

In the fourth century B.C. the Greeks and the
Jraotaos fought for the supremacy of the world.
Under the leadership of Alexander of Macedo-
nia the Guesks finally destroyed the Iranian,
empire. Alexander conquered not only Asia
Minor and Iraq but also Iran. From Tran he
marched to India, obviously attracted by its
great wealth. Herodotus, who 1s called fat
of history, and other Greok weiters had. paiat-
od India as a fabulous land, which tempted
Alexander to invade this country. Alexander
also possessed a strong passion for geographi-
cal inguiry and natural story. He had heard.
tit on the castern eıde of India was the con
uation of the Caspian Sea, He, was alo
inspired by the mythical exploits of’ past
conquerors whom he wanted 10 emulate and
surpass.

Tha political condition of north-west India
suited his plans. The area was parcelle out into
many independent monarchies and tribal re
publics which were strongly wedded to the so
and had a fietce love of the principality over:
which they ruled, Alexander found at easy to
conquer theso principals ons by ons. Among,
the rulers of these terstones, two were well
Knowa—Ambhí, the pence of Taxa, and Pocus
whose kingdom lay betucon the Jhelum and the
Chenab. Together they might have effectively
resisted tho advanca of Alexander But they
could ‚got put up a joint front, .the Khyber
pass somained unguarded.

‘After the conquest of Iran Alexander moved
‘on to Kabul, from where he macehed"to India
through the Khyber pass, It took hum five
months to reach the Indus. Ambhi, tha ruler of
Taxi, readily submitted to theinvader,augmen-
tod his army and replnishod hs treasure, Whan
ho reached the Jhelum, Alexander met from
Porus tho first and the strongest resistance,
Although Alexandre defeated Porus he was
impressed by the bravery and courage of the
Indian puro, So he restored bis kingdom to

ANCIENT INDIA

him and mado him hus ally. Then he advanced
as far as the Beas river. He wanted to mova
still further eastward, but his army refused to
accompany hun. Ths’ Gresk soldiers had grown
warweary and diseaso-tricken, The hot climate
of India and ten years of continuous cam-
pssgning had mado thom terribly homesick. They
had also exporienced a taste of Indian fighting
duâlites on the banks of the Indus, which made
thom dest from further progress. As the Greek
historian Arrian tells us. “In the art of war the
Indians wore fas superior to the other nations
inhabiting the area at that time” Espocially
tho Greek soldiers were tld of à formdable
power on the Ganga Obviously it was the
kingdom of Magadha ruled by the Nandas
‘who manntained an army far outnumbering
Wat of Alexindse So, despite the repeated
appoals of Alexander 16 advance, the Greek
soldirs did not budge an inch Alexander
lamented. “Tam trying to tousa the hearts that
are disloyal and crushed with craven fears.”
The king who had never known defeat at the
bands of his enemios had to accept defeat from
his ow men Ho was forced to retreat, and his
ream of an easter empire remained unful-
‘lsd. On hisretura march Aleñander vanguish-
ed many'small republics tll ha renchod the
end of the Indian frontier. He remained in
India for 19 months (326-325 B.C), Which
‘ware fll of fighting. He had barely any tomo to
organize his conquests Still he made some
arrangements. Most conquarad states were
restored to their rulees who submitted to his
authority. But his own territorial possessions
were divided into three parts, which were
placed under three Greek governors. He also
founded a number of cities to maintam: his
power ın this area

Efecto of Alexander's Invasion

Alexander's invasion provided the first occa-
sion when ancient Europe came into close
contact with ancieat India, It produced cectain

89. IRANIAN AND MACEDONIAN INVASIONS n

important results. The Indian campaign of
Alexander was a triumphant success Ho added
to his empire an Indian province which was
much larger than that conquered by Iran, though
the Greek possessions in India were soon lost
Lo the then Maurya rulers,

‘The most important outcome of this invasion
was the establishment of direct contact between
India and Greece in different fields. Alexander's
campaign opened up four distinct routes by land
and sea, It paved the way for Greek merchants
and craftsmen, and mersased the exsting fect
tes for trade.

Although we hear of some Grecks ling on
the north-west even before the invasion of
Alexander, the mvasion Jed to the establish-
ment of mora Greek sottlements in this are
‘The most important of them were the city
of Alexandria in the Kabul region, Boukephal
onthe Jhelum, and Alerandria m Sindh Al-
though the areas were conquered by the Mauryas
the settlements were not wiped out, and somo of
the Greeks continued to live in this area, under
both Chandragupta Maurya and Asoka.

Alexander was deeply interested in the geo-
graphy of the mysterious ocean winch he saw
Tor the fist tune at the mouth of the Indus.

‘Thorofore he despatched his new Meet under his
friend Nearchus to explore the coast and search
for harbours from the mouth of tha Indus to
that of the Euphrates. So Alexander’ historiaos”
hase left valuable geographical accounts. They
also haveleft clearly datad records of Alexander's
campaign, which enable us to build Iddian
chronology for subsequent events on a definite
basis Alexander's hustorrans also givo us me
portant information about social and econo-
mic conditions They tell us about the sol
system, the sele of girls nu manket places by poor
parents, and the fine broed of oxen ra north-west
India. Alexander sent from there 200,000 oxen
to Macedonia for use in Greece The art of
carpentry was tho most flourishing craft in
India, and carpenters built chariots, boats and
ships

By destroying the power of petty states in
north-west India Alexandor’s invasion paved
‘the way for the expansion of the Maurya empire
in thatares, According totradition Chandragupta
Maurya, who founded the Maurya empire, had
soon something of the working of the military
machine of Alexander and had acquired some
knowledge which helped him in desteoying the
power of the Nandas

EXERCISES

were its results?

2

the route he took.

‘Narrate the history of Alexander's invasion

Givo an account of the Iranian invasion of India in the sixth century B.C. What

ndia, indicating on a sketch-map

What were the effects of Alexander's invasion of India?

90. a CHAPTER 12

State and Varna Society in the Age
of the Buddha

Material Life
The pioture of material life in north India,
espacilly in castor Uttar Pradesh and Bihar,
can bo drawa on the basis of the Pali texts and
the Sanskrit Sutra iteratare in combination with
arehasological evidence, Archacologicaly the
sixth contury B.C. marks the beginning of the
NBF phase. The abbreviation NBP stands for
tho Northern Black Polshed Waro, which was
a, very lossy, shining (ype of pottery, This
pöttary was made of very fine fabric and apparen-
ly served as the tablo-ware of richer people.
In association with this pottery are found iron
logleneno. epeialy hom meant for eae
and age This phase lo soy th à
ing of mae money. The use of burn br
and ringwells appraced in the middle of the
NBP phase, de. in the third contury B.C.
‘The NBP phaso marked tho bagianing of the
second urdanizatton in India, The Harappan
towns finally disappsarod in about 1500 B.C.
After that for about 1,000 years wo do not find
any towns in India, With the appearance of
towas inthe middle Gangetic basin in the’
sinth contary B.C, a second urbanization
bogan in India. Many towns mentioned in
the Pali and Sanskrit texts such as Kausambi,
Sravast, Ayodhya, Kapilayastu, Varanasi
Vaisali, Rajgir, Pataliputra, Champe have been
excavated, and in each case signs of habitation
and mud structures belonging to the advent
of the NBP phase or its middle have been found.

Wooden palisades have been found in Patwa,
and these possibly belong to Maurya or pre:
Maurya times, Some of these towns wore also
fortifed. Houses were mostly made of mud-
brick and wood, which naturally have perished
in the mois climate of tha middla Gangetic
basin. Although sevenstoried‘ palacos aro
mentioned ia the Pali texts, thoy have not bean
discovered anywhere. Structures excavated 50
far aro generally ummpressivo, but together
with the other material romans they indicate
great increase in population wien compared
with the Pamted Grey Ware setlamants

Many towns were seats of government, but
whatever be the causes of their origin’ they
eventually turned out to be markets and came
to be inhabited by artisans and merchants
At soma places thore was concentration of
artisans, Saddalaputta at Vaisal had $00 potters’
shops. Both artisans and merchants were
organized into guilds under’ their respective
hendmen. We hear of 18 guilds of artisans but
only the guilds of smiths, carpenters, leather
„workers and painters are spocified. Both arte
sans and merchants lived in fixed localities in
towns. We hear of vestas or merchants’ stoct
da Varanasi. Similarly we hear of the strat of
ivory-workers. Thus specialization in crafts
developed on account of the guild system as
well as localization. Generally crafts were
hereditary, ond the son learned his family
trade from the father

91. STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 0

DISTRIBUTION

INORTHERN BLACK
POLISHED WARE
Pie neha mnie

Tomas

ARAOIAN SEA

moran N, ‘ocean

‘Based upon Survey of Indie map with ho permission 'o the Surveyor General of dia.
© Government of India copyright, 1982. ij dl ‘
“he serca waters of Idi extend nto the sa to san of twelvé nie! miles
measured tom the appropri bate hae, : a

igure 9° Jndlo—NBÉ ses >

92. 20

The products of crafts wore carried over
Long distances by merchants. Wo repeatedly hear
of 500 eartioads of goods. These contamed
fing textile goods, ivory objets, pots, ete. All
the important cis of the perod were situated
ox river banks and trado routes, and conne:
ed with one another. Sravash was linked. with
both Kausambi and Varanasi. The later was
considered to be a great centro of trade ın the
age of Buddha The route fom Stavast passed
eastward and southward through Kapilavasta
and Kusinara and came to Vawah. ‘Traders
eosted the Ganga near Patna and went to
Rajgir. They also went by the Ganga river to
Champa near modern Bhagalpur. wo believe
the Jake stores the traders of Kosala and
Magadha vent vie Mathura as Far northward
as Tail Similarly from Mathura they wont
to Vipin and the Guprat coast

Trade was facltatad by the use of money,
‘The terms nia and satamanain the Vedic
texts are taken to be names of coins, but coins
actually found “are not car than the sixth
century B.C. lt seems that In Vedic tines
change was carried on through means of barter,
and sometimes cattle sewed the purpose of
cutrency. Cons made of metal appear frst ın
the age of Gautama Buddha, The east ara
made largly of silver though a few coppers
also appear. They are called punch-marked
because pieces ofthese metals were punched with
cortan marks such as hill, trees; fish, bull,
slophant, crescent, ec. The eatiet hoards of
these colas have been found in castern Utrar
Pradesh and Magedha, although some early
coins are also found in Taxila. The Pal ts
indicate plentiful uso of money and show that
wages and prices were paid init. The use of
money had become so universal that even the
prise of a dead mouse was estimated ın it.”
__ Wis fiel that writing stated a couple of
entries before Asoka and contributed fo trade.
Tho calles records were protably not written
Om stone and metal and have therefore perish

ANCIENT INDIA

ed. Weting led to the compilation of not
only Tavs and rituals but also factaced books
keeping, which was so essential to trade, tax-
collection, and the kesping of a large pr
fessional army. Tho period: produced texts
dealing with soplusticated. measurement (Sul-
vasatras) which presuppose writing and which
may have helped the demarcation of fes and
houses

Although rural settlements belonging to the
NBP phase have not been excavated, we cannot
thunk of the beginning of crafts, commerce and
urbanization m the middle Gangetic basin
without a strong rural base Prices, priest,
arusans, traders, administrators, military pero
sonnel and numerous othe? funcionarios
could not hve in towns unless taxes, tributes and
tithes were available ın suficient measure to
support them. Noreagricaltansts living 1n towas
had to be fed by agrealtaristsfiving ın villages.
In return artisans and traders living ın towns
made tools, cloth, ete, available to. the
rural folk. Wa, hoar of a village trader deposite
ing 500 ploughs with a town merchant, Obvious-
ly these were iron ploughshares. From the
NBP phase in Kausambı iron tools consisting of
axes, adzes, knives, razors, nails, seks, eto,
have been discovered. A good number of them
belong to the earliest layers of the NBP phase,
nd were probably meant for the use of the
peasants who bought them by payıng in cash
ay kind

Numerous villages aro mentioned in the
Pal ts, and towas seam to have boon situa
ted amidst the clusters of villages It sooms
that tho nucleated rural gettlement in which
all people settled at one’place and had their
agricultural Jands mostly outside the settlement
first appeared in tho middle Gangetio basin in
the age of Gautama Buddha, Tho Pali texts
speak of three pes of villages. The At
category includ ¿ho typical lag inhabited by
various castes and communities. Us number
scoms to Have been the largest, and it was headed

93. A STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA *

by a village haudman called bhgjake ‘Tho ocond
inluded suburban villages which were m the
nature of craft villages; for nstanos a carpone
ters village ay in the vicinity of Varanasi
Obviously thas villages served as markets for
the other villages and linked che towns with
countryside, The thd category consisted of
border villages situated on the limits of the

ido which merged into forests. People
living in these villages were mainly Fowlers and.
hunters, and tod 4 backward ie,

“The vigo lands wore divided into cultablo
plots and allotted famlyavise. Every family
Cultivated ts plots wat the holp of its members
supplomentad by that of agricultural labourers.
Fields were fencod and irrigation channels dug
collectively by the pensant families under the
Superwion of the vage headman.

The peasants had to pay onesith of tie
produce as tax Taxes wore collected directly by
royal agents, and genarally toro were no in
termodiat landlords be.ween the peasints on
th one hand and the stats on the otter. But
some villages were granted to brahmanas and big
morchants for their enjoyment. We also hear of
large plots of land worked with the help of
slaves and agricultural labourers Rich peasants
were called. grihgpatis, who wore almost the
same as Vans

‘Rice was the tape cereal produced 1 eastern
Uva Pradesh and Bar this pocod, Various
types of paddy and paddy felds aro described
in the Pa texts. The: uso ofthe term for transe
plantation 1 found ın the Palı and Sanskrit
forts ofthe period, and i sms that large-scale
paddy transplantation began m the age of the:
Buddha. Paddy transplantation or wet paddy’
production enormously added to the sed. In
Addition tho peasants also produced bale,
pales, mallets, cotton and sugarcane Agr
culture made great advance because of the use
of the ıron ploughshare and immense fetiy
of the alfevium soil m the area between Allaha-
bad and Ramahal

a

“The place of technology in promoting rural
and urban economy needs to be undertined,
Tron played a crucial role ın opening the rain-
Fed Forested, hard-sol area of the middle Ganga
basin to clearance, cultivation and settlement.
‘The smiths knew how to harden jron tools
Some tools from Rajghat (Varanasi) show that
they were made out of the ıran ores obtained
from Singhbhum and Mayurbhanj. It thus
appears that people came to be acquainted with
the richest won mines ın the country which
was bound to increase.the supply of tools for
crafts and agriculture.

‘The picture of economy that emerges from
a study of material remains and the Pali texts
is much different from the rural economy of
later Vedic timos in western Uttar Pradesh
or the nature of the economy of à fow chal-
colithwe communities found m some parts of
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, We notice for the
first time an advanced food-producing economy
spread over the alluvium soil of the middle
Gangetic basin and the beginning of urban
economy tn tus area It was an economy which
provided subsistence not only to direct producers
but also to many others who were not farmers
or artisans. This made possible collection of
taxes and maintenance of armes on a long-
term ‘basis, and created conditions in which
large territorial states could be formed and
sustained,

Administrative System
Although we hear of many states in this
period only Kosala and Magadha emerged as
powerful Both of them wece ruled by the heredi-
tary monarchs belonging to the kshatriya vara
The Jatakas or thestones relating to the prev
ous births of the Buddha.tll us that oppressive
kıngs and their chief priests wore expolled by"
the people and new Kings were installed, But
occasions of expulsion ware as rare as those of
lesuon. The kg enjoyed the highest offen
status and special protection of his person and

94. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

property. He yiolded ground only to great
religious lade of the stature of tho Buddha
The king was primary a warlord who Ind bis

ingdom ftom vielory to very. This is well
Ülustreted by the careers of Bimbisara and
Ajatasaes.

The Kings ruled with the help of oficial,
both high and low. Highar ofits were called
mahanatras, and they performed various Fano»
tions such as those of the minister (mantri),
commander (venanayaka), judge, chief accoun-
fant and head of the royal harem. It is likely
that a class of officers called ayukras also per:
formed smilar fonctions in some of the stats.

The kings caried on admustraion with
the holp of tho oficors. Varskara of Magadha.
and Dirghacharayana of Kosala were affective
and influential ministers. The fit. succecded
in sowing seeds of dissension in the ranks of
the Lichehhans of Vaisll and enabled Ajatasa-
ra to conquer the republic. The second render-
ed help to the king of Kosala. Tt seams that
high offers and minssters were largely reeuited
{om the priestly cas ofthe brahmanas. Gene-
rally they do not seem to have belonged to the
can of tho king.

In both Kosala and Magadha, despite the
se of the punch-marked como mado of silver,
infuental brohmaras énd serthis were paid by
the, grant of the revenue of villages. In dati
4, the king did not have to obtain the consent
‘ofthe clan, as was the caso in [aer Vedic times,
but the banficiacios Wore granted only revenun;
they were aot given any administeative authority.

‘The rural administration was in the hands of
tin vilago teadman.- la the beginning, the
headmen sfunttionsd as «leads of the tribal
wegiments, and so they mère called. gramint
which means the leader ofthe grama or a tribal
military unit. As life became sedéatary and
plough cultivation’ well-established, tribal con-
ingame’ seed down to agriculture. The gra-
min therefore was transtormed into a village
hexdman: in pro Maucjá times. The village

hoadihon wore known by dieron titles such as
granabinjaka, gramint or gramika. Eighty-six
thousand gramikas are said to hato been sum-
moned by Bimbisara The number may be con.
Ventional, but ıt shows that the village head-
men enjoyed considerable importance and had
direct links with the kings The village head-
men assessed and collected the taxes from the
villagers, and they also maintained law and

thei localıy. Sometimes oppressive
hoadenen Were taken to task by the villagers

Army and Taxation

‘The real incronse in state power 15 indicated
by the formation of a large professional army.
‘At the timo of Alexander's invasion, the Nanda
ruler of Magadha Kept 20,000 cavalry, 200,000
infantry, 2000 horse-chariots and about 4000
lophants. The chariots were losing their impor-
tance not only in north-east but also in north
est India, where they had bon introduced
by the Aryans. Very few elephants were main-
tained by the rulers of the states in north-west
India, though some of thom maintained as
many horses as the Magadhan king did. The
possession of numerous elephants gave an edge
to the Magadhan princes.

‘The large long-service army had to be fad by
the stato exchequer We are told that the
Nandas possessed enormous wealth which must
have enabled tham to support the army, but we
have no clear idea of the measures by which
they raised taxes from the people, The fiscal
systom was established on a firm bass. Warriors
and priests, ia, the kshatriyas and the brak-
manas, were exempted from payment of taxes,
and the burden fell on the peasants who were
mainly vaisyas or grihapatis. Balt, a vohintary
payment made by the tribesmen to their chiefs
in Vedic times, became a compulsory payment
to bo mado by the poasants ın the age of the
Buddha, and’ officers called balisadhakar we
appointed to collect ıt. TL seems that one-sixth,
of the produce was collected as tax by the king.

95. STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE BUDDHA 8

from tho peasants. Taxes ware assessed and
collected by royal agents with the help of wl
lage houdthen. The advent of writing may have
helped the assessment and collection of taxes.
“The discovery of many hoards of punch-marked
‘corns suggests that payment was made in both
cash and kand. la north-eastern India payment
was mado in paddy. In addition to these taxes
the peasants wero subjected to forced labour
for royal work. The birth stores of the Buddha
spank of cases tn which peasants loft the coun:
try of tha king ın order to escape the oppressive
burden of taxes.

‘Arpsans and traders also had to pay taxes
Actisans wore made to work for a day in a
month for the king, and the tcadors had to pay
customs on the sale of their commodities. The
tolls were collected, by officers known as sau
aka or sulkadhyaksha

‘The kings of the period no longer summoned
the sabia and samutı. Popular: assomblis had
practially disappearou in post-Vedio times.
Sine they were essentially tribal snsttutions
they decayed and disappeared as tribes dis
tegrated into varnas and lost their dent
Their placo was taken by varna and caste groups,
and so caste laws and customs were given due
weight by the wnters of the law-books. How
ever, those regulations were mainly confined to
social matters. Popular assemblies could succeed
nly in, small kingdoms whore members of the
tribo could easily be summoned, as may have
‘en the case m tha Vodie period. With theemer-
anos of the large states of Kosala and Maga:
dba it was not possible tg hold big assemblies,
attended by people balonging to différent social
classes and different parts of the omprro; The
sheer dificulty of communication made regular
‘meetings, impossible, Further, being trbel the
old assambly could not ‘find, placa for, many
‘non-Vedic paople who lived in the new kingdoms.
The, changed. circumstances therefore. were
not congenial for the continuance of the, old
assembles, Instead, xn this pociod we heat of

a small body called parishad consisting exclu
sively of the brahmanas. Even im this period
assemblies were there, but not in the monarehes,
They flourished in the smaller republican states
of the Sakyas, Lichehhavis, ec

‘The Republican Experiment

Tho ropublican system of government existed
either in the Indus basin or in tho foothills of
the Himalayas in eastorn Uttar Pradesh and -
Bihar. The cpublics in the Indus basin may
havo been the remnants of the Vodie tribes
although some monarchies may have bon
followed by republics. In some cases in Uttar
Pradosh-and Bihar people were possibly inspired
by the old deals of tribal equality wluch did not
give much prominence to the raja

Jn the republes real power lay ın ths hands
of tribal oligarchiss. In the republies of Sakyas
and Lichchhavis the ruling class belonged to
the same clan and the same vama. “Although
in. the case of the Lichehhavis of Vatsli 7707
rajas sat on the assembly held in the motahall;
the brahmanas were not mcluded 1n this group.
In post-Maurya umes, ın the republics of the
Malavas and tho Kshudratas, the kshatnyas
and the brahmanas were given citizenship, but
slaves and hired labourers were excluded from
A. In a state situated on the -Beas rec in
Panyab, membership was resticrd to those who
could supply at least on elephant to the state.
‘This was a typical oligarchy in the Indus basin

The administrative machinery of the Sakyas
and Lichchhavis was simple. It-conssted of
raja; uparaja (nos-king), senapati (commandes)
and bhandagarıka (treasurer). We hear of as
many as seven courts for trying tha same case
ono after another in the Lichchhaw republic,
‘but this seems to bo too good to be, tue.

In any cage cortain states in. the ago. of, the
Buddha wore mot culad by “hereditary -Kings
but by persons who, were responsible to the
assemblas: Thus although the pzople-ving im
ancient republics may not have shared ppl

96. “

cal power equally, the republican tradition
in the country is as old as the age of the Buddha

‘The republes differed from the morarchtes
in sevaral ways In the monarchves the king
claimed to ba the sole recipient of revenue from
the peasants, but im the republic dus claim
was advanced by every tribal oligarch who was
known as reja Each one of the 7707 Lichehhavi
rajas mamtained hus storo-house and apparatus
of administration. Again, monarchy
maintained its regular standing army and did
ao permit any group ot groups of people to
keep arms within its boundaries But in a tribal
oligarchy each raja was free to maintain hıs
own little army under his senapatl, so that
ach of them could compete with the other
‘The brahmanas exercised’ great uvuance in
‘monarchy, but they had no place in the early
republics, nor did they recognize these states
va their faw-books Finally, the main diference
between a monarchy and a republic lay in the
fact that the latter functioned under the leader-
ship of oligarchic assemblies and not of an
individual, as was the ease with tho former.

‘The republican tradition became feeble from
the Maurya period. Even in pre-Maurya times,
monarchies were far strenger and common.
‘Naturally ancient thınkers looked upon king:
sup as the common and most important form
of government. To them the stato, government
and kingship meant the same thing. Since the
state was well established in the age of the
Buddha, thnkers began to speculate about its
possible origins The Digha Nıkaya, one of the
eurent Buddhust Pal texts, points out that
in the carles stage human beings lived happily
Gradually they came to have private property
and set up house with their wives So thay
began to quarrel over property and women.
In order to put an end to this quarrel they
elected a chief who would maintain law and
‘order and protect people. In return For protection.
the people promised to give to the chief a part
of their paddy. This chief came to be called

ANCIENT INDIA

king, and this is how kingship or the state
originated,

Social Orders and Leghlation

The Indfan legal and judicial system ongina-
ted in ths period. Formerly people were governed
ty the tribal lw, which did not recognize any
css distinction But dy now the tribal comme
nity ad boon lay divided into four classes
brahimanas, kehatriyas, valsyas and sudras
So the Dharmasıtras iad down the dutes of
each of the four vanas, and the chi and ario
‘ial law came to be based on Me vana
divsion. Tho higher the vama the purer

was. and tho higher vas the onder of
moral conduct expected by civil and. crimmal
law. All kinds of disabilities. wore imposed
on the sas They were deprwved of religious
and legal rights and relegated to the lowest
postion in society, They could not be invested
With panayona, Crimes commited by tham
ain the brahmanas and ers were puntsh-
ed severely; on the other hand the crimes
commited against tho sudras vere punished
lightly. The lavarvers emphasized the ton that
the suds were born from that ofthe Creator.
So members of the higher varnas, especialy
che brahmanas, shunned the company of the
sudra, avorded the food touched by Him and
cofosed to enter into marriage relations with
him He could not be appointed to high posts,
and abow all ho was specially asked to serve
the tvice-born as slave, artisan and agreultual
labourer. In thus respect even Jainism and
Buddhism did not make any substantia change
in the postion of the sudras Although they
could be admitted to the now religious orders
their general position continued to be low It
is sad that Gautama Buddha visited the astor-
Vies of the brahmanas, the kahatiyas and the
grihapatis or housoholders, but the assembly of
the sudras 1 not mentioned in this connection.

Civil and criminal law was administered by.
royal agents, who inflicted rough and ready

97. STATE AND VARNA SOCIETY IN THE AGE OF THE AUDDHA ss

punishments such as scourgung, beheading, tear-
Ing out of the tongue, ete In many cases punish
ments for criminal offences wore governed by
the idea of revenge. It meant tooth for tooth
and eye for eye

Although the brahmanıcal law-books took
into account the social status of the different
varnas m framing thet: laws, they did not ignore
the customs of those non-Vedie teibal groups
‘who ware gradually absorbed into the brah-
marucal social order which went on expanding
as a result of conquests Some of these indigen-
ous (ribals were given fietinous social orgins,
and, what is further important, they were allowod
to be governed by theur own customs

‘The age of the Buddha 1s important becauso

ancient Indien poly, economy and society
really took shape in this period. Agriculture
based on the use of ron cools ın alluvial areas
save rise to an advanced food-producing econo
my, particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh and
Bihar It was possible to collect taxes from the
peasants, and on the basis of regular taxes and
tributos largo states could bo founded. In order
to continue this system the varna order was
devised, and the functions of each varna were
clearly lad down According to thus system,
rulers and fighters were called kehatnyas, priests
and teachers ware called brahinanas, peasants
and taxpayers were called varsyas, and those
who served all these thros classes as labourers
were called sudras

EXERCISES

What is meant by the NBP phase?

Point out the important econome developments in the age of the Buddha,

How were the varnas organized in post-Vedie times?
Deseribe the system of administration in the monarchical states
Give an account of the republican system of goverament,

98. CHAPTER 13

The Age of the Mauryas

Chandragupta: Maurya

‘The Maurya dynasty was founded by Chandra-
apta Maurya, who seens to have belonged to
some ordinary family. According to the brak-
‘maniea! tradition ho was born of Mura, a sud
woman in the court of the Nandas But an carhor
Buddhist tradition speaks of the exıstence of a
kstatnya clan called Mauryas Hg in the
region of Gorakhpur adjoinng tie Nepalese
feral Tn all likellhood Chandragupa was a
member of this clan, He took advantage of the
growing wegkness and unpopularity of the
Nandas in the last days of their rule With the
help of Chanakya, who 15 known as Kautilya,
he overthrew the Nandas and established the
rule of the Maurya dynasty.

Justin, a Greek writer, says that Chandre-
aupta overran the whole of India with an army
of 600,000. This may or may not be true But
Chandragupta libereted north-wostern India
from the thraldom of Seleucus, who ruled over
the area sos of tho Indus. In the war with the
Greek viceroy, Chandragupta seems to have
coms out vistonous, Eventually peace was
concluded between the two, and in retara for
500 elephants Seloucus gave him easton Afghanı-
Stan, Baluchistan and the area west of the Indus
Chancragupta thus but up a vast empire which
included not only Bihar and good portions of
Orissa and Bongal, but also western and north
western Indi, and the Deccan Leaving Kerala,
Tamil Nado and parts of northeastern India

the Mauıyas ruied over the whole of the subcon-
tungnt In the northowest they held sway over
cortan arcas which were not included even in
the Botish empire,

Imperial Organization

The Mauryus organized a very elaborate
system of administration, We know about it
from the account of Megasthenes and the
Authasastra of Keutiya Mogastkenes was a
Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the
court of Chandragupta Maurya He lived ın
the Maurya capital of Patalıputra and wrote an
account not only of the administration of the
city of Pataliputra but also of the Maurya empire
as a whole. The account of Megasthones does
not survive in full, but quotations occur in. the
works of several subsequent Greek writers
These fragments have been collctod and
published an the form ofa book, which throws
‘valuable light on the adminstcaion, society and
economy of Maurya times

‘The account of Mogasthenes can be supple
mented by the Arihasastra of Kautılya Although
the Arthasastra wes fnally compiled a few
centuries after the Maurya rule, some of its

+ books contsin matera that is genuine and gives

authentic information about the Maurya admini-
stration and economy. On the basis of these
two sources we can draw a picture ofthe admını-
strative system of Chandeagupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya was evideutly an

99. {HE AGE OF THE MAURVAS #7

autoerat who concentrated all power ın bis
hands. If we believe in a statement of the
Arthasastra, the king had set a hugh ideal He
“stated that ın the happmess of his subjects lay
his happiness and ın char troubles lay his
troubles. But we do not know how far the king,
acted up to these norms. According to Megas-
thenes the king was asssted by a council
whose members were noted for wisdom. There
is nothing to show that their advice was binding
on the king, but from the councillors were
chosen the high officers

‘The empire was divided into a number of
provinces, and each province was placed under
à prince who was a Scion of the royal dynasty.
‘The provinces were divided anto still smaller
units We know from excavations that a large
number of towns belonged to Maurya times
and special attention had to be paid to ther
‘administration Patalputra, Keusambt, Usain
and Taxıla were the most important cies, The
admunstration of Patalputra, winch was the
capital of the Mauryas, wes cared on by
six committees, each committee consisting of five
members. ‘These commttess were entrusted
with sanitation, care of foreigners, registration
of birth and death, regulation of waights and
measures and sumlar other functions. Various
types of weights belonging to Maurya times
have been found at several places ın Behar.

Tn addition to these officers the centra! govern-
ment maintained about two dozon departments
of the state, which controlled social and econo-
mie activites at least ın the areas which were
neat the capital The most striking feature of
Chandragupta's admimstration is the mainten-
ance of a huge army. According to the account
of a Roman writer, called Pliny, Chandragupta
maintained 600,000 foot-soldier, 30,000 cavalry
‘and 9000 elephants. Another source tels us that
the Mauryas maintained 8,000 chariots. In
addition to this 1t seems that the Mauryas also
maintained a navy. The administration of the
‘armed forces, according to Megasthenes, was

cared on by a board of 10 offers divided
into aux comme, cach commtteo consisting
of five members It sooms that the sxc wings
of the armed foroes—the army. the cavalry, the
lephants, the chariots, the navy and trensport—
were each asignod to the caro of a seperate
comme The Mauryan miliary. strength
vas almost three times that of the Nendas
Tas happened apparently on account of a
mach larger empire and far moro resources.

How did Chandragupta Maurya manage to
smoot the expenses of such a huge army? IF we
rely on the Arthatastra of Kautiya, ıt wonld
appear that the state controlled almost all the
esonomie activities ın the realm The state
brought new land under cltivation with the
help of cultwators and sudra labourers The
virgin land which was opensd to cultwation
yielded handsome income to the stat in the
form of revenue colectod from the ney soll
peasants It seems that taxes collected ftom the
peasants vared from one-fourth to onosixth
OF the produce. Those who wate provided with
irrigation faltos by the state had to pay for
it. In addon to this in times of emergeney
peasants wore compelled to mise mors crops.
Tolís were eso leved on commodities brought
to town for sas, and they were colletad at
the gate, Moreover, the state enjoyed a mono-
poly im mina, sale of liquor, manufacture of
somo, eto This naturally brought money to
the royal exchequer.

Chandragupta thus established a welkorganiz-
ed administrative system and gave it a sound
financial base.

‘Asoka (273-232 B.C)

Chandragupta Maurya was succeeded by
Bindusara, whose reign is Important for con-
tinued links with the Greek princes His son,
Asoka, 15 the greatest of the Maurya rulers
According to Buddhist tradition, Le was so
‘uel in his early life that he killed his 99 brothers
to get the throne, But since the statement 15

100. 88 ANCIENT INDIA

based on a legond, it may-well be wrong. His
biography, prepared by Buddhist waiters, 1s
so fell of fiction that it cannot be taken
seriously

Asokan Bdicts

We can reconstruct the history of Asoka on
the basis of his mscrptions. He is the first
Indian king to speak directly to the people
through his msorphons. They were engraved
‘on rocks, on polished stone pillars mounted by
capitals and in the caves. They are found not
‘oaly in the Indian Subcontment but also
Kandhar in Afghanistan. These inscriptions
fare ın the form of 44 royal orders, and each
royal order has several copies. The inserptions
‘were composed in Prakrit language, and written
in the Brahmi script throughout the greater
part of the empire, But ın the north-western
part they appear in Kharosthi script, and in
Kandhar in Afghanısten they were written even
im Aramaic, in Greek script and Greek language.
These wscriplions were generally placed on
ancent highways. Thay thcow light on the cazeer
of Asoka, hos external and domestic policies,
and the extent of his empire

mote of Kalnan War
ology of Budähism guided Ascka’s
sua polly tt home and abroad” Ar In
acession to the throne Asoka fought only one
major war called the Kalinga war, According
to him 100,000 people were killed in this war,
and 150,000 were taken prisoners The war
brought to the brahmana priests and the
Buddhist monks greet suffering, which caused
‘Asoka much grief and remorso. So he abandoned
‘the polioy of physical occupation m favour of a
policy of cultural conquest In other words,
Bherishosha was replaced by dhammaghosha.
We quote below the words of Asoka from his
13th Major Rock Edict
en he had been consecrated eight years
the Beloved of the Gods, the king Piyadassi,

conquered Kalinga, A bundred and fifty
thousand people wore deported, a hundred
thousind wore killed and many timos that
number perished, Afterwards, now that

‘Kalinga was annexed, the Beloved of the Gods

very eamnestly practised Dhamma, desired

Dhamma, and taught Dhamma On conquer.

img Kalınga the Beloved of the Gods fait

remorse, for, when an independent country

19 conquered the slaughter, death, and deporta-

tion of the people is extremely gcievous to

the Beloved of the Gods, and weighs heavily
on his mind What ıs even more deplorable

29 the Beloved of the Gods, 15 that those who

dwell there, whether brahmans, sramanas,

or those of other sects, or houssholders who
show obedience to their teachers and behave
well and devotedly towards their friends,
acquaintances, colloagues, relatives, slaves,
and servants—all suffer violence, murder, and
separation from there loved ones. ... Today
af a bundredth or a thousandth part of those
people who were killed or died or were depor-
16d when Kalinga was annexed were to suffer
similarly, it would weigh heavily on the mind
of the Beloved of the Gods... . The Betoved
of the Gods considers victory by Dhamma

to bo the foremost victory. .

‘Asoka now made an ideological appeal to
wards the tribal peoples and the frontier king-
doms. The subjects of the independent states
in Kalinga were asked to obey the king as their
father and to repose confidence ın him. The
officials appointed by Asoka were insteucted to
propagate this idea among all sections of his
subjects. The tebal peoples were similarly asked
to follow the principles of dhamma,

‘Asoka no longer treated foreign domimions as
legitimate areas for military conquest. He tnd
to conquer them ideologically. He took steps
for the welfare of men and animals in foreign
lands, which was a new thing considering the
condition of those days. He sent ambassadors
of peace to the Greek kingdoms in Weste

101. ‘THE AGE OF THE MAURYAS 89!

THE EMPIRE OF ASOKA

urn

ARABIAN 564

INDIAN.

7 Figure 10. Empire of Atoka

102. ”

Asa and Greece. All this can be stud on the
basis of Ascka's mscuptions If we rely on
the Buddhist eradinon at ‘Would appear Chat
ho sont imissionanes for the propagation of!
Baduhism to Su Lanka and Conteal Asia As
an onlighéened ruler Asoka med to onlarge Ris
area of politeal ınfuones through propagande.
N would be wrong to thik that the Kalinga
vas made Asoka an extreme pacifist. He did
rot pursue the palicy of peace for the sake of
peace under all conditions. On the other hand,
he adopted a practical policy of consolidating
Jus empne Ho vetained Kalinga aftr its con
quest and incotporated it into his empire
“There 15 also notbung to show that he disbanded
the huge army maintamad from the tune of
Chandragupta Maurya Although he ropoatodly
asked the tubal people to follow the policy
of dharma, he thrsatoned thom xf they violated
the established rules of social order and right
ccousness (dharma). Within the empire he ap-
pointed a class ofoffcars known as the rajukas,
who wore vested with the authority of not only
revarding people but alo punistung them,
wherever necessary. The poly of Asoka to
consolidate the empire through dharma bore
fut. The Kandhar inscriphon speaks of the
success of his polley with the hontors and
fishermen, who gave up Killing anumals
possibly took to a setled agricultural Tite

Interna Policy and Buddhism
‘Asoka was converted to Buddhism as a
result of the Kalinga war. Acvordung to tradi
tion ho becamo a monk, made huge gifts to the
Buddhists and undertook pugramagos to the
Buddhist shrines, The fact of his visitiag the
‘Buddhist shrines 1 also suggested by the dharma
atras mentioned ın his inserptions,
According to tradition the Buddhist council
was held under the chairmanship of Asoka’s
brother, and missionares were sent not only
to south India but also to Sri Lanka, Burma
and other countriss to convert the people

ANCIENT INDIA

134 Remadel Pilar Inserpilon of Asoka
‘The mserpion 1s m Brahmı sect. The language of
the igenption 1 Peak

“Tae Nagae rendering and Eng tarlation of the
ineripton are sven below

Y ad eae tater an

2 mr md Ra Rei

sf ren fe
EL

4 Re en fer fem af m

5 me

(When song Devanamprıya Pryadarin had. been
noted twenty year, Be came Puma and worbi-
ed (his opp, Because the Buddha Sakyamanı vas
bora here

(He) both caused to bo mado a stone beating wal
and caused a stone pillar to be set up in order 10
Row) thatthe Ale one was bora Woe

“Tho vilage of Lumbim was exempted from Bol
(but) and bhapa (he royal share of the produce)
as reduced to one-cighlh]

there. Brahmi inscriptions of the second fist
centuries B.C. have been found in Sri Lanka,
Asoka set a very high ideal for himself, and
this was the ideal of pateenal kingship. He
rep.atedly asked his officials to tll the subjects
that the King looked upon them as his children,
As agents of the king, the officials were also.

103. ‘TIE AGE OF THE MAURYAS 9

asked to take caro of the people Asoka appoı
ted dharmanahamanras for propagating dharma
among various social groups ıneludı
He ulso appointed raukas for the adr
jon of justice in his empire

Ho disapproved of sıtuals, especially those
observed by women He forbade Killing of
certain birds and animals, and completely
prohibited the slaughtor of anunals ın the
capital He interdicted gay social functions ın
whrch people indulged ın revelrus.

But Asoka’s dhaima was not anarrow dharma
It cannot be tegarded as a sectarian faith. Its
brosd objective was to proserve the social order.
It ordauned that people should obey theu parents,
pay respect to the brahmanas and Buddhist
monks, and show mercy to slaves and servants.
These instructions can be found ın both the
Buddhist and brahmanıcal fuths,

‘Asoka taught people to live and let Ine He
emphasized compassion towards animals and
proper behaviour towards relatives His wach“
ngs were meant to strengthen the institution of
family and the existing social classes He held
that if the people behaved well they would
attain heaven, He never said that they would
‘attain nuvana, which was the goal of Buddhist
teachiags Asoka’s teachings were thus intended
to mesntam the exsting social order on the basis
‘of tolerance, He docs not seem to have preached
any sectarian faith.

Asoka's Place in History

Teas satd that the pacific policy of Asoka
ruined the Maurya empire, but this is not true
On the contrary Asoka has a number of
achievements to hus credit. He was certainly the
greatest mustonary rulee in the history of the
ancient world, Ho worked with great za and
devotion to his mission, aud achieved a lot,
both at home and abroad.

"Asoka brought about the politcal unification,
of the country He bound at further by one
dharma, one language and practically one seript

called Brahmi which was used sn most of
Tis ancriptions In unifying the country he
respected such seripts as Bralum, Kharosthu,
Aramawcand Greek Evidently he also accommno-
dated such languages as Greek, Prakrit and
Sunskrit and various religious’ sects Asoke
followed a tolerant religious policy He did not
try 10 foist his Buddtust fauth on hus subjects
On the othes hand he made gifts to non-Buddhist
uddhist sects

zeal for mussionaty
activites. He deputed officials in the farfune
parts of the empue This helped the causo
of udminutration and also promoted cultural
contacts betwoen the developed Gangetic basin
and the backward distant provinces, The
‘material culture, typical of the heart of the
empire, spread to Kalinga and the lower Deccan.
and northern Bengal

Above all Asoka «5 important ın history for
his policy of peace, non-aggresson and cultural
conquest Ho had no model in early Indian
History for pursuing such a policy, nor did such
an example exist an any county except Egypt
‘where Akhnaton had pursued a pacıfe policy am
the fourteenth century BC But 1 is obvious
that Asoka was not awace of hus Egyptian
predecessor Although Kautilya advised the
Xing 10 be always intent on physical conquest
‘Asoka followed just the reverse policy. He asked
as successors to give up the policy of conquest
and aggression, which had been followed by the
Magadhan princes ullthe Kalinga war. He coun-
sellea them to adopt a policy of peace, which
was badly needed after a period of aggressive
wars lasting for two centunes Asoke consistently
stuck to his poly. Although he possessed suffi-
cient resources and certainly marntained. a
huge army, he did not wage any war after the
conquest of Kalinga In this sense Asoka
was certainly far ahead of his day and
generation

However, Asoka’s policy did not make
Any lasting impression on his viceroys and

104. 2 ANCIENT INDIA

‘vassals, who declared themselves independent not convert his neighbours, who swooped on
in theer cespective arcas after the retremont of the north-western frontier of his empire within
the king ın 232 8 C. Simady the policy could 25 years of Asoka’s exit from power ın 232 B C.

EXERCISES 4

Who was Chandragupta Maurya? How did he establish the ruleof the Maury dynasty?
Describe the imperal organization set up by the Mauryas

Write notes on Megasthenes and Kautilya’s Arihasastra

What is meant by the dharma of Asoka”

How did Asoka promote Buddhism?

Wirte & biography of Asoka

105. CHAPTER 14

Significance of the Maurya Rule

Stale Control

‘The brahmanical taw-books again and again
stressed that the king should be guided by the
laws lard down ın the Dharmasastras and by
the customs provalent in the country, Kautlya
adusos the King to promulgate dharma when
tie social order based on the varnas and asram-
os (Stages im fe) perishes. The king is called
>y him dharmapravartaka or promulgator of
the social order, That the royal orders were
superior to other orders was asserted by Asoka
an his inscriptions. Asoka promulgated dharma
and appomted offcials to inculcate and enforce
its essentials throughout the country

‘Assertion of royal absolutism was a natural
culmination of the policy of military conquest
adopted by tie princes of Magadha. Anga,
Vasah, Kasi, Kosela, Avanti, Kalinga, etc,
were annexed to the Magadhan empire one
by one. The miltary control over these areas
eventually turngd into coercive control of all
aspects of life of the people, Magacha possessed
the requisite power of sword to enforce its
overall control

In order to control all spheres of life the state
had to maintain a vast bureaucracy. In no other
period of ancient history we hear of so many
officers as in Maurya. times

The adminwstrative mechanism was backed
by an elaborate system of ospronage Various
types of spies collected intelligence about
foreign enemies and kept an eye on numerous

officers They also helped the collection of
money from credulous people through del
borate resort to superstitious practices.

Important functionaries were called ti chas.
It seems that most functionaries were paid ın
cash The highest functonaries were minister
(mantrın), high priest (purohita), commander
incchief (senapatı) and crown-prince (Juvaraja),
who were paid generously as much as 48 thou-
sand panas (pana being a silver corn equal to
theee-fourths of a tola) In sharp contrast to
thom the lowest offers were given 60 panas
tw consolidated pay although some employees
were given as itl as 10 or 20 panas. Therefore
it would seem that there were enotmous gaps
between the highest and the lowest category of
government servants

Economic Regulations

TE we rely on the Arihasastra of Kautlya
it would apoear that the state appointed. 27
superintendents (adhyakshas) mostly to regulate
the economic actvitos of the state They con-
‘rolled and regulated agriculture, frado and
commerce, weights and measures, crafts such
as weaving and spinning, ming, and so on
The state also provided irrigation facilities and
regulated water supply for the benefit of
agriculturists. Megasthones ınlorms us that in
the Maurya empire the officer measured the
land as in Egypt and inspected the channels
through which water was distnbuted into

106. 9 ANCIENT INDIA

smaller channels.
“If wo believe the Artharastra of Kautlya, a
striking social development of the Maura
period was the employment of slaves ın agri
cultural operations. Megasthenes states that
ho did not notice any slaves in India. But there
1 no doubt that domestic slaves ware found
va India from Vedio times onwards. For the
first time in the Maurya period slavos were
‘engaged in agricultural work on a large scale
‘The state maintaiued farms, on which mumer-
ns slaves and hired labourers were omployed
150,000 warscaptıves brought by Asoka from
Kabnga may have been engaged in agricul-
ture. But ancient Indian society was not a
slave society. What the slaves did in Gresce and
Rome was done by the sudras in India, The
sudras were regarded as the collective property
ofthe three higher varnas They wove compelled
10 serve them as slaves, artisans, agricultural
labourers, and domestic servants,

Several reasons suggest that royal control
worked over a very large area, at least un the
core of the empire. This was because of the
strategic position of Pataliputra, from where
royal agents could sail up and down the four
directions. Besides this, the royal road ram
from Patahpatra to Nepal throngh Vaisali and.
Champaran, We also hear of a road at ths
foothills of the Himalayas, It passed from Vaisali
through Champaran to ‘Kapilavastu, Kalsi (in
Dehradun distri a, and eventually to
Peshawar. Mogasthenes. speaks of a road con-
necting north-western India with Patna. Roads
also connected Patna with Sasaram and from
there they went to Mirzapur and central Indra,
‘Tae capital was also connected with Kalinga
by a soute through eastern Madhya Pradesh,
and Kalınga in its tura was connected with
Andra and Kacnataka, AL this facilitated
transport in which horses may have played an
important part.

Further, it seems that the Maurya eulers did
not have to deal with a large population. All

told their army did not exceed 650,000 men.
If ton per cent of the population was recruited,
the total population would aot be more than
sixand a half million Asokan inseriptions show
that royal writ ran all over the country except
the extreme east and south but rigid state
control may nat have proved effective much
beyond the middle Gangetic zone.

“The Maurya period constitutes a landmark ın
the system of taxation in ancient India. Kautilya
names many tuxes to be colloted from peasants,
artisans and traders. This required a strong
and efficient machinery for assessment, collec-
Sion and storage. The Mauryas attached greater
importance to assessment than to storage and
deposting, The samaharta was the highest
officer ın charge of assessment, and the san
dhata was the chief custodian of the state trei-
sury and store-house. The harm done to thy
state by the first 1s thought to be more serious
than the harm caused by the second, In fact, an
elaborate machinery for assessment Ärst appears
in the Maurya period The lst of taxes mantion«
ed in the Arthasastra is impressive, and if these
wore really collected very little would be left
to the people to live on.

We have epigraphic evidence for the existence
of rural stors-houses, which show that taxes
‘were also collectod ın kind and these granaties
‘wore meant for helping local people in times
of famine, drought, ete.

Te seems that the punch-marked silver cous,
‘which carry the symbols of the peacock, und the
hill and croscent, formed the imperial curcen-
sy of the Mauryas. They have been discovered.

in large numbers. Apparsatly they contrıbuted to

tho collection of taxes and payment of officers
in cash. Further because of its uniformity the
currency must have facilitated market exchange
in a wider aren,

‘The Mauryas made a remarkable contribu
on to art and architecture, They mtroduced
stone masonry on 4 wide scale Megasthenes
states that the Maurya palace at Pataliputra was

107. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MAURYA RULE 9s

‘Asokan Pula, Lowiya-Nomdengia”

on

as splendid as that in the capital of Iran. Frag-
ments of stone pillars and stumps, indicating
the existence of a S0-pillared hall, have boon
discovered at Kumrhar, on the outskirts of
modern Patna. Although these remains do not
recall the magnificence mentioned by Megasthes
es, they certainly attest the high technica! skıll
attained by the Maurya artisans ia polishing the
stone pillas, which are as shining as Northern
Black Polished ware. It must have been a dif
ult task to carry the huge blocks of stone from
the quarries and to polish and embellish them
when they were placed erect, All this seems to
be a great feat of engineering Each pilar is
made of a single piece of sandstone, Only their
capitals, which contain beautiful sculptures in
the form of hons or bulls, ace joined with the
pillars on the top. These polished pillars were
set up throughout the country, which shows

that technical knowledge involved ın thet
polishing and transport had spread far and
wide, The Maurya artisans also started the
practice of hewing out caves from rocks for
monks to live ın The varlıst examples aro the
Barabar caves at a distance of 30 km from
Gaya, Later this kind of cave architecture spread
lo western and southern India

Spread of Material Culture
‘On the one hand the Mauryas created for the
first ume a welhorganized state machinery, which

Ant Copan, Ramparro

108. 96 ANCINT INDIA

operated in the heart of the empire. On the
other hand their conquest opened the doors
for trading and missionary actives. It seems
that the contacts established by administrators,
traders, and Jaune and Buddhist monks led to
the spread of the material culture of the Gange-
tue basin to the areas situated on the periphery
of the empre The new material cultore ın the
Gangetic basin was based on an intensive use
of iron, plenty of punch-marked coins, abun-
dance of beautiful pottery called Norther
Black Polished ware, introduebon of burnt
bricks and rıngwells, and above all on the
re of towns in northecagtern India. A Greek:

Artian states that 1 Is not possible
to record with accuracy the number of crues on

us

Terrcona Fgurme ef he Maya Period

account of their multiplicity Thus the Maurya
period witnessed rapid development of material
eulture in the Gangetic basın. On account of
easy access to the rich iron ores of southern
Bihar, people used more and more of iron
Implements To this period belong socketed
axes, sıckles and possibly ploughshare on a
large scale, Although arms and weapons were
the monopoly of the Maurya slate, the use of
the other iron tools was not restricted to any
class. Their use and manufacture must have
spread from the Gangetic basin to the distant
parts of the empire, In the Maurya period burnt
bricks were used for the frst time in north-
eastern India. The Maurya structures made of
burnt bricks have oem found in Bihar an
Uttar Pradesh Houses wore made of both
bricks und tumber witch was avaiable in plenty
because of thick vegetation ın ancient me
Megasthenes speaks of the wooden.structures
at the Maurya capital Pataliputra Excavations
show that logs of wood were also used as an
important line of defence agarast food and
foreign mvasion. The use of burnt hricks spread.
in the outlying provinces of the empire. Because
‘of monst climate and heavy ramal st was not
possible to have lasting and large structures
made of mud or mud-bricks, as we find in the
dry zones. Therefore the difluston of the use of
durat bricks proved to be a great boon. Eventu-
ally it fed to the flowering of towns in the dull»
rent parts of the empire. Similariy the ringwells
which appeared first under the Mauryas in the
Gangetie basin spread beyond the heart of the
empire. Since ringwells could supply water to
people for domestic uso it was not imperative
now to found settlements on tho banks of rivers.
They also served as sonkage-pris in congested
settlements i

‘The elements of the middle Gangetic material
culture soom to have been transferred with
modtfcation to northern Bengal, Kalinga,
‘Andhra and Karnataka. In Bangladesh, where
we find the Mahasthana inscription ın Bogea

109. SONITICANOR OP THE MAURYA RULE . El

184 4 View ofthe Comarist Cove, Barber Hill

Brahmi, we find NBP at
Bangath in Dinajpur disrit. NBP sherds have
also been found at some places, such as Chan
dcakerugath in tho 24 Parganas, in West Bengal.
Gangatic asocitions can be attnbuted. to
settiomonts at Sisupalgach in Onssa. These
setlemocts are aseribed to Maurya times in the
third centuy B.C. and they contas NBP and
iron implemente and punch-macked coins
Since Silupalgink is situated nar Dhauli and
Juugada, whire Asokan instiptions have been
found on the ancent highway passing. along
the eastern coast of India, matril culture may
have reached this ares as a roslt of contact
with Magadha. This contact may have started

Some pp nen

in the fourth century B.C, when the Nandas
are said to have conquered Kalinga, But it deep
‘ened after the conquest of Kalinga in the third
century B.C Possibly as a measure of pacifica:
tion after the Kalinga war, Asoka promoted
some settlements in Orissa, which had boon
incorporated into his empire.

Although we find iron weapons and implo-
ments at several places ın Andhra and Karna-
taka in the Maurya period; the advance of ron
technology was the contribution of tho megalıth
builders, who ara noted for various kinds of
largo stone bunals including those of à round
form. But some of these places have Asokan
insersptions as well as NBP ete. belonging to the,

110. 98 ANCIENT INDIA

turd ceatury B.C. For example, a few inscrip-
ions of Maurya times have been found at
ati, and Asokan inscriptions have been
found at Erragudı in Andhra and at several
places ın Karnataka. It therefore appears that
from the eastern coast ingredients ofthe material
culture percolated through Maurya contacts
into the lower Déocan plateau
The art of making steel may have spread
through Maurya contacts in some parts of the
country. Steel objects belonging to about 200
B.C. of to an carlier date have been found in
the middle Gangetic basin. The spread of steel
may have led to the use of better methods of
coltivarion in Kalinga and created conditions
for the rise of the Cheti kungdom in that region

14S Ringed Soat-velle found at Ropor

In some ways the Satavahana ompice was a
projection of the Maurya empire in the Deccan,
‘The Satayahana rulers adopted some of the
admunsstrative units of the Maucyas, and in
their times Buddhism flourished in the same
manner as ıt did ın the heart of the empire of
Asoka.

‘The existence of inscriptions, occasional
NAP potsherds and punch-marked coins in
parts of Bangladesh, Orissa, Andhra and Karna-
taka from near about 300 B.C shows that in
the Maurya period attempts were made to
spread elements of the middle Gangetic basin
culture ın distant areas. The process seems to
be an accord with the instructions of Keutilya,
Kautulya advised that now settlements should

111. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE MAURYA RULE El

be founded with the help of cultivators, who
were apparently vatsyas, and with that of
sudra Iabourers who should be drafted from
overpoulated areas In order 10 bring the
virgin soil under cultivation, the new peasants
were allowed remission in tax and supplied with
carie, seeds and money The state followed
this poliey ra the hope that ıt would got back
what it had given Such settlements were noces.
sary m those areas whero people were not
acquanted with tho use of the non ploughshare.
This policy led to the opening of large areas to
eultraton and settlement

How far the Maurya towns faciltated the
fusion of the material culturo of the Gangetic
basin ınto the tribal belt of central Indın, exten-
ding from Chotanagpur in the cast to the
Vindhyas un the wesl, cannot be said But at as
prelty clear that Asoke mamtained intimate
contacts wit the tibal people, who were exhor-
ted to obsewve dharma Their contact with the
dharmamahematras appomted by Asoka must
lavo enabled them to imbibe elements of higher
culture prevalent m the Gangetic basin. In this
sense Asoka Inunched a deliberate and systema-
tie policy of acculturation He states that as à
rosult of the difuston of dharma men would
mungle with gods. Thus umplios that tribal and
other peoples would take to the habits of a
seed, texpaying, peasant society, and develop
respect for paternal power, royal authority and
for monks, priests and oficers who helped
enforce this authority His policy succeeded
Asoka claums that hunters and fishermen had
even up killng and practised dharma This
means that thay had taken to a sedentary
agricultural ie,

Causes of the Fall of the Maurya Empire

Tho Magadhen empire, which had been
reared by sucoossive wars culmnating m the
conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate
after the exit of Asoka ın 232 B.C Several
‘causes seem to have brought about the dechne

and fall of the Maurya empire.

Brahmamcnl Reaction

‘The brahmanıcal reaction began as a result
of the policy of Asoka There is no doubt that
Asoks adopted a tolerant policy and asked the
people to 1espcot even the brahmanas But he
prohibited kilhng of animals and birds, and
derided superfluous rituals performed by women.
Thus naturally affected the income of the brah-
mans, Tho antesacrifio atitude of Buddhism
“and of Asoka naturally brought much loss to.
the brahmanas, who lved on the gris made to
them in various kinds of sacrifices. Henco ın
spite of the tolerant policy of Asoka the brab-
manas developed some kınd of antipathy to
him Obviously thoy were not satisfied with
his tolerant policy They really wanted a policy
that should favour them and uphold the existing
interests and priviloges. Some of the new king-
doms, which arose on the ruins of the Maurya
empire, were ruled by the brahmanas. The
Sungas and the Konvas, who ruled in Madhya
Pradesh and further east on the remnents of
the Maurya empire, were brahmanas. Sumularly
‘the Satavahanas, who founded a lasting king-
dom the western Deccan and Andhra, claimed
to ba brahmanas These brahmana dynasties
performed the Vedie sacrifices, which were
neglected by Asoka.

Fuanetal Crisis

‘The enormous expenditure on the army and.
‘payment to bureaucracy created a financial
crisis for the Maurya empire, As far as wo know,
1m ancient times the Mauryas maintained the
largest army and the largest regiment of officers
Despite all kinds of taxes imposed on the people,
it was dificult to maintain this huge superstruc-
‘ture It seems that Asoka mado large grants to
the Buddhist monks which let the royal teasury
empty In order 10 mect expenses in the fast
stage they had to melt the Images made of gold. -

112. 100
Oppressive Rule

Oppresvo eal in the provinces was an im-
portant causo of the breakup of the empire
la the reign of Bundusaratho citizens of axila
bitterly complained agamst the misrlo of
wicked bureaucrats (dshizmaryas) Their
rioranco was cotressed by the eppointmeat of
Asoka. Bot when Asoka became emperor, a
similar complaint was lodged by the same city.
The Kalinga edits show that Asoka Jal very
much concerned about oppression in the pro-
vances and therefore asked the mahmarras
aot to torture towasmen without due cause
For ths purpose ho introduced rotation of
‘officers in Tosi (a Kalinga), Un and Text
Ha himself spent 256 nights on a pilgrimage
tour which may have helped administrative
supervision. Bucal! ths file to stop oppresion
An the outlying prowents, and after his ratir-
cont Tanta took the eatlest opportunity to
throw off the impenal yoke

‚Spread of the New Material Knowledge ı the
Outlying Areas

We have seen how Magadha owed its expan-
sion to certain basto materi advantages Once
the knowledge of tho use of these elements of
uture spread to central India, the Descan and
Kalinga as a result of the expansion of the
Magadhaa empir, the Gangotic basin which
formed the heart of the empire lost its special
advantago The regular use of iron tools and
Weapons in the peripheral provinces comcided
with the dechms and fll of the Maurya empire.
On ti basis of material culture acquired from
Magadha new kingdoms could be founded and
developed, This explains the rise of Ihe Sungas
and. Kanvas ın central India, of the Chetis in

ANCIENT INDIA.

Kalinga and that of the Satavahanas in the
Deccan,

Neglect of the North-West Fronter and the
Great Wall of China

Since Asoka was mostly preoccupied with
missionary actwvites at home and abroad, he
could not pay attention to the safeguarding
of the passage on the north-western frontier,
This bad become necessary in view of
the movement of tribes in Central Asia
in the third century B.C. The Soythians were
sma state of constant fux. À nomadie people
mainly relying on the use of horse, they posed
serious dangers Lo the settled empires in China
aná India. The Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti
(247-210 B.C) constructed the Great Wall of
China in about 220 B C. to shield his empire
aguinst.the attacks of the Seytuans, No surilar
measures were taken by Asoka. Naturally when
the Scythians made a push towards India they
forced the Parthians, the Sakas and the Greeks
to move towards India. The Greeks had set up
a kıngdom in north Afghanistan which was
known as Bactria, They were the first to invade
India in 206 B.C This was followed by a seri
of iavasions which continued til the begmaing
‘of the Christian es

The Maurya empire was finally destroyed by
Pusbyamitra Sunga ın 185 B.C. Although a
brabmana he was a general of the last Maurya
king called Brihadratha, He 15 said to have

led Brihadratha in public and forcibly usurped
the throne of Patabputra. The Sungas ruled in
Pataliputra and central India, and they per-
formed several Vedic sacrifices ın order to mark
the revival of the brahmanıcal way of fife. It
15 sud that they persecuted the Buddbrsts They
were succeeded by the Kanvas who were also
brahmanas.

113. SIGNIFICANCE OF, THE MAURYA RULE 103
EXERCISES

Why is the Maurya rule important an the history of India?

Describe the material culture of India in the age of the Maury

How did the Maurya empire spread the culture of the Gangetic ba
in the downfall of the Maurya empire,

114. CHAPTER 15

Central Asian Contacts and Their Results

‘The period which began in about 200 B.C
id not witness largo empre like that of the
Mauryas, but it is notable for intimate and
widespread contacts between Central Asta and
Indie In eastem Inda, central India and the
Deccan the Mauryas were succeeded by a
number of native rulers such as the Sungas, the
Kanvas and the Sotavahanas In northwestern
India they were succeeded by 4 number of
ruling dynastis from Central Asia

‘The Indo-Grecks

A stries of invasions took place ftom about
200 B.C. The first to cross the Hındukush were
the Greeks, who ruled Bactea, lying south of che
Oxusriverin the area covered by north Afahant-
stan, The invaders came ono alter another, but
some of them ruled at one and the same time on
parallel lines. Ono important causo of invasions
was the weakness af the Selucid empire, which
had boca established in Bactcia and the adjomn-
ung areas of Tran called Parthia On account of
growing pressure from the Seythian tribos, the
later Greek rulers were unable to hold thor
power m this area. With the construction of the
Chineso Wall the Soythtans were now aot ın a
position to push forward into China. So they
‘turned their attention towards the neighbouring
Greois and Parthians, Pushed by the Soythian
tcibes,the Bactrian Greoks were forced o invado
India, The sucesssors of Asoka were too weak
to stom the tide of foreign invasions which

started during the period,
‘The first to invade India were the Greeks,
who ars called the Indo-Grecks or Bactrian

151. IndoGreek Como

115. CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS

103

rs. [CENTRAL ASIAN
CONTACTS
(C200BC- A.D300)

Present External
Boundary of India==""

+
Man SEA

= 60 E
Based ipon Survey of India map withthe poruvon of he Surveyor General of Tia
© Government of Indın copy 1982

The terror waters of Indu extend ina the

the appropriate base tine. “

Figure 14 Centra! Aron Conteo

116. 104

Grocks, In the bagınnuag of the socond contary
B.C. the Indo-Greoks ocoupiod a large part of
northwestern India, much larger than that
sonquerod by Alexander. It 1s said tbat they
pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and Patal-
patra But the Grooks failed to establish united
rule in India. Two Greek dynastes ruled north
western India on parallel fines at one and. the
same timo. Tho most famous Tado-Greek ruler
was Menandor (165-145 B.C.) Hows also knowa
by the name Milinda, He had his caprtal at
Sakala (modera Sialkot) in Payab, and he
iavaced the Ganga-Yamuna dab Ho vas
converted to Buddhism by Negasona, who is
also knowa as Nagarjuna. Menandor asked
Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhasa:

‘These questions and Nagasena’s answers
wore recorded un the form of a book known as
Milinda Panko ot The Questions of Milmas.

“The Tndo;Bactnan rule is important ın the

history of India bocauso of the large number of
coins whch the Grocks issuod The Indo-Grocks
‘wore the frst rulrs an India to issue corno which
can be dofimtely attributed to the kıngs This
18 not possible in the caso of the early punch
marked coins, which cannot be assigned with
‘certainty to any dynasty The Indo-Grecks were
the fest to wsue gold coins in India, which ın-
creased in number undor the Kushans The
Greek rule 1 also momorable on account of the
introduction of Helloustie art features ın the
north-west frontier of Indie, giving riso to the
Gandhara art.

The Situs

‘The Greoks wore followed by the Sakas, who
controlled much larger part of India than the
Grosks did. There were five branches of the
Sakas with their seuts of power in different parts
of India and Afghanistan One branch of the

152. CoppemplateInenpuon of abou the Frat Century 4 D from Ketavan (nar Tao)

is sont u Kbar st which was wetten from sight 10 Jef, The language Prat, The Nagar,
rendering and gls Lanlatlon of the Ara two Unssaze given below

TE 100 20110 4 mam same wee feat aft 20 11 2 sm ep rahe
fa ar me -

ve

[iventyiturd day of the month of Sravaı ın the year 134 of Ares Mon this day the lay
‘worshipper Chardrabi, whois the éaagher of Grhapats Dhan nd oot Baccara, sta

The rel ofthe Budsha at Catita]

fer wate a SA IC TER eg |

117. CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS

Sakas settled ın Afghanistan Another branch
of tho Sakas sottled in Panjeb wrth Taule as
their capital A third branch serded in Mathura,
where they ruled for about two centuries. À
fourth branch established ıts hold over western
India, whore they continued to rule tll the fourth
century AD A Sith branch of the Sakas
established its power ın tho upper Deccan

‘The Sakas did not meet much effective rosst-
ance from the rulers and peoples of India In
about 58 B.C, we hear of a king of Uijaun who
clfectively fought agaunst the Sakas and suecoed-
fed in drivingthem out urs time. He called him
self Vikramaditya, and an ere calle the Vikrama
Samat is reckoned from the event of lis victory
over the Sakas in SB B.C. From Uus time cn-
wards Vikramaditya became a coveted ttle
Whoover achusved anything great adopted this
‘utle just as the Roman emperors adopted the
title of Caesar an order to emphasize tica great
power, As a result of this practice we have as
many as 14 Vikramadityas an Indian Justory, and
the title continued to be fashionable with the
Indian kings tll the twelfth century A.D, and
¡t was especially prevalent in western India and
the western Deccan.

Although the Sakas established their rulo ın
diferent parts of the country, only those who
ruled in western India hold power for any
considerable length of time, for about four
centuries or so. The most famous Sake ruler
in India was Rudradaman 1 (AD 130-150)
Ho ruled notonlyover Singh, Kutchand Guyerat,
but had also recovered from the Satavahanas
Konkan, the Narmada valley, Malwa and
Kathiewar, Ho 1s famous in hıstory because of
the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudar-
sani lako m the semiarid zone of Kathawar.
This take had been in use for armganion for a

© long timo, and was as old as the time of the

Mauryas. .

Rudradaman was a great lover of Sanskrit.
Although a foreigner settled in India, he issued
thefirst-ever long inscription ın chaste Sanskrit

105

All the eather longer insoripfions that wo have
in this country were composed ın Prakrıt,

‘The Parthians

‘Tho Seka domination ın north-western India
was followed by that of the Parthians, and in
many ancient Indian Sanskrit toxis the two
pool are togethor montionod as Saka-Pahla-
vas In fact they ruled over this country on
parallel Lines for somo time Originally the
Parthians lived m Iran, from whare they moved
to India. In comparison with the Gresks and tho
Sakas thoy occupied only a small portion of
northwestern India ın the frst contury. The
most famous Pacthian king was Gondophornes,
in whose raign St. Thomas is said to havo come
1o India for the propagation of Chnisuanity
In course of timo the Parthians, uke the Sakas
before them, became an integral part of Indian
poluy and society

‘The Kushans
‘The Parthians were followed by the Kushans,
who are also called Yuschis or Tocharians, The
Kushans were ono of the five clans into which
the Yuechi tribe was divided. A nomadio people
from the steppes of north Central Asia hving in
the neighbourhood of Chuna, the Kushans fest
occupted Bactria or north Afghanistan where
they displaced the Sakas. Gradually they moved
to the Kabul valley and soized Gandhara by
crossing the Hindukush, replacing the rule of
the Gresks and Parthians in these areas. Finally
they set up their authority over the lower Indus
basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin,
‘Thew empire extended from the Oxus to the
Ganga, from Khorasan in Central As
Varanası in Uttar Pradesh. A good part of
Central Asia cow included in the USSR, a por-
tion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost
tho whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of
brought undor one rulo by
is erated a unique opportunity
fo. the commingling of peoples and cultures,

118. 108

and the process gave tise to 3 new type of
culture which embraced five modern countries
We come across two successive dynasties of
the Kushans. The first dynasty was founded by
a house of chief who were called Kadphuses and
Who ruled for 28 years from about A.D. 50
It had two kings Tho first was Kadphuses I,
‘who issued colas south of the Hindukush. He
minted coppers in imitation of Roman coms.
‘The second king was Kadphises I, who issued
à large number of gold money and spread lus
kingdom east of the Indus.
ho house of Kadphıses was succeeded by that
‘of Kanishka, Its kings extended the Kushan
Power over upper India and the lower Tadus
basin. The early Kushan Kings issued numerous
gold corns with ingher gold content than fsfound
1 the Gupta coms Although the gold coms of
the Kushans are found mainly west ofthe Indus,
their mscnptions are distnbuted not only an
north-western India and Sindk but also in
‘Mathura, Sravasıı, Kausambi and Varanasi
Hence they had set up their authority ın the
greater part of the Gangetic basin, Kustan
coins, inscriptions, sculptures and. structures
found m Mathura show that r¢ was their second,
„capital in India, the fist being Purushapura or
Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monas»
tery and a huge stupa or relic-tower which
cexeited the wonder of foreign travelers.
‘The most famous Kushan ruler was Kanishka
Although outside the borders of Ladia he seems

182 Konchkas Com

ANCIENT INDIA.

to have suffered defeat at the hands of the
Chinese, he is known to history because of two
reasons First, Re started an era ın AD. 78,

15 now known as the Saka era and is used
bythe Government of India Sevondiy, Kanishka
extended his whole-hoarted patronage to Buddh-
ism, Ho held a Buddhist councıl in Kash
where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of
Buddhism were finalized. Kanishka was also à
great patron of art and Sanskri lterat

‘The successors. of Kanishka continued to
rule in north-western India tll about A.D
230, and some of them bore typical Indian names
such as Vasudeva.

‘Tae Kushan empire m Afghanistan and in tke
areas west of the Indus was supplanted ın the
mid-hırd cearury A. D. by the Sassanıan power,
which arose ın Tran But Kushan prinespalitig
continued to exist ın India for about 2 century,
The Kushan authority seems to have Imgered
La the Kabul valley, Kapısa, Bacırın, Khorezm
and Sogéiana (identical with Bokhara and
Samarkand) 1n the thırd-fourth conturios. Many
Kushan coins, inscriptions and terracotas
have been found m these aroas. Especially at
a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezm a huge
Kushan palace of the third-fourth centuries has
been unscsshed It housed an adminsteative
archives containing inscriptions and documents
weittea in Aramaic seript and Khorezmian
language.

Impact of Central Asian Contacts
Seructures and Pottery

‘The Sakı-Kushan phase registered a distinct
advance ın. building activities. Excavations
hhevo revealed several layors of structures,
sometimes more than half a dozen at vanous
stes in north India In them we find the use of
Durat bricks for flooring and chat of til
for both flocring and roofing. But the use
fof surkhi and tiles may not have been
adopted from outside, The period is also

119. ‘CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS.

marked by the construction of brickwells Its
typical pottery 1s red ware, both plain and
polished wıih medum to fine fabrio The dis-
netive pots are sprnklers and spouted channels.
They remind us of red pottery with thin fabric
found in the same period ın Kushan layers in
Soviet Central Asia. Red pottery techniques
were widely known in Central Asia, and they are
found even in regions like Farglana which
were on the peripheries of the Kushan
cultural zone.

Trade and Technology

‘Tho Sakas and Kushans added now ingredi-
cents to Indien culture and enriched :tımmense-
ly. They settled in India for good and comte
pletely identified themselves with ts culture.
Since they did not have ther script, language or
religion, they adopted these elements of calure
from India. They became an integral part of
Indian society to which they contributed con-
siderably. They ıntroduced better cavalry and
the use of the riding horse on a large scale,
‘They made common the use of reins and
saddles, which appear in the Buddhist sculp-
tures of the second and third centuries À D.
‘The Sukas and the Kushans were excellent
horsemen. Their passionate fove for horseman
ship is attested by numacousequestrian terracotta
figures of Kushan times discovered from Begram
in Afghanistan Some of these foreign horse-
men were heavily armoured, and fought with
spears and lances Possibly they also used some
land of a toe stirrup made of tope which
facilitated their movements. The Sakas and
Kushans introduced turban, tunıc, trousers,
and heavy long coat Even now the Afghans and
Panjabıs wear turbans, and the sherma is a
successor of the Jong coat. The Central Asians
aso brought in cap, helmet and boots which
were used by wärtiors. Because of these advan-
tages they mado aclean sweep of thesr opponents
i Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan and India. Later,
when this military technology spread im the

107

country, the dependent princes turned them to
good use against their former conquerors,
The commg of the foreigners established ire.
mate contacts between Central Asia and India.
As a result India recerved a good deal of gold
from tho Alta: mountams in Central Asia
Gold also may have been recewed in India
through trado with the Roman empire The
Kushans controlled th, Silk Route, which
started from China and passed through their
‘pice in Central Asin and Afghanistan to
Iran, and Westert Asta which formed part of
the Roman empire m the castern Mediterranean.
zone. This route was a source of great income
to the Kushans, and they built «largo pros
pperous emprro because of the tolls Ievied from
the traders, Tt is siguicant shat tho Kushans
were the first rules ın India fo sue gold coms
on 5 wide scale

Polity

‘The Central Aslan conquerors imposed their
rule on numerous petty native princes. This
led to the development of a feudatory organıza-
tion The Kuskans adopted the pompous title
of king of kings, whtch indicates their supremacy
over numerous small princes

Tac Sokas ond the Kushans strengthened
the wea of the divine origin of kingship. The
Kushan kings were called sons of god. This
title was adopted by the Kustans ftom the
‘Chinese, who called their kıng the son of heaven,
Te was used in India naturally to stress the royal
authority. The Hindu tawewer Manu asks the
people to respect the king even if he 15 a chil,
because he 1s a great god ruling in the form of
a kuman being

‘They also introduced the satrap system of
government. The empire was divided into
‘numerous satrapaes, and each satrapy was placed
under therule ofa satrap. Some curious practices
such as hereditary dual role, two kings ruling
in the same kingdom at one and the same time,
wore introduced. We find that father and son

120. 15.4 Pla of Helodoras mar Vena

ruled jointly at one and the same time. “Thus
it appears that thore was less of centralization
‘under theso rulers.

‘The foreigners also introduced the practice
of miltary governorship. This was dono by the
Greeks, who appointed their governors called
strategor, Miltary governors ware necessary to
maintain the power of foroige rulers over the
conqueréd people.

Non Elements in Indian Society

The Greeks, tho Sakas, the Parthians and the
Kushans ultumaeiy lost ther identity in India
Thay became completely Indianized in course of
time, Since most of them came as Conquerors
they wore absorbed in Indian society aca warrior
clas, that is as the Kshatryas. Ther placement
in the brahmanial society was explained in

ANCIENT, INDIA

a curious vay. The lawgrver Manu stated that

. Sakas and the Parthians were the Xshatriyas
‘who had fallen from their duties. In other words,
they came to bo considered as sscond-class
kshatriyas. In no other period of ancient Indian
story were foreigners assimilated into Indian,
society ou auch a largo scale as thoy were in

;; post-Maurya times

Religion -

Soma of the foreign rulers were converted.
to Vaishnavism, which means the worship of
Vishou, the god of protection and preservation,
‘Tho Gresk ambassador called Hellodorus set
up a pillar ın honour of Vishnu near Vidisa
(hoadquatters of Vidiss district) m Madhya
Pradesh. &

A few other rulers adopted Buddhism. The
famous Greek ruler Menander was converted.
to Buddhism. The questions and the answers.
that he exchanged with the Buddhist teacher
Nagaseng, also called Nagarjuna, consticute 2°
good source for the cultural history of the post-
Maürya period, The Kushan rulers worshupped.
both Siva and the Buddha, and the images of
these two gods appeared on the Kushan coins.
¿Several Kushan rulers wore worshippers. of

Visbou This was certainly the case withthe
Kushan ruler Vasudeva, whose very name ys
a synonym for Krishaa, who was worshipped.
as an incarnation of Vishay

The Origin of Mahayana Buddlism

The contact with foreigners brought about
changes in Indian religions. This especially
hhappaned to Buddhism. Buddhism in its ori
ginal form 995100 puritanigal and too abstract
for foreigusrs, who wanted something concrete
and intoligible. Thoy did not appreciate the
philosophical doctrines of Buddhism, empha-
sized by the existing Buddhist schools. They
wanted something which they could casily under-
stand and which could satisfy their religious
cravings. So there developed a new form of

121. CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND EHEIR RESULTS

Buddhism called the Mahayana or the Great
‘Wheel, in which the image of the Buddha
began to bo worshipped. The doors of this sect
were opened to all sections of the people. Those
who did not subscribe to the newly.founded sect
came to be known as the followers of the Hina-
jana or the Small Whoel. Fortunately for.
Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron

He convened a council in Kashmir, where
the Buddhist teachings were engraved on sheots
of copper and degosited under a stupa. We
do not know the contents of these inscriptions
because thas stupa has not been discovered so

109

far. Kanishka set up many stupas in memory of
the Buddha,

Gandhara Art

‘The foreign princes became enthusiastic,
patrons of Indian art and literature, and they
showed the zeal characteristic of new converts
‘The Kushan empire brought together masons
and other artisans tramed ın diferent schools
and countries Indian craftsmen came ito
contact with the Greeks and the Romans,
especially ın the northewestera frontier of India
in Gandhera This gave rise to a new Jard of at

155 Air View of the Reming ofthe Ancient Cuy of Tal (frst century A.D)

122. 10 ANCIENT INDIA

156 Image ofthe Budo, Gandara

in whuch images of the Buddha were made m the
Grasco-Roman style. The haie of the Buddha
was fashiosed ın the Graeco-Roman style
‘The influence of the Gandhara art also spread
to Mathura although tt was primarily a centre
of indigenous art. Mathura produced beasti-
fal images of the Buddha, but is also famous
for the headless erect statue of Kanishka whose
‘name is inscribed on is lower part

It also produced several stone images of
Vardhamana Mahavira. The Mathura school
of art flourished in tho early centuries of the
Christian era, and its products made of rad
sandstone are found even outside Mathura,

‘At present the Mathura Museum possesses th
largest collection of sculptures of Kushan tim
in India

During the same poriod we notice beautık
works of act at several places south of tie
Vindhyas. Beautiful Buddtust caves were con.
structed out of rocks ın Maharashtra. In Andhn
Pradesh, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravat be
came great centres of Buddhist art, and th
stores connected with the Buddha came to by
porttayed in numerous panels The earlost pay
‘ls dealing with Buddhism are found at Gays,
Sancha and Bhathat, and belong to the second
century B.C. But we notice further develop
mont in sculpture ın the early centures of the
Christian era,

157. Seuptre fom Metro

123. ‘CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS.

m

158 Sarch Slapo—A View ofthe Gateway

Laterature and Learning

‘The foreign princes patronized and culated,
Sanskeit literature The earhest specimen of
Kavya style is found ın the insoription of Rudra-
aman in Kathiawar in about A D. 150. From
now onwards inscriptions began to be composed.
in chaste Sanskrit, although the use of Prakrit
in composing inseriptions continued til the
fourth century A.D., and even later

Ik sooms that some of the great creative
waters such as Asvaghosha enjoyed the patron=
age of the Kushans. Asvaghosha wrote the
Buddhacharita, which is a biography of the
Buddha, He also composed Saundarananda,
which is a fine example of Sansknt kavya

‘The progress of Makayana Buddhism led to

the composition of numerous avadanas. Most
of those torts were composed in what ıs known
as the Buddbist-Hybrid Sansknt Their ono
objechve was to proach the teachings of Maha-
yana Buddhism to the people. Some of the
important books of this gente were the Maha-
vastu and the Diryaradana.

‘Tho foreigners also contributed to the develop
ment of the Indian theatre, by introducing the
‘nto of thecustain Stace the curtain was borrowed
from the Gresks xt came to be known as yavani-
ka This word was derived from the term juvana,
which was a sanskritized formof Tonian, abranch
of the Greeks known to the ancient Indians,
At a later stage the term parana came to be
used for all kinds of foreigners

124. 159 A Panel fram Bari.

Selence and Technology

Indian astronomy and astrology profited from
contact with the Gresks We notice many Greek
terms about the movement of planets in Sanskrit
texts. Indian astrology came to be influenced
by Greek ideas, and from the Gresk term
horoscope was derived the term horasastra
used for astrology in Sanskrit,

However, the Indians did not owe anything
strikmg to the Greeks in medicine, botany and
chemistry. These three subjects were dealt
with By Charaka and Susruta, The Charakasam-

1510

Siner Colne

nia contains names of numerous plants and
herbs from which drugs are to be prepared for
the use of patients The processes laid down for
the pounding and mixing of the plants give us
an idea of the developed knowledge of chennstey
ın ancient India For the cure of ailments the
ancient Indian physician relied chiefly on
plants, for which the Sanskrit word is oshadhı,
and as a result medicine itself came to be known
as aushadhi

In the field of technology also the Indians
seem to have profited from contact with the
Central Astans. Kanishka is represented as
wearing trousers and long boots. Possibly the
practice of making loather shoes began in India
during this period. In any case the Kushan
‘copper coins in India were imitations of the
Roman coins. Similarly gold coins in India
were struck by the Kushans in rmitation of
the Roman gold coins. Wo heat of two em-
bassies being exchanged between the Indian
kings and the Roman kings. Embassies were
sent from India to the court of the Roman
emporor Augustus in A.D, 27-28 and also to

125. the Roman emperor Trajan in A.D. 110-20.
Thus the contacts of Rome with ancient India pract
may have introducod new practices in techno.

‘CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS us

espetially mfluenced by foreign ideas and
5, In no other period in India did. glass»
making make such progress as did during this

logy Working in glass during this period was period.

EXERCISES

Who were the Indo-Greoks?

Who were the Sakas? Give an account of their activities m India during the
first four centuries A.D

What part did the Kushan rule play in the hfe of India?

Form an estimate of Kanishka.

How did Central Asian contacts affect the polity and society of India?
Write short notes on the following:

Mahayana Buddhism

Mathura school of art

Gandhara art

126. CHAPTER 16

The Age of the Satavahanas

Political History

‘Tho most important of tho native suocessors
of tho Mauryas m the Deocin and in contral
{India were the Satevahanas, Tho Satavahanas
are considered to be identical with the Andias
who are mantioned in the Puranas The Par
ranas speak only of the Andhra rule and not of
the Satavahara rule, On the other hand th name
Andhra does not oocur inSatavahana inscriptions.
Aosordıngto some Puranasaltogethar the And
ras ruled for 300 years and ths period is assigned
to the rule ofthe Satavahana dynasty, The ear
list mscripuons of the Satavahanas belong
to the first century B.C., when they defeated
the Kanvas and established their power In parts
of conttal India Tho early Satavahana kings
agpeared aol in Andhra, but in Maharashtra
whore most of thor early inscriptions have
been found. They set up their power to the up-
por Godavari valley, which at present produces
rich and diverse crops in Maharashtra, Gra-
dually the Satavahanas extended their power
over Karnataka and Andhra, their greatost
competitors wore the Sakas, who had estab-
Tishod thei powersn the upper Deccan and wost-
cen India. At ono stage the Satavahanas wore
dispossessed of their dominions by the Sakas io
Maharashtra and vostera India, Tho fortunes
of the family wore restored by Gautamiputra
Satakarni (A.D, 106-130). He callod himself
the only brabmans, defoatod the Sakes and

destroyed many kshatriya rulers. He claras to
bave destroyed the Kshaharata linoago to which
his adversary Nahapana bolonged. This clam
15 true, because more than 8,000 silver couns of
Nahapane, found near Nasik, bear marks of
being restruck by the Satavahana king Ha also
occupied Malva and Kalhıawar which lay
under the control of the Sakas. Tt seems that
tis empire of Gautamiputre Satakarnı extonded
from Malwa wn the north to Karnataka un the
south Posstly he also enjoyud genoral autho-
y ovor Andhra,

‘The successors of Gsutamiputra ruled tll
AD 220 The coins and insenptions of bis
smmiediate successor Vasisthputra Pulumayı
(AD 130-154) are found in Andhra, and show
that by tho middle of the second century this
aros had become a part of tho Satavahana
Kingdom He set up his capital at Paithan or
Pratisthan on the Godavari in Aurangabad
district. The Sakas resumed their conflict with
the Satavahanas for the possession of the Koa-
Xan coast and Malva. Rudradaman I (A.D,
130-150), the Saka ruler of Saurashtra (Kathia-
war), defeated the Satavahanas twice, but did
not destroy them on account of matrimonial
relations. Yaya Sn Satakaral (A.D, 165-194),
one of the later Kings, recovered north Konkan
and Malwa from the Saka rulers, He was a
lover of trade and navigation, His coins have
been found not only ın Andhra but also in
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat.

127. THB AGE OF THE SATAVAHANAS

began ecrit soon

Based upon Survey of India map with the permission of
the Surveyor General of India.

© Government of In

copyright, 1962
The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a

distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the
appropriate base line.

Figure 12 India in about A D 160

us

128. 16 2

Fis love for navigation and overseas trade is
shown by the representation of a ship on his coins.

Aspects of Material oltre
Tao matos culture of the Deccan under the
Sutavñanas was a foson local olomonts and
Berta ingredionts. The mepalth builders of
tho Deccan were fas acquunted with the use
af won and agriculture. Although befor circa
200 B.C. ww And soms hoot mado of ron, tho
number“ of such toos increased substantially
ane fist to or thre centre o the Christan
era, We do not not much chango ith form
of th hoes from megalithic to the Satavahana
phase. Only hoes wero now filly and properly
socket. Bode sckatod hoes, okis, spades,
Dloughshacn, ars, adze, razors, at, belong
to tho Satavahana layers, Tanged and socketed
arrowheads as wel as daggers have also been
discovered, Ata atom Kanmnagar dti even
a Hacks shop has oon discovered. The
Satavahasas may have exploited the iron ores
of Karimaagar and Warangal for 1 these div.
frets indations of ıron workings as early as
tho megatthic phase have been found. Evidence
af ancient gold workings has been found in the
Kolar lds ın tho early Christin centuries
‘The Satavahanas may have osed gold as bul
on, for they did not issue gold coins as the
Kashans did. Thy issund most eins of load,
whichis found an tho Descan. They alo issued
otis, copper and bronzo money. The
Tishvakus also vod their coins. Both the
Satavahanas and lishvakus soom to have
exploited ho minaralosoues of the Dean.
‘The, people of the Deocan knew the art of
paddy transplantation, and ia the fist two
centuries the arca betwoen the Kisboa and the
Godavari, expecially atthe mouths of the two
rivers, formod a great size bowl. Tho people
af tho Doosan also produced cotton, In the
foreign accounts Andhra is considered to be
famous for its cotton products. Thus a good
portion of the Doccan developed a very ade

ANCIENT INDIA

vanced rural economy. According to Pliny, the
‘Andhra kingdom maintained an army of 100,000
infantry, 2000 cavalry and 1000 elophants. Ap-
parontly the peasants produced enough to sup.
port this military strength.

‘Through contacts with the north the people
of the Daccan toerat the use of coms, burat
bricks, ringwell, ote These elements of material
life had become quite important ın north India
by 300 B.C., but they acquired importance in
the Dean a couple of centuries later. In
Peddabankur (200 B.C -AD. 200)-in Karım-
nagar district we find regular use of fire-baked
bricks, and use of fiat, perforated roof tiles. All
this must have contributed to lesting structures.
What 1s further remarkable 15 the fact that as
many as 22 brickwells belonging to the second
century A.D. have been discovered at that site.
‘Naturally these facihtated tok habitations,
and we find there covered drains underground
to lead waste water into soakage pits. Towns
appeared ın Mabarashtra by the first century
BCC, when wo find several crafts. They emer-

ged im the eastern Déccan a century later. Pliny

informs us that the Andhra country in the east-
era Deccan included 30 walled towns, besrdas
aumerous villages. Several towns of the second
and third centuries 1m this area are known from
inscriptions and excavations. Increasing trade
15 indicated by aumerous Roman and Satava-
‘bana coins. They appeared about a century later
in tho eastern Deccan, in the Godavari-Krishna
area,

Social Organization

The Satavabanas originally sem to have been
a rib of the Deccan, But they were brahmia-
nized, and their most famous king Gautamiputra
Satakarni claims to have established the four
fold varna system which had fallon into dis
order. He boasts that he putan end to the anter-
mere between the people of different social
order. Such a confusion was obmoysy caused
by the Saka infitrauon and by thg thin and

129. ‘THE AGE OF THE SATAVAHANAS

superficial brabmanizacion of the tribes living
an the Deccan, The absorption of the Salas
'n Hindu society as kshatriyas was facitated
by intermarriage between the Sakas and the
Setavahanas Sumlarly the indigenous tribal
people were more and more acculturated «by
the Buddhist monks, who ware induced by
land grants to settle in th western Deccan. It
is suggosted that traders also supported the
Buddhist monks, for the earliest caves seem to
have besa located on the trade routes, The
Satavahanas were also the first rulers to make
land geants to the brahmanas, although we have
moto. instances of grants being made to Bud»
dust monks

‘According to the Dharmasastras at was the
function of the kshatriyas to rule, but the Sata-
vahana rulers called themselves brahmanas
Gautamiputre boasts that he was the true brab-
‘mana Since the Andhras are identified with the
early Satavahanas, probably they were a local
tribe who were converted to brahmanısm. The
orthodox brahmanas of the north looked upon
the Andhras as a mixed caste, This shows that
the Andhras were a tribal pooplo who were
brought within the fold of Hindu society as a
mixed caste

Increasing craft and commerce ın this period
brought many merchants and artisans to the
forofront. Merchants took pride in namıng them-
solves after tho towns to whick they belonged.
Both actsans and merchants mado generous
donations to the Buddhist cause, They set up
small memorial tablets Among the artisans tho
gandhikas oc the porfamers are repeatedly men-
tioned as donors At a later stage the tem
gandhlka became so general as to denote all
kinds of shopkeepers The modern tute Gandhı
18 derived from this ancient term.

‘The most interesting detail about the Sata-
vahanas relates to their family structure. In
‘Aryan society in north India father enjoyed
‘greater importance than mother, and the prin
ces whom we have considered so far soem to

17

have belonged to a patriarchal society. But the
Satavabanas show traces of a matrilineal social
sjructure. RR was customary for their king to ba
named. after his mother Such names as Gau-
tamiputra and Vasisthpute indicate that in
thei society mother enjoyed a great deal of
importense At present in peninsular India the
son's name ıneludss a part of the father's name,

¿but in it there 18 no place for mother. Queens

+ made important religious gifts ın thetr own
tight, and some of them acted as regents. But
‚basıcally the Satavabana ruling family was
ppattiarchal because succossion to the throne
passed to the male member

Pattern of Administration

‘The Satavahana rulers strove for the royal
deal set forth ın the Dharmasastras. The king
was represented as the upholder of dharma To
him were assigned. a few divine attributes: The
Satavahana king is represented as possessing
‘the qualities of ancient gods such as Rama,
Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna, etc. He is compared
in prowess and lustre to these legendary figures
“nd to supernatural forces, ‘This was evidently
‘meant to attrıbute divimty to the Satavabana
king.

‘The Satavahanas kept some of the adminis.
trative units found in Asokan times Their dis-
trict was called ahara, as ıt was known ın the
me of Asoka. Their officials were known as
amatyus and mahamatras, as they were known
im Maurya times,

But we notice certain military and feudal
elements in the admimstration of Satavahanas.
1013 significant that the senapati was appointed
provincial governor. Since the tribal people
in the Deccan were not thoroughly hinduized
and reconciled to the new rule, it was necessary
to keop them under strong military control.
‘The administration in the rural areas was placed
in the hands of gaulmka, who was the head of
a military regiment consisting of rune chariots,
nine elephants, 25 horses and 45 foot-soldiers.

130. us

‘The head of the army platoon was therefore
posted 1m the countryside to meintain peace
and ‚order

‘The mibtary character of the Satavahana rule
1s ako evident from the common use of such
terms as kataka and skandhavaras in their snse
criptions. These were military camps and settle-
ments which served as adexmstratve centres
so long as the king was there, Thus coercion
played an important part in the Satavabana
admstration.

The Satayakanas started the practice of grant-
ing tax-free villages to brahmanas and Bud-
dust monks. The cultivated felds and villages
ran to them were declared free from molesta-
tion by royal policemen and solders, and all
kınds of royal officers, These areas therefore
became small independent islands within the
Satavahana kingdom. Posubiy the Buddhist
‘monks also preached peace and rules of good
‘conduct among the people they lived with, and
taught them to respect pol
social order The brahmanss, of course, helped
‘enforce tho rulos of the varna system which made
society stable

‚The Satavahana kingdom had bres grades of
feudetories. The highest grade was formed by
the king who yas called raja and who had the
rughttostnke coms. The second grade was form.
ed by the mahabkoja, and the third grade by

IR seems that these feudatories
‘enjoyed some autho-
rity in Cho respective localities.

igi
“The Satavahana rulers claım to havo been
brahmanss, and they represented the march of
triumphant brahmanism. From the very begin-
ning kings and queens performed the Vedic
‘actions such as the asvamedia,vajapey, ac.
‘Thay also. worshipped a largo number of
Vassinasa gods such as Keishna, Vasudeva,
and others, They paid liberal
the brahmanes,

However, the Satavahana rulers promoted
Buddtusm by granting land to the monks In
their kingdom the Mahayana form of Buddhist
commanded considerable following, especially
m the artısan class. Naguyunakonda and
Amaravatı in Andhra Pradesh became impor
tant seats of Buddhist culture under the Satava-
hanas aud more so under their successors, the
Tksvakus Simulaely, Buddhism flourished in
the Nasık and Junar areas ın the western
Deccan ın Maharashisa, where it seems to

4 by the

161

Change ar Karle
Architectore

Jn the Satavahsaa phase many temples and
monasteries were cut out of the solid rock in
the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra with
great skilland pationce. In fact the process had
started about a century earlier from 200 B C.
The two common structures were the temple
which was called chape and the monastery
which was called vitara, The chaitya was a
large hall with a number of columns, and the
vihora consisted of a central hall entered by a
doorway from a verandah in front. The
most famous chaliya is that of Karle ın the
western Deccen It-is about 40 metros long,
1S metres wide and 15 metres high Je 154 most

131. THE AGE OB THE SATAVAHANAS

162. Seule depicting the Worshprof Budähes
Footprints—Arrarat

impressive specimen of massive rook architec:
ture

The wharas or monasterios were excevated
near the chauyas for the residence of monks
in the ramy season, At Nasik we have three
wiharas. Since they carry the enseriptions of
‘Nahapana and Gautamiputra, 1 seems that they
belong to the frst-second centuries A.D.

Rock-cut architecture 1s also to be found in
Andhra in the Krishna-Godavart region, but
the region is really famous for independent
Buddhist structures. The most important of
‘those monuments are the stupas distnbut.d over
an area of 125 km all around Ellora. The most
famous of them are Amaravatı and Nagarjuna-
Konda. The stupa was a large round structure
erected over some rele of the Buddha
The Amarevati stupa begen im about
200 BC but was completely reconstructed
in the second half of the second century

163 Scane dep Ends Sormon—
Nagarunakonde

A D. Its dome measured 53 metres across the
baso, and it seems to have been 33 metres in
height. The Amravati stupa 15 full of sculp-
tures which depict the various scenes from the
life of the Buddha,

Nagarjunakonda prospered most under the
Ikshyakus, the successors of the Satavatianas.
Wt contains not only Buddhust monuments but
also the carlest brahmanical brick temples

Language

The official language of the Satavabanas
was Prakrit. All mscriptions were composed in
this language and written in the Brahm sept,
as was the ease ın Asokan timos, Some Satava-
ana kings may have composed Prakrit books,
One Prakrıt toxt called Gatharaptasan ıs attic
buted to a Satavahana king called Hala. fe
consisted of 700 verses, all written ın Prakrit,
but at seems to have been finally retouched
much later, possibly after the sixth esntury À D

EXERCISES

Who were the Satavabanas? How long
What is meant by matrilineal famuly?

did they rule?

Describe the Satavahana system of admmtration
Give an account of art and religion ın the Satavahana dominions.

132. CHAPTER 17

The Dawn of History in the Deep South

‘The Megafihic Background

Soveral elements mark the beginning of the
historical period. These are: settlements of large
scale rural communities which carry on plough
agriculture with the help of iron implements,
formation of the state system, rise of social
classes, use of writing, beginnings of written
literature, All these phenomena are not found
at the tip of the poamsula with the Kaveri
delta as the nuclear zone tl about the second
century B.C. Up to this period the upland por-
tions of the poninsula were mbabited by people
who are called megabth buulders. They are
known not from their actual settlements which
are rare, but from theır graves, These graves
are called megaliths because they were encircled
by big pieces of stone. They contain not only
skeletons of people who were busied but also
pottery and ron objects. The people used
various types of pottery, but black-and-red
ware seems to have been popular with them,
Obviously the practice of burying goods in the
graves with the dead bodies was based on the
belief that the dead would need all these in the
next world, These goods give us an idea of their
sourets of livelihood. We find arrowheads,
spearheads and even hoes and sickles, all made
of iron, Trident, which later came to bs associa
ted with Siva, bave also been found in the mega-
liths, However, compared to the number of
agricultural tools that were buried, those meant
for fighting and huating are larger in number.
This would show that the megalithic people

did not practi
culture.

The megaliths are found in all upland areas
of the peninsula, but their concentration seers
to be in eastorn Andhra and in Tamil Nadu.
‘Their beginnings can be traced to cırca 1000
B.C, but ın many cases the megalithts phase
lasted from about the fifth to the first century
B C.;ina few places this phase persisted even
up to the early centuries of the Christian era

‘The Cholas, Pandyas and Cheras mentioned
in Asokan inscriptions were probably ın the
megalithie phase of material culture. The mogalı-
thre people in the southern districts of Tam
Nadu had certain peculiar characteristics
“They buried the skeletons of the dead 10 urns
made of red pottery on pits. In many cases these
‘urns Wore not surrounded y stone circles, and
grave goods were not too maay. The practice of
ura-burial was different from that of cist-buriat
or put-burial surrounded by stone cireles, which
practice prevailed im the Krishna-Godayarı
valley. But in any case, in spite of the use of
iron, the megalithic people depended partly
for settlament and burials on the slopes of the
hills. Although the megalithic people produced
paddy and ragi, apparently the area of culli-
vabloland used by them was very limited, and
generally they did not settle on the plains
or the low lands.

By the beginning ‘of the Christian era, or
probably a litte earlier, these people moved
from the uplands into fertile river basins and

an advanced type of agrı-

133. ‘THE DAWN OP HISTORY IN THE DP SOUTH,

1

MA Malthe Buriat

reclaimed marshy deltaic areas. Under the sti
mulas of contact with the elements of material
culture brought from the north to the extreme
end of the peninsula by traders, conquerors
and Jaina and Buddhist missionaries, they came
to practite wet paddy cuftwvation, founded
numerous villages and towns, and came to
have social classes. All these created conditions
Tor the rise of state systems in the deep south,
‘whose history from the first century A.D.
can be constructed on the basis of written
records supplemented by Greek and Roman
accounts and by archaeology,

‘Three Early Kingdoms

‘The southern end of the Indian peninsula
situated south ofthe Krishna rivet was divided
into £hroe kingdoms—Chola, Pandys and Checa
or Kerala, The Pandyas are frst mentioned by
Mogasthones, who sas that their Kingdom was
calebrated for peas He also speaks of its boing
ruled by a woman and stats that seven-year
old mothers vers found in the Pandya county.
AU this sounds exaggerated but suggests that
the Pandya society was matrarchal. The Choi,
the Pandyas and the Cheras, all the three are
mentioned in the mcriptions of Asoka ın the

134. 12

hued contruy BC. but tt is clear that their
territorios lay outside the Maurya empire in
modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala

‘The Pandya terntory occupied the southern-
most and the south-eastern portion of the
Indian pemnsula, and it roughly included the
modera. districts of Thnnevelly, Ramnad and
Maduras ia Tamil Nadu. Tt had ats capital at
Madurti, which was the Tamil word for
Mathura, The literature compiled in the Tamil
acndemıes in the early centuries of the Chris.
rian era and called the Sangam literature re-
fers to the Pandya rulers, but it does not guve
any connected account One or two Peudya
conquerors are mentioned, However, it 1
‘evident from tus literature that the country was.
wealthy and prosperous. The Pandya kings
profited from trade with the Roman empire and
sent embassies tothe Roman emperor Augustus.
The brahmanas enjoyed considerable inf
‘eee, and the Pagdya kings performed Vedic
sacrifices in the early centuries of the Christian

The Chola kingdom was called Cholaman-
dalam or Coromandal. It was situated to the
north-east of the terrilory of the Pandyas,
between the Pennar and the Velur rivers. We
have some idea of the political history of the
Cholas, whose chief centre of political power
lay at Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade.
Te seems that in the middle of the second cen-
tury B.C. a Chola king named Elara conquered
Srı Lanka and ruled over it for nearly 50 years
A firmer history of the Cholas begins in the
stcond century A.D. with their famous king
Kacikala, who floucished around A.D. 100.
He founded Puhar and constructed 160 km of
embankent along th Kyveri river, This was
built with the labour of 12,000 slaves who were
brought as captives from Sri Lanka. Puhar is
identical with Kaveripattanam, which was the
Chola capitel. It was a great centre of trade
and commerce, and excavations show that st
hada large dock. One of the main sources of the

ANCIENT INO

wealth of the Cholas was trade in cotton cloth,
They maintained an efficient navy which sailed
as far as the mouths of the Ganga and the
Jravadi, and va later centuries went even to the
Malaya archipelego

Under Kaukala’s successors the Chola
power rapidly dechned. Their capital, Kaveripa-
Hana, was overwhelmed and destroyed.
Their two neighbouring powers, the Cheras
and the Pandyas, extended at the cost of the
Cholas, What romained of the Chola power was
almost wiped out by the attacks of the Pallavas
from the north. From the fourth to the math
century A.D. the Cholas piayed only à margi-
mal part ın south Indian history

The Chere or the Kerala couatry was situa
ted to the west and north of the land of the
Pandyas. It meluded the narcow strip of land
between the sea and the mountains and covered
a portion of the modern Kerala State, In the
early centuries of the Christian ora the Chera.
‘country was as important as the country of the
Cholas and the Pandyas It owed its import-
‘ance to trade with the Romans. The Romans
set up two regiments at Muzris ıdentical with
Cranganore ın the Chera country to protect

interests It is said that they also built there
a temple of Augustus,

The most important event ın the polticel
history of the Cheras was their fight against the
Cholas about A.D. 150, Although the Choras
led the father of the Chola king Karikala,
the Chera king also lost his life. Later the two
kingdoms temporarily came to terms and
concluded a matrimonial alliance. The Chora
king next allied himself with the Pandya rulers
against the Cholas But the Cholas defeated the
allies, and ıt is said that since the Chera king ,
was wounded in the back he committed sui
cide out of shame,

According to the Chera posts their greatest
Jang was Senguttuvan, the Red Cher. He
routed his rivals and established hıs cousin
securely on the throne, Its said that be invaded

135. THE DAWN OF MISTORY IN THE DEEP soUTH

172. Olyecs of Carved Ivory belonging the Baty
Cent ofthe Chr Ese

the north and crossed the Ganga. But all this
seems to be exaggerated. Alter the second
century A.D. the Chera power dectined, and we
have nothing of its history agar till the ext
century A.D.

The main interest of the political history of
these three kingdoms lies ın the continuous
wars they fought with one another and also
sk Sre Lanka,

Although the wars weakened these states,

13

they vory much profited from their natural
resources and foreign trade. These kingdoms
were immensely rich. They grow spice, especi-
ally pepper, which was ın great demand ın the
western world. Their elephants supplied ıvory,
vwhuch was highly valued m the West The ssa
ylelded pearis and thetr unes produced precious
Stones, and. both these were senl to the Westin
good quantity. fr adition to Uns thoy produced
‘muslin and silk, We hear of coton cloth as thin
as the slough of a snako The early Tamil poems
also mention the weaving of complex patteras on
silk Uraiyur was notod for sts cotton trado.
From very early times the Tamils traded with
the Greek or Hollonstic kingdom of Egypt and
Arabia on the one sido, and with the Malaya
archipelago and from there wath China on the
other, As a rosult of trade the woids for rice,
finger, cinnamon and sevoral other articles 12
Grosk language wore derived from Tamil lang:
age. When Egypt became 2 Roman provines
and when the monsoons were discovered about
the bogmning of the first century A.D, this
rado recewved great impetus. Thus for the first
two and a half conturies AD. the southern
kingdoms carried on lucrative trade with the
Romans. With the decline of this trado, these
kingdoms also began to decay.

‘The Parse and the Smord

Trade, foreign end internal, constituted &
very important source of royal revenue. We
Know how the custom officials fanctioned ın
Puhar. Transit duties were also collected from
‘merchants who moved with their goods from
place to place For the safely of merchants and
prevention of smuggling, soldiers maintained
constant vigil on the road

Spoils of war further added to royal income.
But the real foundation of war and polity lay
in regular income from agriculture The share
of the agricultural produce, claimed and collec.
tod by the kung, is not specified. The tip of the
peninsula apd the adjacent regions were ex-

136. 14

tremely rule. The land produced paddy, rage
and sugareane. It was said of the Kaver delta
that the space ın wiuck an elephant could lie
down produced enough to feed seven persons,
In addition to this the Tamil region produced
gras, fut, pepper and turmen, It seems that
the king had a share in allthis produce.
‘Apparently out of the taxes colocted from the
peasantry tho state maintamed a regular army
It consisted of chariots dravin by oxen, of ele-
phanis, cavalry and infantry. Elephants played
am important pat in war. Horses were imported
by sea into the Pandyan kingdom, The nobles
and princes or captains of army rode on ele-
phan, and the commanders drove on chariot,
The foot soldiers and horsemen wore leather
sandles for the protection of thee fet

Rise of Social Classes

‘Taxes enabled the king not only to roaintain,
a professionalarnıy but also to pay the poets and
priosts, who were mainly brahmangs. Th
brahmanas first appear 12 the Tamil land in the
‘Sangam age. An ideal king was one who never
hurt the brahmanas. Many brahmanas func-
tioned as poets, and in this role they were
generously rewarded by the king. Kariketa is
said to have gıvon one poet 1,600,000 gold piecos.
Besides gold, the poets also received cash,
land, chasiots, horses and even elephants. The
‘Tamil brahmenas took meat and wine. The
kshatriyas and vaisyas do not appear as rogulas
varnas in the Sangom texts. But the class of
warriors was not absent. Captains of the army
wore invested with the title of enadi at a formal
ceremony. Civil and military offices were held
under both the Cholas and the Bandyas by
vallalas or rich peasants. The ruling caste was
called the arasar, and its members had marriage
relations with the vallas, who constituted the
fourth caste. They held the bulk of the land and
‘thus conisttuted the peasantry, divided into the
rich and the poor. The rich did not plough the
and themselves but employed labourers for this

ANCIENT INDIA

purpose, Agricultural operations wore generally
carried on by women of the lowest class (kaise
yar), whose status appears to havo differed lle
from that of the slave

Besides agricultural Iabourers we come across
low class artistns To this category belonged the
pulaans, who made sope charpaiys and used
animal skms as mats. Several outcastes and
forest tribes suffered from extreme poverty and
lived from hand lo mouth. We notes
Sharp social inequalities ın the age of the
Sangam. The rich lived in houses of brick and
‘mortar, and the poor in huts and kumbler
structares In the cites the rich morchants lived
in the upper storey of their houses. But ıt is
not clear whether rites and roligion were used
to maintain sosial inequalities. We notice the
dominance of the brahmanas and the ruling
caste, but acute cast distinctions which appeared
in later times are lacking in the early Sangam
age

‘Beginnings of Brahmanism
‘The state and society that were formed i
‘Tamil land in the early centuries of the Chri
era developed under the impact of brahmanism.
But the brahmanical influence was confined to
a small past of ths Tamil tecritory and only to
tho upper levels of Tamil society in that ares.
‘The kings performed the Vedic sacrifices. The
brahmanas, who were the followers of the
Vedas, carried on disputations, possibly with the
Jeinas and the Buddhists, But the chief local
god worshipped by the people was Murugan,
Who was also called Subramaniya. The worship
of Vishnu is also mentioned, although it may
have been a later practice. The megalithic prac-
tice of providing for the dead continued. People
offered paddy to the dead. Cremation was in-
troduced, but inhumation followed in the
megalithic phase was not abandoned.

Tail Language and Sangam Literature
All tbat bas been stated above about the life

137. ‘THE DAWN OF HISTORY IN THE DEEP SOUTH

of tho Tamils in the beginning of the histori-
cal period is based on the Sangam literature.
As shown enr, the amgam was a college or
assembly of Tamil poets held probably under
royal patronage, But we do not know the num-
ber of samgams or the period for which they
were held, It is stated in a Tamil commentary of
the middle of the eighth century A.D. that
three sangams lasted for 9,990 years. They were
attended by 8,598 poets, and had 197 Pandya
kings as patrons. All this is wild exaggeration,
All that can be said is that a sangam was held
under royal patronage in Madura.

‘The available sangam literature, which was
produced by those assemblies, was compiled in
sirca A.D, 300-600. The early, middle and last
strata of the texts are yet to be clearly identified,
‘but they contain descriptions which tally with
what we know from the Greek and Roman

125

accounts, and from archaeology. There is no
doubt that the att of writing was known to the
Tamıls before the beginsing of the Chustian
era. More than 75 short inscriptions in the
Brahmi script have been found in natural caves,
mainly in the Madurai region They pronde
the specimen of the earliest form of Tamil
mixed with Prakrit words. They belong to the
seconds centuries BC when the Jama
and Buddhist missionaries appeared an this
ara. Inscribed potsherds during recent ex-
cavations have been found at several places,
and they provide examples of Tamilın the
beginning of the Christan era, I is therefore
no wonder that considerable Sanga literature
was produced in the early centuries of the
Christian era, although x was finally compiled
by AD. 600,

EXERCISES

1, What ts meant by the mogaliths? What light do they throw on the material culture
of tho southern districts of Tamıl Nadu?

2. When did the Pandyas fist appear in history? Give an account oftheir activities
in the early centres of the Christian era.

Write a note on the Cheras.

}. Where did the Cholss rule first? Narrate the history of Kaveripattanam.

. Mention the commercial activities of the early Tamil kingdoms.
What is meant by the Sangam literature? Give an account of life covered by 1t.

138. CHAPTER 18 :

Crafts, Trade and Towns in the Post-Maurya Age

Crafts

‘The ago of the Sakas, Kushans, Satavahanas
(200B.C.—A D. 200) and the fist Tamil states
was the most flourishing period in the story
of crafts and commerce in ancient India. Arts
and oras witnessed e remackable growth. We
do not come across so many kinds of artisans in
the earlier ots as are mentioned ia the watings
ofthis period. The Digha Nikaya, which belongs
to pro-Maurya times, mentions about tyo dozen
occupations, but the Maharastu, which belongs
to this period, catalogues 36 kinds of workers
living in the town of Rajgir, and thelist not
exhaustive. The Milnda Panho ot the Questions
of Milnda enumerates as many as 75 occupe
tions, 60 of which are connected with various
Xinds of crafts, Craftsmen ate mostly associa-
ted with towns in literary texts, but some excava-
tions show that they also inhabited villages. In
a vilago settlement in Karimaagar in Telangana
carpenters, blackamths, goldsmiths, potters,
te, lived in separate quarters and agricultural
and other labourers lived at one end.

Bight crafts were associated with the working
of gold, silver, lad, tin, copper, brass, iron and
precious stones or jewels Various kinds of brass,
zin, antimony and red arsenic are also men-
tioned, All this shows great advance and speci-
alization in mining and metallurgy, Technologı-
cal knowledge about the work of iron had made
‘reat progress. Iron artifacts have been discoY-
‘ered in greater numbersin Kushan and Satava-

hana layers at various excavated sites But the
Tolangans region of Andhra seems to have made
speciál progress in ron manufacture ln addi
tion to weapons, balance rods, socketed axes
and hoes, sickles, ploughshares, razors and
ladles have deen discovered in the Karimnagar
and Nalgonda districts of this region. Indian ıron
and steel including cutlery were exported to the
Abyssinian ports, and they enjoyed great prestige
in Western Asia,

Cloth-reaking, silk-weaving and the making
of arms and luxury articles also mado progress.
Mathure was a gieat centre for the manufacture
of a special type of cloth which was called
satako Dyeing was atbriving craft in some
south Indian towns. A briek-built dyeing vat
has been unearthed at Ureiyur, a suburb of
Tiruchirapalli town in Tamil Nadu. Similar
dyeing vats were excavated at Arıkamedu.
‘These structures belong to the Ist-rd centuries
AD. duting which handioom toxtle industry
flourished in these towns, The manufacture
of oi increased because of the use of
the oil wheel. The mscerptions of the period
mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers
in metal and ıvary, jewellers, sculptors, fisher-
men, smiths and perfumers as constructors of
caves and donors of pillar, tablets, cisteras,
ee, to the Buddhist monks. All these suggest
that their crafts were ın a flourishing condition.

Of the handicrafts meant for ‚manufacturing
loxary articles mention may be made of ivory

139. CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE

(haran
RAVERIPATTANAN,

N I one.
A
EN ocean

aod po ave of edn muy wih penn of he Sango

ri esos id Bi. wae date en
‘isc ro De ogre ae

Figure 13. India-eirca 200 B.C.—4.D, 200

140. 128

work, glass manufacture and beed cutting.
Many products of these crafts have beon found
as a result of digging in the Kushan complexes.
Indian tvories have been found in Afghanistan
and Rome They are hikened to wory objects
found in excavations at Satavahana sites in the
Deccan. Roman glass objects appear in Taxila
andin Afghanistan, but it was about the begin
ning of the Christian era that the knowledge of
slass-blowing reached India and attained its
peak. Similarly large numbers of brads of se
‘prectous stones appear in post-Maurya layers.
Coin-minting was an important craft, and the
period is noted for numerous types of coins made
of gold, silver, copper, bronzs, lead and potın

‘The craftsmen also made fake Roman coins.

Various coin-moulds belonging to the period
have been found both in north Indio and in
the Deccan. A coin-mould from the Satavahana
level shows that through it hall a dozen coins
could be turned out ata tune. These urban handi-
crafts were supplemented by the manufacture
of beautiful pieces of terracota, which are found
in profuse quantities. They have been found ın
almost all Kushan and Satavahana sites, but
special mention may be made of Yelleshwaram
in Nalgonda district, where we find the largest
nuriber of terracottas and the moulds in which
they were manufactured. Tecracottas and thelr
‘moulds have also been found at Kondapur, at
a distance of about 65 km from Hyderabad.

Terracottas wore meant mostly for the use of
upper clases in towns. Its significant that with
the decline of towns in Gupta, and especially
in post-Gupta times, such terracotias almost
went out of fashion.

Artisans were organized into guilds, and in
the second century A.D. in Maharashtra lay
devotees of Buddhism deposited money with
the guilds of potters, oil millors and weavers
for providing robes ‘and other necessities to
the monks. In the same century money was
deposited by a chief with the guild of four
makers st Mathora out of the manthly income

ANCIENT INDIA

of which a hundred brahmanas were to be
served daily. On the basis of diferent texts we
can say that artisans of this period word organ-
ined into at least two dozen guilds. Most artisans
know from insoriptions were confined to the
Mathura region and to the western Decoan,
which lay on the trado routes leading to the
ports on the western coast.

‘The most important economic development
of the period was the thriving trade between
India and the eastern Roman empire. In the
beginning a good deal of this trado was cared
on by land, but the movement of he Sakas,
Parthians and Kushans from the first century
BC disrupted tado by land route.
Although the Parthians of Iran imported
icon and steel from India they presented great
‘obstacles to India’s trade with the lands further
‘west of Iran. But ftom the frst century A.D.
trade was carried on mainly by sea. It seems
that around the beginning of the Christan era
the monsoons were discovered. So the sailors
now could sail in much les time directly from
the eastermeoast of the Arabian Sea to its west-
ern coast. They could call easily at the various
ports such as Brouch and Sopara situated on
the western coast of India, and Arikamedu and
Tamralipti situated on its eastern coast. Of all
these ports Broach seems to have been the most
important and flourishing. To it were brought
not only the commodities produced in the
Satayabana kingdom but also the goods pro-
duced in the Sako and Kushan kingdoms. The
Sakas acd the Kushans used two routes from the
north-western frontier to the western sea cost.
Both these routes converged at Tania, and were
connected with the Silk Road passiag through
Central Asia. The first route directly ran from
the north to the south connecting Taxila with
the lower Indus basin from where it passed on
to Broach. The second route called the uttara-
patha was m more frequent use. From Tasila
it passed through the modern Panjab up to the
western coast of the Yamuna, Following the

141. (CRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POSTMAURYA AGE. 19

Figure 14 Ancient Trade Router

142. 130

course of the Yamuna it went southward to
Mature, From Mathura it passed on to Ujjain
an Malia and again from Ujjain to Broach on
tho western coast. Ujjain was the meeting-point
of another route which started from Kausambi
near Allahabad, E

Foreign Trade

Although the volume of trado between India
and Rome seems to have been large, it was not
carried on ın articles of daily or common use.
There was a brisk commerce ın luxury goods,
notin theartiies of day-to-day use. The Romans
fist stated trade with the southera-most por-
tion of the country, because their earliest coins
have boon found in the Tamil kingdgms which
lay outside the Satavahana dominions. The
Romans mainly imported sprees for which
south Jada was famous. They also imported
musln, pearls, jewels, and precious stones from
contral und south India, Tron goods, especially
cutlery, formed an important ıtem of export to
the Roman empire. In addition to the articles

directly supplied by India, certain articles were“

brought to India fiom China and Central Asia
and then sent fo the eastern part of the Roman
empire, Silk was directly sent from China to
the Roman empire through the Silk Road pass-
ing through north Afghanistan and Iran. But the
establiahinent of the Parthian rule in Tran and
‘he neighbouring ‚areas created difcultics.
‘Therefore silk had to be diverted to the western
Indian ports through the north-western part of

the subcontmont, Sometimes ıt also found ite -

vay from China to India ma the east coast of
Indie. From there it went to the West, ‘Thus
there was considerable transit trade ia silk
between India and the Roman empire.

In return the Romans exported to India wine-
amphore and various other types of pottery
which have been discovered in excavations at
Tamtok in Wost Bengal, Arikamedu near
Pondicherry and at several other places in
south India, Sometimes they travelled as far as

ANCIENT INDIA."

Gavhati, Lead, which was used for making coins
by the Satavatanas, seems to havo been impor.
ted from Rome,in the shape of coiled strips,
The Roman goods have not been discovered in
any gocd number in north India. But there is
no doubt that under the Kushans the north.
western part of the subcontinent in tho second
century A.D carried on trade with tho eastern
part of the Roman empire This was facilitated
by the Roman conquest of Mesopotamia, which
was made a Roman province in A.D 115, The
Roman emperor Trajan not only conquered
Muscat but also explored the Porsian Gulf
‘As a result of trade and conquest the Roman
Objects reached Afghanistan and north-western
India, At Bogram, 72 km north of Kabul, large
glass jars mado in Italy, Egypt and Syria have
‘come to light. Wo also find there bowls, bronze
stands, steel yards, werghts of western origin,
Graeco-Roman bronze statues of small si
jogs and other vessels mado of alabaster Taxi
which is idantical with the modern Sırkap in
North-West Frontier Province of Pakıstan,
provides fine examples of the Graeco-Roman
sculpture in bronee. We also find silver orna-
ments, some bronze pots, one jar and coins of
the Roman emperor Tiberius. But Artetine pot-
tery, which has been found commonly in south
India, 18 not noticed ın central or western India
or in Afghanistan. Evidently these places
did not receive popular western articles,
which have been found mostly south of the
Vindhyas in the Satavahana kingdom and fur-
ther south. Thus the kingdoms of both the Sata-
vahanas as well as the Kushons profited from
trade with the Roman empire, although the
maximum profit seams to have accrued to the
Satavahanas.

‘The most significant Roman export to India
was the large number of coins, invariably
made of gold and silver. About 85 finds
of Roman coins have come to light in
the whole of the subcontinent, and most of
‘them come from the south of the Vindhyas,

143. ‘GRAFTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE

‘This justfis the complaint of the Roman weiter
Pliny, who wrote his account called Natural
History in Latin in A.D 77. Ho bowls thet
Rome was being drained of gold on account of
her trade with India. This may be an cxaggora»
tion, But as early as A.D, 22 we heat of com
plants against excessive expenditure om the
purchase of pepper from the East, Sinco tho
westerners were very much fond of Indian
pepper, it is called yunangprıya in Sanskrit.
‘There also began a strong reuction against the
use of Tndia-mado stoel cutlery for which the
Roman nobles pad very hugh prices The balance
of trade was so much in fevour of India that
eventually steps had to be taken in Rome to
‘ban Rome's trade with India in pepper and steel
goods,”

How did the Indians use the silver and gold
currency which came to India from Rome?
‘The Roman gold cours were naturally valued for
their intrinsic worth, but they also may have
carculated ın big trans: ctions. fn the north the
Indo-Greck rulers issued a few gold coins. But
the Kushans issued gold coins 1m considerable
numbers. Tt is wrong to think that all Kushan
gold coms were minted out of Roman gold
As early as the fifth contruy BC India-had
pad a tributo of 320 talents of gold 10 the
Jramian empire. This gold may have been
extactod from the gold mines in Sindh. The
Kushans probably obtained gold from Central
Asia They may also have procured it either
from Karnataka or from the gold mnes of
Dialbhum in south Bihar which latorcame under
teur sway. On account of contact with Rome the
Kushans issued the dinar type of gold coins which
became aburdant under the Gupta rule But
sold coins may not have been used in day-to-
day transactions, which were carried on ın coms
of lead, potin. or copper. Both lead and copper
deposits are. found in Andhra The Andhras
issued a largé number of lead or potin coms ın
‘the Deccan, and the Kushans sssued the largest
number of copper consinnorthernandnorthwes-

1

ten India. Copper and bronze coins werealsoused
in lrge quantitesbytherulers of some indigenous
dynasties such as the Nagas who ruled an central
India, the Yaudheyas who ruled in eastern Rajas-
than together with the adiacent areas of Haryana,
Panjab and Uttar Pradesh and the Miteas who
ruled in Kausambi, Mathura, Avanti, and Abi
chohhatra (Barcily district im Uttar Pradesh)
Perhaps in no other period had money economy
penetrated so deeply into the lie of the common
people of the towns and their suburbs as dí
‘thus period This development fas well
growth of arts and crafts and the country's
thriving trade with the Roman empire

Urban Settlements
‘The growing crafls and commerce and the
cfeasing use of money promoted the prosperity
ff numerous towns during this period. Impor-
‘ant towns in north India such as Vausal, Patah-
putea, Varanasi, Kausambı, Sravastı, Hastina-
pur, Mathura, Indraprastha (Purana Quila in
Now Dellu) are all mentioned an literary texts,
and some of them are also described by the
Chinese pilgrums Most towns floucishod inthe
Kushan pe.zod ın the first and the second cen-
tunes A.D. This may be sud on the basis of

Fersen Fes fw I Te
(Dist Osmanabad)

144. 182 Remains ofthe Staion at Negerunokonda

‘excavations, which have revealed better struc-
tures belonging to the Kushan age. Excavations
further show that several sites in Bibar such as
Chirand, Sonpur and Buxar, and Mason in
Ghazıpur in eastern Uttar Pradesh witnessed
prosperous Kushan phases. Similarly in Uttac
Pradesh, Sohgaura, Bhita, Kausambı and
Shringaverapur near Allahabad, Atranjikhera
and several sites in the districts of Meerut and
Muzaffarnagar were ın a thriving state in
Kuskan times. We notice considerable brick
Structures of the Kushan period at both Shrings

verapue aud Chirand. The excavations at Sonkh
in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the
Kusban phase, and only one of the Gupta phase.
Again in Julluodar, Ludhiana and Ropar, all
lying in Panjab, several sites show good Kushan,
structures. The same is true of the sites excavated
in Haryana. In many cases the Gupta period
‘had poorly built structures made of used Kushan
bricks. On the whole the material remains as-
cribable to the Kushan phase display urbaniza-
tion at its peak. This also applies to towns in
the Sala kingdom of Malwa and western Tndi

‘The most important town was Ujjain, because
ofits being the nodal point of two routes, one

ANCIENT INDIA

from Kausambi and the other from Mathura,
But it was also important because of its export
of agate and carnelian stones, Excavations show

y that agate, jasper and carnelian were worked on

& large scale for the manufacture of beads after
200 BC. This was possible because the raw

SEES" cateral could be obtained m plenty from the
trap bedrock in the bed of the Sipra river

Towns thrived in the Satavahana kingdom
during the same period as they did under
the Sakas and Kushans. Tagar (Ter), Paithan,
Dhasyakatakı, Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda,
Broach, Sopara, Arikamedu, Kavoripatianam
‘were prosperous tovins in the Satavahana period
in western and south India. Several Satavahane
settlements, some of which may bo identical with
the thicty walled towns of the Andhras mention-
cd by Pliny, bave been excavated in Telangana.
They had originated much earlier than towns ia
the coastal Andhra although not much later
than towns in westera Maharashtra, But the
decline of towns in Maharashira, Andhra and
Tamil Nadu generally took place from the
third century AD. onwards.

‘Towns prospered in the Kusban and Satava-
hana empires because they carried on theiving
trade with the Roman empire. The country trad-
ed with the eastern part of the Roman empire
as well as with Central Asia Towns in Panjab
and western Uttar Pradesh thrived because the
centre of Kushan powet lay in north-western
India. Most Kushan towns in India lay exactly
on tha north-western of uttarapalka route
passing from Mathura to Taxila, The Kushan
empire ensurod security on the routes. Its end
1m tho third century A.D. deal a great blow to
these towns, The same thing seems to have
happened in the Deccan With the ban on trade
with India imposed by the Roman empire from
the third century AD. towns could not
suppott the artisans and merchants who lived
there, Archacological excavations im the Deccan
also suggest decline in the urban settlements
after the Satavahana phase,

145. CRARTS, TRADE AND TOWNS IN THE POST-MAURYA AGE.
EXERCISES

“The aga of the Sakas, Kushans and Satavahanas was the most flourishing
period in the history of crafts and commerce in anciont India.” Discuss.
Describe the main economic activities in post-Maurya times (circa 200 B.C.—
AD 200).

Give an account of India’s foreign trade between circa 200 B.C. and A.D. 200.
“The growth of crafts and commerce promoted the prosperity of towas in post-
Maurya timos (cirea 200 B C.—A.D 200)," Expand,

133

146. CHAPTER 19

The Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire

Background

After the break-up of the Maurya empire the
Satavahanas and the Kushans emerged as two
large political powers, The Satavahanas acted
as a stabilizmg factor in the Descan and south,
to which they gave politcal unity and economic
prosperity on the strength of their trade with
the Roman empire. The Kushans performed
the same role in the north, Both these empires
came to an end in the middle of the third
century AD,

On the culas of the Kushan empire arose a
new empire, which estabhshed its sway over a
good part of the former domumons of both the
Kushans and Satavahanas. This was the power
of the Guptas, who may have been of vassya
orgin. Although the Gupta empire was not as
large as the Maurya empire, it Kept north India
political united for more than a century, from
335 to 455, The original kingdom of the Guptas
comprised Uttar Pradesh and Bihar at the end
ofthe third century A.D. Uttar Pradesh seems
to have been a more important province forthe
Guptas than Bibar, because carly Gupta coins
and inscriptions have beon mainly found in that
state. IF we leave out some feudatories and
private individuals, whose inscriptions have
‘been mostly found in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar
Pradesh will stand out as the most important
area in” respect of the finds of the Gupta
antiquities. Hence Uttar Pradesh seems to have

and fanned out ın different directions. Probably
with their centre of power at Prayag they spread
in the neighbouring regions.

‘The Guptas were possibly the feudatories of
the Kushans in Uttar Pradesh, and seem to
have succeeded them without any wide timela.
At many places in Utter Pradesh and Bihar the
Kushan antiquities are immediately followed
by the Gupta antiquities It is likely that the
Guptas learnt tho use ot saddle, reins, buttoned
coats, trousers and boots from the Kushans
All these gave them mobility and made them
excellent horsemen. In the Kushan scheme of
things chanots and elephants had ceased to be
important. Horses played the mam part This
also seems to have been the case withthe Guptas
on whose coins horsemen are represented
Although some Gupta longs are described as
excellent and unrivalled chariot warriors, heit
‘basic strength lay in the use of horses.

The Guplas enjoyed certain material advan-
tages. The centre of their operations lay m the
fertile land of Madhyadesa covering Bihar and
Uttar Pradesh. They could exploit the iron ora '
of central India and south Bihar. Further, they
took advantage of their proximity to the areas
in north India which carried on sik trade with
the Eastern Roman empire, also known as the
‘Byzantine empire. On account of these favour-
able factors the Guptas set up their rule over
Anuganga (the middle Gangetio basin), Prayag

been the place from where the Guptas operated (modern Allahabad), Saketa (modem Ayodhya)

147. |THE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EIRE 15

nd Magadha. In course of time this kingdom
Kane an alindia empire. The Kushan power
ianotth India came to an end around A.D. 230
And then a good part of central India fll under
tee mle of the Murundas, who were possibly
the kinsmen of the Kusbans. The Murundas
catiaued to rule tll A.D. 250. Tente
yas later, in about A.D. 275, the dynasty of
de Guplas came to pow

The first important king ofthe Gupta dynasty
vas Chandragupta L. Ho marricd a Lichchha
princess from Nepal, which strengthened his
fosiuon. The Guptas were possibly vayas,
ind henos marriage ın a kshatriya fimuly gave
dem prestige. Chandragupta 1 seems to have
beni a rule of considerable importance because
Le started the Gupta era ın A.D. 319-20, which
marked the date of his acosssion. Later many
inserptions game to be dated in the Gupta er,

Samadragopta (A.D. 335.380)
“Tae Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously

y Chandragupta’s son and succzssor Samudra-
gupta (A.D. 335-380), He was the opposite of
Asoka Asoka belioved in a policy of peace
and non-aggression, but Samudragupta delighted.
in violence and conquest. His court poet Hari-
shena wrote a glowing account of te military
explofts of bis patron In a long inscription the
poet enumerates the peoples and countries that
were conquered by Samudragupta. The ın-
senption 1s engraved at Allahabad on the same
pillar as carries an inscription of the peace-loving
Asoka. The places and tho countries conquered
‘by Samudragupta can be divided into Ave groups,
Group one includes princes of the Ganga
Yamuná doab, who were defeated and whose
kıngdoms were incorporated into the Gupta
empire, Group two includes the rulers of the
eastorn Himalayan states and some frontier states
such as princes of Nepal, Assam, Bengal, etc.,
who Were made to feo) the weight of Samudza-
gupta's arms. It also covers some republics of
Paryab, The republis, wich fickered on the

19.4. The Allatad Pilar Inzripton of Samaogupta (lines 30-32 and 39)

The Nagari rendering of lines 30, 31 and 33 and English tension of lines 30-31 are won below

(620) pee ql PORT er 1 FETE
ee Fa

(sy) eet Ser

ETC STAR wi

(439) saa vor Ager

T1

ref aa ay re qu ee
rite

at
ARR |

2031 [And who fms ete heaped up her and ihe by the deeopnent of ie) Mera

154 prowess of arm and compogur and (study of) the precets of the sermlures,

own
of (he god) Pasupati] y

8 auicly on beng Iberated from confinement the ticle of the mated hate

148. 136 ANCIENT INDIA

THE GUPTA EMPIRE
AT THE CLOSE OF THE
FOURTH CENTURY

GUPTA EMPIRE 7 ua
PRESENT EXTERNAL BOUNDARY OF INDIA ===

INDIAN

AAA
OCEAN Yan

ad po Sue so ap wi prnl Super Ge fo
sta.

(© ane ina
eterna wae

Figure 15 The Gupta Empire, circa A.D, 490

149. THE Al AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE

ruins of the Maurya empire, were nally put out

by Samudragupta Group three includes the
forest kingdoms situated im the Vindhya region
and known as atavıka rajyas; they were brought
under the control of Samvdragupts. Group
four cludes 12 rulersof the eastern Deccan and
south India, who were conquered and liberated
Samudragupta's arms reached as fax as Kanchi
im Tamıl Nadu, where the Pallavas were com-
pelled to recognize his suzersinty. Group Sve
includes the names of the Sakas and Kushans,
some of them ruling ın Afghanıstan. It is said
that Samudragupta swept them out of pbwer
and received the submission of the rulers of

"49a Colne of Chandhaeupta-,-"Samudragupta ond
E

handrarpta It

137

distant lands. The prestige ahd infipenos of
Semudragupta spread even outside India,
‘According to a Chinese source, Meghnvarman,
the ruler of Sci Lanka, sont a.
Samudragupta for permission to bu
temple at Gaya. This vas granted, and the
temple developed nto a huge monastic establish-
ment If we believe the eulogistc scription from
Allahabad, it would appoac that Samudcagapta
never knew any defeat, and in this sense he is
called the Napoleon of India, Thore 1 no doubt
that Samudragupta forcibly unified the greater
part of India under him, and his power wes fol
in a much larger area,

Chandragupta II (A.D. 380-412)
‘The reiga of Chandragupta TI saw the high
watermark of the Gupta empire, He extended
the limits of the empire by marriage alliance and
conquests. Chandragupta married hus daughter
Prabhavati with a Vakatıka prince who belong-
ed to the brahmana caste and ruled m central
la. The prince died, and was sueceeded by
‘young son, So Prabhavati became the vir-
tual rule. As shown by some of her land char-
ters, which botray the influence of the eastern
Gupta writing, she managed the affaus of her
Kingdom with the help of an official sont by her
father Chandragupta, Thus Chandragupta exer-
ised indirect control over the Vakataka kıng-
dom in central India This afforded a great
advantage to him. Passing through this area
Chandregupta IL conguored western Malwa
and Gujarat, which had been under the rule of
the Sakas for about four centunes by that time.
‘The conquest gave Chandragupta the western
sea coast, famous for trade and commerce.
‘This contributed to the prosperity of Malwa,
and its chief city Ujaln Ujiain seems to have
been made the second capital by Chandragupta
u

‘The exploits of a king called Chandra are
glorified in an iron pillar inscription fixed near
Qutb Minar in Delhi IF Chandez is considered

150. 138

to be idenuce with Chandragupta D, it will
appear that he established Gupta authority in
northovestra India and in a good portion of
Beng

Chandragupta adopted the tite of Vikrama-
iy, wih hd ben et sd by an Ua
ruler in 58 B.C. as a mack of victory over
Sakas. The coutt of Chandragupta 1 at Uj
wad adored by numerous seholars including
Kalidasa and Amarasinha.

Te was In Chandragupta's timo tht the Chinese
pilgrim Fe-hsien (399414) visited India and
wrote an elaborate account of the life ofits
people,

Fall of the Empire

The successors of Chandragupta IT had to
Jaco an invasion by the Hunas from Central Asia
in the second half of tho fifth centruy A.D.
Although in the beginning the Gupta king
Skandagupta tried effectives to stem the march
of the Hunas into India, hıs suooessors proved’
10 be weak and could not copo with the Huns
invadors, who excelled in Horsemanship and
who possibly used stirrups made of metal. They
could move quickly, and being excellent archers
they seem to have attamed considerable success
not only ın Ican but also ın India-

By 485 the Hunas ocoupied eastern Malwa
and a good portion of central India whore tho
‚inseriptions have beca found. The intermediate
regions such as Panjab and Rajasthan also
‘passed under their possession, This must have
drastically reduced the extent of the Gupta
empire at the begmning of the sixth century.
Although the Huna power was soon overthrown,
by Yasodharman of Maiwa, the Malwa prince

+ successfully challenged the authority of the
Guptas and sot up, in 532, pillars of victory
‘commemorating his conguost of almost the whole
of northern India. Although Yasodharman’s
rule was shorlived, it must have given a severe
blow to the Gupta emp

‘Tae Gupta empire was further undermined

ANCIENT INDIA,

by the rise of the foudatories, The governérs
appointed by the Gupta kings in north Bengal
and their foudatories in Samatata or south-east
‘Bengal tended to become independont. The later
Guptas of Magadha established their power
in Bihar, Alongside them the Maukbaris
rose to power in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, and
had their capital at Kanauj. It seams that by
550 Bihar and Uttar Pradesh had passed out of
Gupta hands. By the beginning of tho sixth
century we Gnd independent priacos issuing land
grants in their own rights in northern Madhya,
Pradesh, although they use the Gupta era in
dating their charters, The rulers of Valabhi
established their authority in” Gujarat and
western Malwa. After the reign of Skanda,
gupta io, A.D. 467, hardly any Gupta. coin
0x inscription has been found in western Malwa
and Saurashtra, The loss of western India, which
seems to have been complete by the end of the
fifth century, must have deprived the Guptas
of the rich revenues from trade and commerce
and crippled thera economically, and the princes
of Thaneswar established their power in Haryana
and then gradually moved on to Kana

‘The Gupte state may have found it dificult to
maintain a large professional army on account
of the growing practice of land grants for
religious ang other purposes, which was Ir
to reduce their revenues. Their à
ave further been affected by the décline wot fae
sign trade, The migration of a guild of silk
weavers from Gujarat to Malwa in A,

show that thero vas not much demand für
loth produced by them, The advantages from
Gujarat trado gradually disappeared, After the
middle ofthe fifth century the Gupta kings made
desperate attempts to.malatain their gold our-

reney by reducing the content of pure gold ia it
But this proved of no avall. Although the rule
of tho Imperial Guptas lingered til the middle
of the sith century A.D, the imperial glory
Had ended a century eatlir.

151. L
2

TUE RISE AND GROWTH OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE
EXERCISES

‘Outline the riso and growth of the Gupta empi
Enumerato tho conquests of Samudragupta.

“The reign of Chandragupta II was the high watermark of the Gupta empire,
Expand

152. CHAPTER 20

Life in the Gupta Age

‘System of Administration

In contrast to the Mauryas the Gupta Kings
adopted pompous’ titles such as paramesvara,
maharajadhiraja and paramabhatiaraka. This
signifies that they ruled over lesser kings ın thei
epic, Kingshp waskeredtary, butroyal power
was limited by the absence of a firm practice
of primogeniture. The throne did not always go
10 the eldest son. This created uncertainties, of
witich the chiefs and high’ officials could take
advantage. The Guptas made munificent gifts to
the brahmanas, who expressed their gratitude by
comparing the king to different gods. He was
looked upon as Vishny, the protector and pre-
server, The goddess Lakshmi 1s represented me
variably on the other side of the coins as the
wile of Vishaw,

The numerical strength of the Gupta army 15
not known. Evidently the king maintained a
stending army, which was supplemented by the
forces occasionally supplied by the foudatories.
Chariots receded into the background, and ca-
valy came to the foretont. Horse archery be-,
came prominent in military tats.

In tho Gupta period land taxes increased ia
number, and those on trade and commerce
decreased. Probably the king collected taxes
varying from one-fourth to one-sixth of the
produce, In addition to this, whenever the royal
army passed through the countryside the local
‘people had to feed it. The peasants had to supply
anımals, foodgrains, furniture, cto., for the

maintenance of royal offers on duty in the rural
areas. In oontral and western India the villagers
were also subjected to foraed labour called
hl for serving the royal army and officals
The judicial system was far more developed
under tho Guptas than in eayher tones, Several
Jw-books were compiled in this period. For the
first time evil and criminal law were clearly
defined and demarcated. Theft and adultery
came under criminal law. Disputes regardiog
various types of property came under civ aw,
Blaborato laws werelaud down about inheritance,
During this period also many laws continued to
bbe based on differences in varnas. It was the duty
of the king to uphold the law. Taoking tied cases
with the help of brahmana priests. The guilds
of artisans, merchants and others were governed
by their own laws, Seats from Vaisali and from
Bhita near Allahabad indicate that theso guilds
flourished exceedingly well in Gupta times.
‘Tho Gupta bureauoracy was not as elaborate
as that of the Mauryas. The most important
officers in the Gupta empire were the kumarama-
‘pas. They were appointed by the king in the
‘home provinoss and possibly paid in cash. Since
the Guptas were possibly valsyas, recruitment
was not confined to the upper varnas only. But
several ofices came to be ombinod in the bands
‘of the some person, and posts became hereditary.
This naturally weakened tho royal control,
‘Tho Guptas organized a system of provincial
and local administration. The empire was

153. URE on THB

divided into divisions ofukr), and each blu
was placed under the charge of an uparika, Tho
bhuktis were divided into distri (yshayas),

‘which were placed under the charge of vshaya-

patl In eastern India the nshayas were dived

into vit, which again were dwvided into
ilages.

‘The village headman became more important
in Gupta timos He managed the village afars
with the assistance of elders. With tho admis.
ration of a vilago or a small town leading
local elements ware associated. No laud transte-
sions could be effected without their consent

In the urban administration organized pro-
fassional bodies were given considerable share
The seats from Vasa show that artisans, mor-
chants and soibs served on the sats corporate
body, and an this capacity they obviously con-
ducted the affairs of tho towns. Bandes this
common organization, artsans and bankers
were organized mto there own soparate guilds,
We hear of numerous guilds of artisans, traders,
ete. at Ba and Vaisai, At Mandasor in Malva
sulk weavers meintaıned thoirown guilds, and st
Indore in the district of Bulandshahar in western
Uttar Pradesh oll-pressers had thor own gulli.
It seems that these guilds, especially those of
rerchants, enjoyed certam immunities. In any
case they coulé look after the affaus of their
own members and punished those who vilatad
the customs and law of the guild

‘The system of administration described above
applied only to north Bongal, Biber, Uttar
Pradesh and some adjoining areas of Madhya
Pradesh, which were ruled directly by the officers
appointed by the Gupta kings. Tho major part
of the empire was hold by feudatory chief,
many of whom had boen subjugated by Sar:
dragupta. The vassals who lived on the fringe of
the empire carried out three obligations. They
fered homage to the sovereign by personel
attendance at bis court, pad tribute to hom and
presented to him daughters in marrige. L seems
that in rotum for these they obtained charters

ourra ace 11
for rolingin the areas. The charters marked with
the royal Garuda seal seem to have been issued
to tho vassals The Guptas thus had several
tributary princes in Madhya Pradesh and else-
where. The subordinate position of the princes
turned thom into feudal vassals

‘The second umportant feudal development
was the grant of fiscal aud administrative con»
cessions to priests and administrators, Started
m the Decean by the Satavahanas, the practice
became a regular affair in Gupta times, parti-
culariy m Madhya Pradesh Religious function-
anes were granted land, fice of tax for ever,
and they were authorized to collect from the
peasants all the texos which could have other-
‘wise gone to the emperor Tae villages geanted to
the beneficiaries could not be entered by royal
agents, retainers, ete. The beneficiaries were
also empowered to punish the eriminals

‘Whether state officials were paid by grants of
land in Gupta times 1s not clear. Abundance of
gold coms would suggest that higher officals
‘were paid in cash. But many officers may have
been paid by land grants

Since much of the imperial admmisteation was
managed by feudatories and beneficraries, the
Gupta tulers did not require as many ofenls
as the Mauryas did. They did not require too
many officers also because the state did not take
part ın economic activities on any big scale,
it did ın Mavrya timos The participation of
leading artisans, mörchants, elders, ete, ın rural
and urban administration also lessened the need
for mamtaining a large retinue of officers. The
Guptas neither needed nor posiassed the olabo-
rate administrative machinory of Maurya times,
‘and in several ways their political system appears
to be feudal.

Decline of Trade and Rise of Landed Classes

‘We get some idea of the economic lio of the
people of Gupta times from Fa-hsien, who
visited diferent parts of the Gupta emp
‘Among other things, be informs us that Magar

154. 12

ha was full of ts and it rich people suppor-
ted Buddhism and gave charities But during
thus period we notice a decline in foreign trade
‘Til A.D 550 Indra carried on some trade with
the Eastern Roman empire, to whuch tt exported
silk, Around A D. 550 the people of the Bastern
Roman empire learat from the Chinese the aut
of growing silk. This adversely affected the ex-
port trade of India. Even before tho middle of
the sixth century A.D. the demand for Indian
silk abroad had slackened. In the middle of the
fifth century a guild of silk weavers left their
original home in western India ın the country of
Lata and migrated to Mandasor, where they
gave up their original occupation and took to
other professions”

‘The striking development of the Gupte period
‘was the emorgence of priestly landlords at the
cost of local persants Land grants made to
‘tho priests certainly brought many virgin areas
under cultivation. But these beneficiaries were
{imposed from above on the local tribal peasants,
‘who were reduced to a lower status In central
and western India the, peasants were also sub»
{feted to forced labour.

Social Developments

Land grants to the brahmanas on a large scale
suggest that the brahmana supremacy continu xd
an Gupta times, The Guplas who were origin
ally vaisyas came to be looked upon as kshatrı-
yas by the brahmanas. The brahmanas represen-
ted the Gupta kings as possessing the attributes
‘of gods, and the Gupta princes became great
supporters of the brakmanical order. The
brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of
humerous land grants. So they claimed many
privileges, which are listed in the law-book of
Narada.

The castes proliferated into numerous sub-
‘castes asa result of two factors. On the one hand
A large number of foreigners had been assimilated
into the Indian society, and each group of for.

ARGENT INDIA

Since the foreigners mainly came as conquerors
they wore given the status of the kehatriya in
society. The Hunas, who appeared in India
towards the close of the lth century, ultimately
camo to be recognized as one of the thirty-six
clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs
bear the title Huna The other reason for
increase in the number of castes was the absorp-
tion of many tribal peqples into brahmanical
society by way of land grants, To the ruling
chiefs of the tribes was ascnbed a respectable
origin. But most of the rest of the tribal people
were given a low origin, and every tribe now
bocame a kind of caste in Hindu society.

In some ways the position of sudras and
women improved in this period. They were now
permitted to listen to the epics and the Puranas,
They could also worship a new god called
Kehna From the seventh century onwards the
sudras were mainly represented as agriculturists;
in the cacher period they always appeared as
Servants, slaves and agricultural labourers
working for the thres higher varas

But during this period the untouchables
increased in number, especially the chandalas
The chandalas appeared ın society as early as
tho fifth century B.C By the fifth century A.D
their number had become so enormous and
their disabibites so glaring that ıt attracted the
attention of the Chinese pilgrim Fachsien. He
informs us that the chandalas lived outside the
village and dealt in meat and flesh. Whenever
they entered the town the upper caste people
kept themselves at a distance from them because
the road was supposed to have been polluted by
them.

Baddhism and Brahmanism

Buddhism no longer received royal patronage
in the Gupta period Fa-hsien gives the impres-
ston that this religion was in a very Bourishing
state. But really Buddhism was not so important
in the Gupta period asit was in the days of Asoka

eigners was considered a kind of Hindu caste. and Kanishka. Espevall it suffered in Magadha,

155. LIFE IN THE GUPTA ABE

Brahmanism had come to the forefront. The
‘wo gods who commanded the worship of their
followors were Vishnu and Siva. Vishnu omer-
ed as the god of devotion, and he came to be
represented as the saviour of the varna system.
Numerous legends gathered about him, and a
whole Purana called the Pishmupurana was
‘compiled in his honour, Similarly a lay-book
called the Vishmusmrti was also named after
this god, Above all, by the fourth century
AD. there appeared the famous Vaishnava
work Bhagavadgita, which taught devotion to
Lord Krishna and stressed the performance of
the functions assigned to Gach Varna.

A few Gupta kings were worshippers of Siva,
the god of destruction. But he came in the front
rank at a later stage, and does not seem to have
been as important as Vishnu m the early phase

143

of the Gupta rule

Idol worship in the temples becas men
feature of Hinduism from the Gupta period.
Many festivals also came to be celebrated.
Agricultural festivals observed by different
classos of people were given religious garb and
colour, and turned into good sources of in-
‘come for the priests,

The Gupta kings followed a poly of toler-

* ance towards the different rehgious sects. We

find no example of the persecution of the fol-
lowers of Buddhism and Jainism This was also
on account of the change in the character of
Buddhism iviuch had come to acquire many of
the features of Hinduism.

Art
The Gupta period is called the Golden Age
of ancient India, This may not be true ın the

156. economie field Because several towns in north
India destined ducing this period. But the
Guptas possessed a large amount of gold, what
ever might be its source, and they sseved the
largest umber of gold coins. Princes and richer
people could divert a part of their income for
the support of those who were engaged in art
and literature, Both Samudragupta and Chan-
ragupta IL were patrons of art and literature.
Sumudragapta 15 represented on his coins
Playing the lute (una), and Chandragupta TE
seredited with maintaining in his court nine
Tuminaries or great scholar.

In ancient India art was mostly inspired by
religion. Survials of non-religious art from
ancient India are few. Buddhism gave great
‘mpetusto artin Maurya and post-Maurya times,

ANCIENT INDIA

I lod to the creation of massive stone pil
cutting of beautiful caves and. casing of igh
stupas or rele towers, The stupas appeared as
domelike structures on round bases manly
of stone. Numerous images of the Buddha were
fashioned

Ta the Gupta period we find an over to
notre high bronze image of the Buddha, which
vas recovered from Sultangary near Bhagalpur.
Fuchsion sawan over 25 metre high image ofthe
Buddha made of copper, but it 1 not traceable
now. In the Gupta period beautiful ¡magos of
the Buddha were made at Saruath and Mathura,
But the greatest specimen of Buddkist art in

* Gupte times is provided by the Ajanta palntings,

Although these paintings’ covered the period
from the fist 10 the soventh century A.D.,

14 Image of Yanana rom Ahchaura
(Dam. Bari)

157. LE IN THE GUPTA AGE

most of them belong to Gupta times. They”
depict various events in the life of Gautama
Buddha and the previous Buddhas. These
paintings are lifebke and natural. They are
marked by the brilianco of thoir colours, which
Have not faded even after 14 centuries or so.

205 Image of the Buddha from Maha

165

206 Ajeno Pam of en Apr

Since the Guptas were supporters of brat
‘manism, for the first time we get in the Gupta
period images of Vishnu, Siva and some other
Hindu gods. At many places we get a whole
pantheon in which the chief god appears in the
middle and his retainers and subordinates
appear on the same panel al around him, The
leading god is represented largo in sizo, but his
retainers and subordinate gods are drawn on a

ler scale. This represents a clear socal
distinction and hierarchy.’ The Gupta period was
poor in architecture, All we get isa few temples
made of brick in Uttar Pradesh and a stone tem-
plo. We may mention the brick temples of
Bhitargaon in Kanpur, Bhitari in Ghazipur and
Deogarh in Jhansi. The Buddbist university at

158. 16

[Nalanda was set up m the Afth century, and its
earliest structure, made of brick, belongs to
this period,

jod ıs remarkable for the
production of secular hterature. To this period
‘belong 13 plays written by Bhasa. But what has
made the Gupta poriod really famous is the
work of Kabdasa, Kalılasa wrote Abhifranasa-
‘untalam, which is considered to be one of the
best hundred literary works mn the world. Tt was
‘one of the eariest Indian works to bo transla-
ted into European languages, the other work
being the Bhagavadgita, Two things can be noted
about the plays produced in India m the Gupta
Period, First, these are all comedies We do
‘ot come across any tragedies. Secondly, oharac-
ter of the higher and lower clases do not speak
‘te same languago; women and sudras featuring.
in these plays use Prakrıt

During this period we also notre an increase
in the production of religious literature. Most
works of the period had a strong religious bias.
The two great epics, namely the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata, were finally compiled probab-
ly in the fourth century AD The Ramayana
tells us the story of Rama, who was banished
by hus father Dasaratha from the Kingdom of
‘Ayodhya for 14 years on account of the machina-
tions of his stepmother Kakey). He fithfolly
carried out the orders of his father and went to
live in the forest, where his wife Sita was abduc-
ted by Ravana, the king of Lanka Eventually
Rama with the help of his brother Lakshmana
led an expediuon to Lanka, defeated Ravana and
brought back Sua. The story has two important
moral strands. Fics, 1t adealizs the institution
‘of family in which a son must obey his father,
the younger brother must obey his elder brother
and the wife must be faithful to her husband in
all circumstances, Second, Ravana symbolizes
the force of evil, and Rama symbolizes the force
af righteousness. Tn the end righteousness ti.

ANCIENT INDIA

unuphs over the forces of evil, and good order
over bad order.

The Mahabharata’ 13 essentially the story of
a conflet between two groups of cousins, the
Kauravas and the Pandavas. IL shows that
kingship knows no kinshrp Although the Pan-
davas were entitled to their share inthe kıngdom
left by Dhritarashtra, the Kauravas refused to
give them oven a single inch of territory, This
led to a prolonged fratcicidat war botpeen the
Pandavas asıisted by Krishna, and the Kaura-
vas, Eventually the Kauravas were worsted in
the fight, and the Pandavas came out vietorious.
This story also represents the victory of righte
‘ousness over the forces of evi. The Ahagaradgıta
forms an important part of the Mahabharata.
It teaches that a person must carry out the duties
assigned to hum by hus caste and rank under
all ciccamstances without any desire for reward.

“The Puranas follow the lines of tho eps, and
the carlier ones were finally compiled in Gupta
‘umes, They are full of myths, legends, sermons,
eto, which were meant for the education and
edition of the common people. The period
also saw the compilation of various Smetis or
the law-books written ın verse. The phase of
writing commentanes on the Sraritis begins after
the Gupta period.

‘Tho Gupta period also saw the development
of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and
Patanjall. Tis period is particularly memorable
forte compilation ofthe Amarakasa by Amara-
simha, who was a luminary in the court of
Chandragupta I. This lexicon is learnt by heart
by students taught Sanskrit in the traditional
fashion. On the whole the Gupta period was à
bright phase in the history ofclassieal literature.
It developed an ornate styl, which was diferent
from tho old simple Sanskrit. From this period
onwards we find greater emphasis on vorse than
on prose. We also come across a few commen
taries. There 1s no doubt that Sanskrit was the
court language of the Guptas. Although we
get a good deal of brabmanical religious litera-

159. LIFE IN THE GUPTA AGE 1

ture, the period: also produced some of the
‘earliest pieces of secular literature.

Science and Techoology

In the Geld of mathematics we come across
during this period a work called Arzebhatya
wnitten by Aryabhata, who belonged to Patalı-
putra It seems that this mathematican was
well versed in various kinds of calculations. A
Gupta inscription of 448 from Allahabad dis-
trict suggests thatthe decimal system was known
ın India at the beginning of the fifth century
AD In the fields of astronomy a book called
Romaka Sidhanta was compiled It was ınfuene-
ed by Greek ideas, as can be uiferred from its
name.

‘The Gupta craftsmen distinguished themselves
by their work ia iron and bronze. We know of
several bronze images of the Buddha, which
began to be produced on a considerable scale
because of the knowledge of advanced ıron
technology In the case of ıron objects the
best example 1s the ıron pillar found at Della
near Mohraule. Manufactured ın the fourth
century A.D., the pilar has not gathered any
rust m the subsequent 15 centuries, which 1s
a great tributo to the technological. skill of the
craftsmen It was impossible, to produce such
a pillar m any iron foundry im the West untıl

207 tron Pilar at Dells

about a century ago. It as a pity that the later
cuafismen could not develop this knowledge
further

EXERCISES

Describe tho system of administration under the Imperial Guptas

Survey the economic life of the people of India in Gupta times.

“The Gupta period is called the Golden Age of ancient India" Discuss.
Give an account of the socal ard religious conditions of Tndia ın Gupta times
‘Who was Fa-hsin ? What does he say concerning India ?

160. CHAPTER 21

Spread of Civilization in Eastern India

Signs of Civilization

A region is considered to be ewilized it its
people know the ert of writing, have a system
for calleting taxes and maintaining order, and
possess socal lasses and specalistsfor perform
ing priestly, administrative and producing
functions. Above all a ewilized society should
be able to produce enough to support aot only
the actual producers consisting of artisans and
peasants but also consumers who are not on-
gaged in production. All thee laments make for
cavlizaion. But they appear in a largo part of
caster India on a resognmzable seal very fate
Practically no writen records aro found in the
greater portions of eastem Madhya Pradesh
aad the adjoining areas of Orissa, of West
Bengal, of Bangladesh and of Assam il the
middle of the fourth century A.D

The period fiom the fourth to the seventh
century 15 remarkable for the difuson of an
‘advanced raral economy, formation of state sys-
tems and delineation of soci! clases in eastern
‘Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, eastern Bengal and
south-east Bongal, and Assam, This is mdiceted
by the dstebution of a good number of insorip-
tions in these actas in Gupta times Many
insriptions dated in the Gupta era aro found in
eso arcıs. They ace generally in the form of
land grants made by feudatory princes and
others for religious purposes to Buddhists and
‘brahmants and also to Valshnavite temples and
Buddhist monasteries, These baneficarıes play-

ed an important role in spreading and steength-
ening elements of rdvanced culture The
process can be understood by attempting a
rogion-wise survey.

(Orissa and Eastern and Southern Madhya Pradesh

Kalinga or the coastal Orissa, south of the
Mahanadi, leapt into importance under Asoka,
but a strong state was founded in that area
only n the ist century B.C. Its ruler Kharavela
advanced as far as Magadha, in the fist and
second centuries AD. the ports of Orissa
cared on brisk trado ın peatls, ivory and
usin, Excavations at Sisupalgarh, the ste of
Kalinganagari which was the capital of Khara-
vela ata distance of 60 km from Bhubaneswar,
have yielded several Roman objects indicating
trado contacts with the Roman empire. But the
greater part of Orisa, particularly northera
Orissa, neither experienced state formation nor
witnessed much commercial activity, In the
fourth century Kosala and Mahakantara figure
in the list of conquests made by Samudragupta.
‘They covered parts of northern and western
Onssa, From the second half of the fourth
century to the sixth century several states
were formed in Orissa, and at least five of
them can be clearly identified, The most im-
portant of them is the state of the Matharas,
who are also called Paribhaktas, At the peak of
their power they dominated the area between
the Mahauadi and tte Krishna, Their contem-

161. [SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION IN EAST

poraries and neighbours were the Vasisthas,
the Nalas and the Manas. The Vasisthas ruled
cca the borders of Andhra in south Kalinga, the
Nalas in the forest arca of Mahakantara, and.
the Manas in the coastal area ¡a tho north beyond
the Mahanadi. Each state developed its system.
of taxation, administration and military or-
ganization... The Nalas, and probably the
‘Manas, also evolved their system of comage,
Fach kingdom favoured the brahmanas with
land grants and even invited them from outside,
and most kings performed Vedic sacrifices not
only for spintual merit but also for power,
prestige and. legitimacy.

Ta this period elements of advanced culture
were not confined to the coastal belt known as
Kalinga, but appeared in the other parts of
‘Orissa, The find of the Nala gold coins in the
tribal Bastar arca in Madbya Pradesh is sigmifi-
cant. It presupposes an economic system in
whick gold money was used an large transac-
tions and served as medium of payment to high
funstionanes. Similarly the Manas seemed to
have issued copper colas, which implies the use
of metallic money even by artisans and pear
sants, The various states added to their income
by forming new fiscal units in rural areas.
‘The Matharas created a district called Mahen-
<drabhoga in the area of the Mahendra moun-
tains. They also ruled over a district called
Dantayavagubhoga, which apparently supplied
ivory and riee-gruel to ts administrators and had
thus been created in a backward area. The
Matharas made endowments called agraharas,
which consisted of land and income from vile
lagos and were meant for supporting religious
and educational activities of the brahmanas
Somo agraharas had to pay taxes although
lsowhoro. in the country they were taxes.
The induction of the brahmanas through land
grants in tribal, forest and red soil areas brought
new lands under cultivation and antroduced better
methods of agriculture, based om improved
knowledge of weather conditions. Formerly the

149

INDIA

year was divided into three units, each consist-
ng of four months, and time was reckoned on
the basis of three seasons. Under the Matharas,
in the middle of the fifth century began the
practice of dividing the year into twelve lunar
months. This implied a detailed ide of
weather conditions, which was useful for agri-
cultural operations.

In the coastal Orissa writing was certainly
‘known ftom the third century B C., and inserip-
ons up to the middle of the fourth contury
A. D. appeared ın Prakrit. But from about A.D.
350 Sanskrit began to be used. What 1s more
significant, charters in this language appear
outside the coastal belt beyond the Mahanadi
in the north. Thus the art of waiting and Sans-
keit language spread over a good portion of
Orissa, and some of the finest Sanskrit verses
are found in the epigraphs of the period. Sans-
Krit served as the vehicle of not only brahmani-
cal religion and culture but also of property
laws and social regulations ın new areas. Varses
from the Puranas and Dharmasastras are quoted
in Sanskrit charters, and kings claim to be the
preservers of the varna system. The afiliaion
‘of the people to the culture of the Gangetic basin
is emphasized, A dip in the Ganga at Proyag at
‘the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna
19 considered holy,” and victorious kings vist
Prayag,

Beagal

As regards Bengal, portions of north Bengal,
now in Bogra district, give evidenco of tho
prevalence of writing 1m the time of Asoka. An
inscription indicates several settlements maine
taining a storehouse filed with coins and foods
grains for the upkeep of Buddhist monks, Clearly
the local peasants were m a position to spare a
part of their produce for payıng taxes and
making gifts. Further, people of this area know
Prakrıt and professed Buddhism, Similarly an
imsenption found 1n the coastal district of
Noakhali in south-east Bengal shows that

162. 150

people knew Prakrit and Brahmi script ın that
area in the second century BC. But for the
greater part of Benge! we do not hear anything
bil we come to the fourth century AD In
about the middle of the fourth century a king
withthe ttle of maharaja ruled ın Pokharna on
the Damodara ın Bankura district. Ho knew
Sanskrit and was a devotes of Vishnu, to whom
he possibly granted a vilage

The arca lynig betweon the Gangs and the
Brahinaputra now covering Bangladesh emerged
as a settled and Fay Sanshriteducated area ın
the fit and sixth centuries The Gupta gover-
ots seem to have become independent after
about A.D. $50, and occupied north Bengal,
a portion may have been seized by the rulers
of Kamaraps Local vassal princes called
samanta maharajas had created. there own
admimstrative apparatus aad built thew mili
tary organization consisting of horses, elephants
and foot solders and boatsto fight their rivals
and collect taxts from the local peasantry
By AD. 600 the area came to be known as
Gauda with sts independent state ruled by Sasan-
Ko, the artversary of Harsha

For a century from À D 43233 we notice
a series of land sale documents recorded on
ceopper-platas ın Pondravardhanabhuici, which
covered almost the whole of north Bengal now
most in Bangladesh. Most land grants indicate
that land was purchased with gold coins called
dindra. But once land was gwea for religious
purposes, the donces did not have to pay any
tax. The land transactions show thei incline
of leading scribes, merchants, artians,
lass, dé local adrmnicino wich was
manned by the governors appointed by the
Gupta emperors. The land sale documents not
only indicate the existenes of diferent social
groups and local fanctonaries but also shed
valuable light on the expansion af agriculture
Mostly land purchased for religows endow
iments is described as fallow, uncultivated, and
therefore untaxed Without doubt the cita

ANC INDIA

of the grants was to bring plots of land within
the purview of cultivation and settlement.
‘The deltaic portion of Bengal formed by the
Brahmaputra and called Samatata was made
20 acknowledge the authority of Samudragupta
It covered south-east Bengal. A portion of this
territory may have been populated and in
portant enough to attract the attention of the
Gupta conqueror But possibly it was aot ruled
by brahmanised princes, and consequently it ne

as was the case in north Bengal. From about
A D. 525 th area came to have a fairly organis
ed state covering Samatata and a portion of
Yanga which lay on the western boundary of
Samat issued a good number of gold cons
in the second half of the sixth century. In
addition to this state, m the seventh century we
come across the state of the Khadgas, literally
swordsmen, in the Dacca area, We also aotice
the kingdom of a brahmana feudatory called
Lokanatha ard that of the Ratas, both in the
Comilla erca Al these princes of south-east
and central Beagal issued land grants in the
sixth and seventh centuries. Like the Onsun
Kings they also created agraharas. The land
charters show cultivation of Sanskrit, lading to
the use of some sophisticated metres in the
second half of the seventh century. At the same
tune they attest the expansion of cultivation and
al settlomeits. A fiscal and admunistrative
unit called Dandathukti was formed ‘in the
border areas Iying between Bengal and Orissa
anda means punishment, and Bhukti enjoy-
‘ment. Apparently tho unit was created for taming
and punishing the tribal inhabitants of that
region. If may have promoted Sanskritand other
elements of culture in tibal areas. This was
also true of Vardhamanabhuktt (Burdwan),
of which wehear in the soventh century. Ta south
cast Bengal in the Faridpur area five plots of
land granted to a Buddhist monastery were
waste and waterlogged, payıng-no tax to the
state, Similarly 200 brahmanas were given 2

163. SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION IN EASTERN INDIA

large area im Comilla district within a forest «

region full of deer, boars, buffaloes, tigers, ser-
pents, etc All such mstances are sufficient proof
fof the progress of colonization and crvilization
in new areas.

“The two centuries from about the muddle of
the Ah appear to be very momentous in the
history of Bengal. They saw the formation
fof about half a dozén states, some large and
others small, some independent and others
feudatory But each had Its victory or military
‘camp where it maintained sts infantry, cavalry,
clephants aud boats. Each had sts fiscal and
admırıstraive distrets with its machinery for
tax collestion and maintenance of order, Each
practised expansion through war and lant. grants
to Buddhists and brahmanas The number of
endowments had mereased so much that ulti-
rately an officer called agrshanika had to be
appointed tolook after them Land gifts led to
rural expansion and created new rights in land.
Generally land was under the possession of ın-
dividual famlies But its sale and purchase was
subject to the overall control of he local comme:
nities dominated by leading artisans, merchants,
landowners and senbes They helped the local
agents of the kang But ordinary cultivators were
also consulted about the sale of land sm the
village It seems that originally, only the tribe
or the community could grant land because
they possessed xt. Therefore even when indivı-
duals came to possess Iheır own lands and made
gs for religious purposes, the community
continued to have a say inthe matter. Probably

+ atan earher stage the community donated land
to the prests for religious services and paid
taxes to the princes for military and political
servicos. Later the king received from the com-
munity a good part of the land and arrogated to
Tumsolf much more, which enabled him to make
land grants The king was entitled to taxes and
also poseessed nghts over waste and fallow
land. The adminsstrative functionaries of each
state knew Sanskrit, which was the oficial lan-

1st

‘guage. They were also famıhar withthe teachings
of the Puranas and the Dharmasasteas. The
Period therefore is very significant because of
the onward march of ewilization m thus arca,

Assam
Kamaropa, ıdentical with the Brahmaputra
basin running from east to west, shot into
prominence in the seventh century. Excavations
however show settlements in Ambati near
Gauhati from the fourth centuty of the Christian
era. In the same century Samudragupta recewed
trıbutes from Davaka and Kamarupa. Davaka
possibly accounted for a portion of Nowgong
district, and Kamarupa covered the Broban
putra basin The rulers who submitted to Samu-
dragupta may have been chiefs living on the
tributes collected from the tribal peasantry.

"The Ambar: excavations show that settlements: +
‘were farly developed in the sıxth and seventh
centurres This 13 supported by inscnptions
‘By the beginning of the sixth century the use of
Sanskrit and the act of wintng are clearly ın
evidence, The Kamarupa kings adopted the
title varman, which obtained not only ın north
ern, central and western Indie but also ın
Bengal, Orissa, Andhra, Karnataka and Tamıl
‘Nadu. They strengthened their position through
land grants to the brahmanas. In the seventh
century Bhaskaravarman emerged as the head
of a state which controlled a good deal of the
Brahmaputra basin and some areas beyond it.
Buddhism also acquired a foothold, and the
Chinese traveller Huan Tsang (Hieun Tsang)
visited this state 5

‘The Formative Phase

Although diferent parts of eastern India
acquired prominence at different times, the
formative phase ranged from the fourth to the
sevonth century. In this period writmg, Sanskrit
learning, Vedic rituals, brahmanıcal sacıal
classes, and state systems spread and developed
in eastern Madhya Pradesh, ın north; Orissa,

164. 12

in West Bengal, m a good part of Bangladesh
andan Asstan, Cultural contacts with the Gupta,
compre stmulated the spread of civilizaion ın
‘tho castern zone. North Bengal and norte
west Ouss came under the Gupta rule; in other
areas of these regions the Gupta association
can be infered from the use of the Gupta era
in. inserptions. In Bengal new slates wero
formed by foudatories, who maidiained a good
number of elephants, horses, boats, eto, in
their miftary camps. Obviously they collected
regalar taxes from the rural communities to
manta professional armies. For the frst tome
an the fifth and sixth onturis we clearly notice
largoscalo writing, uso of Sanskrit, formation
cof varma society, and progress of Buddhism
and brahmanism in the form of Saivism and
Vaishravism in thus ares, We find only the
remnants of communal authority over land, but
wo cán see the existence of private property
in land, and the use of gold coins with which
it could be purchased, All this presupposes an
advanced food-producing economy. Apparently
it was based on ıron ploughsharo agriculture,
wet paddy cultivation, and knowledge of various
crafts, Kalidasa refers to the transplantation of
paddy seedlings in Vanga, but we do not know

ANCIENT INDIA 2

whethor the practice was indigenous or came
from Magadha, North Bengal produced good
quality sugarcane, AU this made for sufficient
agricultural production, which was able to sus.
tain both peoplo and goverament, and could
foster widespread rural setlements mm such
Areas as were eher sparsely inhabitod or not at
all inhabited, A connected narrative of the
princes and dynasties and their feudatories, al
revolving round a central power, cannot be
prepared. But toco is no doubt about cultural
evolution and conquest of civilization in the
outling provinces in the eastern zone,

‘The decimo and fall of the Gupta empire
therefore comeided with considerable pro-
sess in the outlying regions. Many obscure
areas, which were possibly ruled by tribal
chiefs and were thinly settled, came into hs-
torical lmetight. This applied to the red soil
areas of West Bengal, north Orissa and the
adjoining areas of Madhya Pradesh, which
formed part of the Chotanagpur plateau and
were diffeult to cultıvate and settle. It applied
more to the jungle areas with alluvial soil and
‘heavy rainfall in Bangladesh and to the Brahma-
putea basin,

EXERCISES

1. Desoribo the process of the spread of civilization in eastora India. What factors

helped this process?

2, Survoy the position of brahmanas inthe early kingdoms of Osis.
„3 How were now states formed in Bengal and with what results ?
4. What light do the land grants throw on the social system in the enstern states ?

165. CHAPTER 22

Harsha and His Times

Harshe’s Kingdom
The Guptas with their seat of power 1
‘Uttar Pradesh and Bihar ruled over north and
western India for about 160 years, till the
iddle of the sixth century À D. Then north
again split up into several kingdoms,
The white unas established their supremacy
over Kashmir, Panyab and western India from
about A.D. 500 onwards, North and western
India passed under the control of about half a
dozen feudatories who parcelled out Gupta
‘empire among themselves Gradually one of
those dynasties ruling at Thanesar in Haryana
extended its authority over all the other feude-
tories, The ruler who brought ıt about was
Hacshavardhana (A.D. 606-647)

Harsha mado Kanauj the seat of his power
and thorefrom extended los authority in all
directions. During this period Pataliputra fell
on bad days and Kanauj came in tho forefront.
How did this happen? Pataliputra owed its
power and importance to trade and commerce
and the widespread use of money, Tolls could
be collected from the traders who came to
the city from the east, west, north and south
by means of four rivers,

But once money became scarce, trade de-
clined, and officers and soldiers began to be paid
through land grants, the city lost its impor:
tance, Power shifted to military camps (ckan-

sdhavaras), and places of strategic importance,
| Which dominated long stretches of land, ac-

In

quired prominence, To this class belonged
Kanau). Situated m Farrukhabad distri of
Uttar Pradesh, ıt shot up anto political pro-
minence from the second half of the such
century, Its emergence as a contre of political
power from Harsha onwards typifis the advent
of the feudal age in north India just as Patali-
putra largely represents the prefoudal order,
Fortification of places 10 the plams was far
more diffeult, but Kanauj was situated on an
elevated area, which was easly fortifable
Located nght m the middle ofthe doab, it was
weilfortiied in the seventh century. So to exer-
cise control over both the eastern and western
wings of the dab soldvers could be moved by
both land and water roues.

‘The early history of Barsha's reign 1s recon-
structed from a study of Banabharta, who was
his court poet and who wrote a book called

> Horshacharita. This can be supplemented by
the account of the Chinese pilgrim Hsuan
Tsang, who visited India in the seventh century
A.D. and stayed in the country for about 15
years. Harsha's inscriptions speak of various
types of taxes and officals.

Harsha is called the last great Hindu emperor
of north India, but such a characterization is
only partly true. For his authonty did not
extend to the whole of the country though be
established his hold practically over the whole
of north India except Kashmir. Rajasthan,
Panjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bibar and Orissa were

166. 154

under has direct control, but his sphere of
influence spread over a much wider area It
seems that the peripheral states acknowledged
his sovemguty His southward march was
stopped on the Natmada river by the Chalu-
kyan king Pulakesın, who ruled over a great
part of modern Karnataka and Maharashtra
with hus capıtal m Badam in the modern
Buapur district of Karnataka Except this
Harsha did not face any serious opposition and
succeeded in giving a measure of political unıty
to a large part of tbe country

Administration
Harsha governed lus empire on the same
except that his admi-
come more feudal and de-
contalized.Itissited that Harsha had 100,000
horses, and 60,090 elephagts. This seems 10 be
astomshng because the Mauryas, who ruled
over practical the whole of the country
except the desp south, manntained only 30,000
cavalry and 9000 elephants. Harsha could
possess a largér army only xf he could mobilize
the support of all us feudatoris at the time of
var Evidently every fexdatory contibuted bis
quota of foot soldiersand horses, and thus made
the impecal army vast ın numbers
Land grants continued to be made to priests
for special services rendered to the state. In
addition Harsha 1 credited ath the grant of
land to the oficers by charter. These grants
allowed the same concessions to press as were
allowed by the earlier grant ‘The Chinese
pilgrim Hsuan Tsang informs us that the ro-
venues of Harsha were divided mio four parts.
One part was earmarked for the expenditute of
the king, a second for scholars, a third for the
endowment of officials and publi servants, and
4 four for religious purposes. He also ls
us that ministre and high officers of the state
were endowed with land. The feudal practice
of rewarding and paying officers wılh grants
of land seems to have begun under Harsha.

ANCIENT INDIA.

This is natural because we do not have tao
many coins issued by Harsha

In the empire of Harsha law and order was
not well martained. The Chinese pilgrim
Hsuan Tsang, about whom special care may
have been taken by the government, was robbed
of his belongings, although be reports that
according to the laws of the land severe punish-
ments were mnfieted for crime. Robbery was
considered to be a second treason for which the
right hand of the robber was amputated. But it
seems that under the méuenos of Buddhism
the seventy of punishment was mitigated, and
criminals were imprisoned for life.

suso: Tena Account

‘The reign of Harsha 1s important on ac-
count of the visit 6f the Chinese pilgrem Hsuan
‘Tsang, who left China in A.D. 629 and travelled
all the way to India. After a long stay m Indie,
he roturned to China m A.D. 645. He had
como to study ın the Buddhist university of
Nalanda situated 1m the distriet of the same
name in Bihar and to collect Buddhist texts
from India. The pilgrim spent many years in
Harsha’s court and widely travelled ın India.
He vavidly describes Harshe’s court and life in
those days. This account 15 much richer than
that of Fa-hsten It sheds light on the economic
and social life as well as the religious sects of
the period.

‘The Chinese account shows that Patalípuica
was ma state of décline; so was Vaisalı. On the
other hand Prayag and Kanauj in the doab had
become important. The brahmanas and kshatr-
{yas are reported to have led a simple life, but
the nobles and priests led a luxurious life. Huan
‘Tsang calls the sudras agriouledrists, which 1
significant In the eather texts they are re.
presented as serving the throe higher varnas.
‘The Chinese pilgrim takes notice of untouch-
ables such as scavengers, executioners, etc. They
lived outside the villages, and took garlic and
onion. The untouchables announced their entry

167. HARSHA AND HS TIMES

into the town by shouting loudly so that people
might keep away from them

Buddhism and Nalanda

The Buddhists were divided into 18 sects
in the time of the Chinese pilgrim. The old
centres of Buddhism had fallen on bad’ days.
The most famous centre was Nalanda, which
maintamed a great Buddhist unvversty meant
for Buddhist monks. It is sard to have had as
many as 10,000 student, all monks They were
taught Buddhist philosophy of the Mahayana
school Although all the mounds of Nalanda
have not been dug, excavattons have exposed 2
very impressive complex of buildwags These
buildings were raised and renovated over a
period of 70 years from the Eh century À D.
The buildings exposed by excavations do not
have the capacity to accommodate 10,000 monks.
In 670 another Chinese pilgrim Ising visited
Nalanda; he mentions only 3000 monks bving
there. This Is reasonable because even if the
remtining mounds are excavated the buildings
could not bo so spacious as to have accommoda-
ted 10,000 monks The monastery at Nalanda
was supported from. the revenues of 200
villages, Nalanda thus had a huge monastic
establishment ın the time of Harshavardhana.

Harsba followed a tolerant religious policy.
A Sarva in hs early years, he gradually became
a great patron of Buddhism. He held at Prayag
A great assembly, which was attended by all the

135

enbutary princes, minsters, nobles, etc. On
this occasion an image of the Buddha was
worshipped, and discourses were given by
Hsuan Tsang At the end Harsha made huge

221 Romans of a Stipa ot Nolondo

charities, and he gave away everything except
his personal clothing Heuan Tsang speaks of
Harsha in plowing terms, The king was kind,
courteous and helpful to him, and the pilgrim
could visit the diferent parts of the empire,

Hassha was a literary igure Ho wrote three
plays, and he rewarded and patronized literary
men. Banabhatta gives us flattering account
of the early years of his patron ın tus book
Harshacharita in an orcate style which became
a model for later writers.

EXERCISES

Discuss the achievements of Harsha.

How did Harsha administer his kingdom?
What light does the account of Hsuan Tsang throw on Indian hfe?
, Deseribe society and religion in the time of Harsha

168. CHAPTERS

Formation of New States and Rural Expansion
in the Peninsula

‘The New Phase
‘Tho period circa A.D 300-750 marks the
second historical phase ın the regions south
of the Vindhyas. It continued some of the
processes which had started in the first his
tonal phase (circa 200 B.C—A.D. 300) It
also mtroduced certain new phenomena which
are not found on any scale m earlior tunes,
In the first phase we notice the ascendancy
of tho Satavahanas over the Deotan and that
of the Tamil kıngdoms im the southern districts
of Tami Nadu. In that period the northem
portion of Tamal Nadu, southern Karnataka,
a portion of southern Maharashtra, and the
Jand between the Godavari and the Mabanadı
_ broadly owed allegiance to seats of politica
authority established outside their arcas. They
themselves did not have their own states. Now
in these areas and also in Vidarbha. between
AD. 300 and A.D. 600 thero arosp about tno
dozen states which are known to us from their
land charters. Eventually by tho beginning of
the seventh century the Pallavas of Kanchi,
the Chalukyas of Badami and tho Pandyas of
Madurai emerged to be the thee major stats.
The rst histoneal phase is marked by tho
appearance of numetous craft, internal and
enteral trado, widespread uso of coms and a
good number of towns. Trade, towns and
coinage scom to be in a stato of decline in the
second phase which is distinguished by a large
number of land grants made to the brabmanas

fee of taxes The grants suggest that many
new areas were brought under cultivation and
settlement, This period therefore saw fax more
expansion of agrarian economy

We also notico the march of tiumphant
‘brehmanssm In the first phase we encounter
extensive Buddhist monuments in both Andhra
and Maharashtra. Cave inserptions probably
indicate the existence of Jainism and also of
Buddhism in the southern distnets of Tamil
Nadu. But now Jamism was confined to Kare
mataka, and in tho pentnsula as a whole we
find numerous instances of the performance of
the Vedic sacrifices by kings This phase also
marked the beginning of the construction of
stone temples for Siva and Vishnu in Tail
Nadu under the Pallayas, and in Kamataka
under the Cnslukyas of Badami. By the begi-
‘ingoi uu second phase south India had ceased
o be the land of megaliths, and towards its end
we notice the process which eventually made it
a land of templos

The language followed by the rulers and the
literate class underwent a change. Even if we
leave aside the Asokan insenptions found in
Andhra and Kamataka, epigraphs betwesn the
second century BC. and the third contury
A.D. wore mostly wotten in Prakrit, The Brahmi
inscriptions which are found in Tamil Nada
also contain Prakıt words. But from about
A.D. 400 Sanskrit became the oficial language
in the peninsula, and most charters were

169. NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA. 17

: DECCAN AND
Se SOUTH INDIA

CA D 300-750)
PRESENT EXTERNAL BOUNDARY OP INDIA

EUR À

m

an)
avHs

FELL)

:
Modern Town =

INDIAN OCEAN

Based upon Survey of indie map wh the pension oF che Surveyor Geneva of fa
© Government of India opp 1.1982

ne versal yates of India evend nio 1h sea (0 distance OF twelve neue mile measured rum
the aomrpiate base ne.

gure 16 The Deccon and South Ina, crea A D. $00—A.D. 160

170. 158 ANCIENT INDIA

‘composed im 1.

States of the Deccan and South India

Te. northern Mahacashira and Vidarbha
(Borar) the Satavahanas wero succeeded by the
Vakatatas, a local power The Vakstakas, who
‘wore brahmanas themselves, are known from a
large number of copper plate land grants issued
to tho brahmanas They were great champions
of the brahmanıcal religion dnd performed
numerous Vedic sacrifices. Their political hıs-
tory is of more importance to north India
than to south India Wo have seen how Chandra-
‘gupta I] marriad his daughter Prabhava
Gupta ın the Vakataka royal family and with
us support succeeded in conquering Gujarar
and the adjoining parts of western India from
the Sakas on the last quarter of the Tourth
‘eentury A D. But culturally the Vakataka kmp.
dom became a channel for transmitting brah-
ranical ideas and social institutions to the
south

The Vakataka power was followed by that
of the Chalukyas of Radamı who played an
Important role in the history of the Deccan and
south India for about two centuries tll A.D
757, when they were overthrown by their
Feudatontes, the Rashtrakutas. The Chalukyas

131 Cave Temple at Badoms

clatmed their descent either from Brahman or
Manu or Moon They boast that their ancestors
ruled at Ayodhya, but all this was done to claim
legitimacy and respoctability: Really they seom
to have been a local Kanarese people, who were
improvised into the ruling varna under brah-
manıcal mfluence.

‘The Chalukyas set up the kingdom towards
the beginning of the sixth century A.D. in the
western Deccan. They established their capital
at Vatepı, modern Badamı, ın the district of.
Byapur which forms a part of Karnataka,
Later they branched off into several mdependent
ruling houses, but the main branch continued to
rulo at Vatapi for two centuries In this period
no other power in the Deccan was so important
as the Chalukyas of Badamı until we come to
Vuayanagar ın late medieval times,

On the runs of the Sstavahana power. in
the eastern part of the peninsula there arose the
Tishvakus ın the Krishna-Guntur region, They
seem to have been a local tribe who adopted
the exalted mame of the Tishvakus in order
to demonstrate the antiquity of their lineage.
They have left behind many monuments at
Nagarjunakonda and Dharamkota. They started
the practice of land grants ın the Krishna-
Guntur region, where several of their copper
plate charters have been discovered
The Tkshvakus were supplanted by the Pal.
lavas. The torm pallava means creeper, and is a
Sanskrit version of the Tamil word rond,
which also carries the same meaning. The
Pallavas were possibly a local fribe who estab-
lished their authority in the Tondainadu or the
land of creepers. But it took them somo timo lo
be completely civilized because in Tamil the
‘word pallaya is also a synonym of robber. The
‘authority of the Pallavas extended over both
southern Andhra and northern Tamil Nado
They set up their capital at Kanchi, identical
with modern Kanchipuram which became a
‘town of temples and Vedio learming under them.

The early Pallavas came into conflict with

171. NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA

ho Kadambas, who had founded their rule m
northora Karnalaka ın the fourth contury A D
‘Thay claim to bo brahmanas, and they

thet fellow casto mon gonerously.

The Kadamba kingdom was founded by
Mayurasacman Jt ss said that he came to
rose education at Kanchi, but he was driven
‘out unceremoniously. Smarting under this insult
the Kadamba chief set up his camp 1 a forest
aud defeated the Pallavas possibly with the help
of th forest vibes. Eventually the Pallavas
avenged the defeat but recognized the Kadamba
authority by formally investing Mayurasarman
‘with the royal mórgua Mayurasarman ı said to
have performed eighteen asramedhas or horse-
sacrifices and granted numerous villages to
brahmonas Tho Kadambas established their
capital at Vasayant or Banayası in North
Kanara distnct ın Karnataka

‘The Gangas wore another important con-
temporacy of thé Pallavas They set up their
cule m southern Karnataka around the fourth
century. Their kıngdom lay between that of the
Pallavas ın the cast and of the Kadambas
‘the west They are called Western Gangas of
“Gangas of Mysore ın order to domareate them
from the Bastern Gangas who ruled ın Kalings
from the fifth contury For most of the time the
Western Gangas were ths feudatorıes of the Pal-
lavas. Thon sarhest capital 15 located at Kolar,
‘which may have Rolped the iso of this dynasty
because of its gold munos.

‘The Western Gangas mado land grants mostly
to ths Jainas, the Kadambas also mede grants
to the Jainas, but they favoured the brehmanas
more. But the Pallavas granted numerous vil
Tages foe of taxos largoly to the brabmanas. »
We have as many as 16 land chartors of the
carly Pallavas A few, which soem to be carhor,
are written on stone in Prakrit. But most of thom
were rocorded on copper-plates ın Sanskrit
‘The villages grantod to the brahmanas wore
exempted from payment of all taxes and forced
labour to the state, This umplicd that these

159

‘wore collected from the peasantry by the brab-
manas for their own enjoyment. As many as
18 kinds of immunities were granted to the
brahmanas in a Patlava grant cf the fourth
century, They were empowered to enjoy the
granted land free from payment of land tax,
from supply of forced labour, from supply of
provisions to royal officers ın town, and fico
from the mterforence of royal constabulary
and agonts.

‘The Pallavas, the Kadambas, the Chalukyas
‘of Badam: and their other contemporaries were
genat champions of Vedic sacrifices They per-
formed asvamedia and vayapeya sacrsfices,
which‘ not only legıtimatızed their position and
enhanced their prestige but also added onor-
mously to the income of the priestly class
‘The brahmanas therefore emerged as an ım-
portant class at the expense of the peasantry,
from whom they oollecied their dues directly
and also recoived as gifts a good portion of the
taxes collected by the king from his subjects,

‘This situation seoms to have proved oppres-
sive, and eventually it caused a rovolt led by
the Kalabhras in the sixth century The revalt
affected the Pallavas as well as their neighbour-
ing contemporaries. The Kalabhras are called
‘evil rulers who overthrew innumerable kings
and established their hold on the Tamıl land
They put an end to the brahmadeya rights
granted to the brahmanas ın numerous villages.
Tt seems that the Kalabhras held Buddhist
persuasions, for they patronized Buddhust mo-
masterios It is significant that the Kalabhras
revolt could be put dowa only through the
soint efforts of the Pandyas, the Pallavas and
the Chalukyas of Badamı, There 1s also a
tradition that the Kalabheas had imprisoned
the Chola, the Pandya and the Chera kings
All this shows that their revolt had assumed wide
proportions, and produced reperoussions out-
‘side tho Tamil land The confederacy’ of the
kings against the, Kalabhras, who had revoked
‘he land grants made to the brahmanas, shows

172. 160

that the revolt was dirctod against the existing
social and political order in south India.

Confit been the Pallaras and the Chalokyas

‘Tho mam interest in the politcal history of
peninsular Tea from tho sath to the eighth
entries contes round the long struggle between
the Palevas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of
Badami for supremacy. The Pandyas, who wero
in contol of Madurai and Tinnevely districs
of Tamil Nadu, joined this confit as a poor
thied. Although both the Pllava and Chalukyas
championed —brabmamism, performed Vedic
sacrifees and made grants to the brahmanas,
the two quarrelled with each other for plunder,
Prestige and toriorial resources. Both tried to
establish supremacy over the land ing Detwoca
the Krishos and the Tongabladra, This dowd
formed the bone of contention in late medieval
times between the Vijayanagar and the Bahmani
‘kingdoms, Time and again the Pallava princes
tried to cross the Tongabladra, which formed
the natural historic boundary between many
a kingdom of the Decean and the docp south.
‘The struggle continued for long with varying
fertines.

The ft important events inthis Long conBict
took place in the reign of Pulakesin IT (609.
64), the most famous Chaluiya kang. He is
known to us from his eulogy writen by the
court post Ravikirti in the Aihole inscription.
This inscription is an example of poctie exe
lence reached in Sanskrit, und in spite ofits
‘exaggeration is a valuable source for the bio-
‘raphy of Pulakesin, He overthrew the Kadamba
capital at Banavasi and compelled the Gangas
of Mysore to acknowledge his suzerainty. He
also defeated Harshas army on tho Narmada
and checked his advance towards the Deccan.
In hu confict with the Pallavas ho almost
‘reached the Pallave capital, but the Pallavas
purchased peace by ceding their northern
provinces to Pulkesia II. About AD, 610
Polakesin IL wrested from the Palavas the

ANCIENT INDIA

region between the Krishna and the Godavari,
which came to be known as the province of
Vengi. Hore was set up a branch of the main
dynasty, and st is known as tho Bastern Chala.
yas of Vengl. However, Polakesin's second
invasion of the Pallava territory ended in
failure. Tho Palava king Narasimbavarman
(AD. 630668) occupied the Chalakya capital
at Vatapı in about A.D. 642, when Palakesia II
was probably halle in ight against the Pat
lavas, Narasimiavarman assumed the tilo of
Vatapikonda or tho conqueror of Vatapi.
He is also said to have defeated the Chola,
the Choras, the Pandyas and the Kalabhras,

Towards the end of the seventh century there
was a lull in this conflict, which was again
resumed in the first half of the eighth century
A.D. The Chalukya king Vikramaditya If (A.D.
733-745) 15 said to have overrun Kanchi three
times, In 740 he completely defeated the
Pallavas, His victory ended the Pallava supre-
‘macy in the far south although the ruling house
continued for more than a century afterwards
However, the Chalukyas could not enjoy the
fruits of thor victory over the Pallavas for long
for their own hegemony was brought to an end
in 757 by the Rashtrakutas.

Temples

Besides tho performance of Vedio sais, !
tho worship of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, es
pecially of the last tro, was geting popular

From the seventh century the Alvar stints,
ho were great devotees of Vishno, popularized
the worship of this god. The Nayannars ren-
dered a similar service to. the cult of Siva. The
Pallava kings constructed a number of stone
temples m the soventh and eighth centuries for
housing these gods. The most famous of them
a the seven Path temples found at Mababali-
pram, at a distance of 65 km from Madras.
‘These were built ın the seventh century by
Narasimhavarman, who founded the port city

173. NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA.

22 The Ratha Temples et Mahebalhpuram

of Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram This
ety 1 also famous for the Shore Temple, which
was a structural construction. In addition 10
thus the Pallavas constructed several structural
temples at their capital Kanchı. A very good
example was the Kailasanath temple built in
the cighth century. The Chalukyas of Badamı
erected numerous temples at Athole from about
A.D. 610. Athole contains as many as 70 tem.
ples, The work was continued in the adjacent
towns of Badami and Patladakal. Pattadakal
has ton temples, built m the seventh and eighth
centuries, The most celebrated of these are the
Papanatha temple (c. 680), and the Virupaksha
temple (c. 740). Tho frst, although 30 metres
long, has a low and stunted tower m the northern
style The second was constructed purely in.
southern stylo It 1s about 40 metres in length,
and has a very high square and storied tower
(sikhara). The templo walls are adorned with
beautiful sculptures representing scones from
the. Romayana

We have no clear idea how these early temples
were maintained. After the eighth century land
grants to temples became a common pheno-
‘menon in south India, and usually they wore
recorded on the walls of the temples. But earlier

to

=

233 Kaosanarh Temple a Kancht

the temples seem to have been constructed and
maintamed out of the taxes collected by the
king from the common people. Some temples
ın Karnataka under the Chalukyas wore erected
by the Jaina traders Although the common
people worshipped their village gods by offering
them paddy and toddy, they may also have
made offerings to these temples to acquire
status and to satisfy their religious eravings.

Demands on the Pessantry

‘Thore is no doubt that For carrying on wars,
for cultivating art and literature, for promoting,
roligion, and for marataining the administrative
staff, enormous resources wore needed. These
were apparently provided by tho peasantry
‘The nature of burdens imposed on the agranan
communities is more or loss the same in the
Vakataka kingdom and the Pallava kingdom
although the former belonged to Vidarbha and
Mabarashtra, and the later to southern Andhra
and northera Tamil Nadu. In addition to land
tax, which was a part of the produce, the king
could demand benevolence in the form of
cereals and gold, and could bors certain tees,
such as the palmyra, for obtaining salt and
moist substances such as sugar and liquor, all

174. 162

derwed from plants. Ofcourse all tho deposits
and hidden treasures am the villages belonged
0 him Further, ho demanded flowers. and
mi, wood and grass, and could compol the
vilagers to carry loads fre of charge. Tho
Kıng was aso ented to force labour or ssh

Ii connection wit the vai of roy fils,
who would appear ın the villages either for
collecting taxes or for punishing the crsmicals,
and also in courte of the march of the army,
the rural commanties had to perform number
of obbgations, They had to supply bullocks for
earls and provide cas, charoal, ovens, cooking
pots, and attendants,

Thus whole Ist of imposts would show that
tho stato mado heavy demands on tho labour
and produce of the peasantry. Most of these
demands aro covered by the 18 types of ine
units granted 10 tho brahmanas from the
fourth ceatury AD! Latar moro and more
demands wore mado on the peasautry

Rural Expansion

These aunsrous demands inade by the king
‘on the agrarian population presuppose capacity
to pay on the part of the peasantry. Collection
could not have been possible unless there was
increase 1m agricultural production. In this
persod we witness. formation of new states ın
tho trans-Vindhyan regions, Every state had a
number of feudatory chiofdoms,. which were
small stats withia a large state, Each of these
states, bg or small, paramount or foudatory,
ueeded its own army, its Own taxation system,
its own administrative machinery, and a good
number of priestly and similar supporters.
Every stato therefore needed resources which
could be obtained from its rural base, Thare-
fore the stato could not multuply without the
proliferaion of rural communities or increase
in agricultural production ın tho existing vil
lagos. lesceras that m tribal areas the brahimanas,
wore granted land, and the toba) peasantry
learnt tho value of preserving eatts and better

ARC INDIA

methods of agriculture from them. In certain
areas there was dearth of labour power, In
order to keep the economy of such arcas going
st was also found necessary to make over some
shareeroppers and weavers to the brahmanas,
as is known from an early Pallava grant, Thece-
fore the large number of grants made to the
brahmanas played an important role ın spread-
ing new methods of cultivarion and mereasing
the size of the rural communities.

Ta this period we come across three types of
villages ın south India, ur, sabha and nagaram,
Ur was the usual type of village inhabited by
[peasant castes, who perhaps held their land ın
common; ıt was the responsibility of the vil
lago headınar to collect and pay taxes on thor
bétail. These villages were mainly found mn
southern Tamil Nadu The sabha type of village
consisied of brahamudeya villages or those
granted to the brabmanas, and of agrahara
villages. The bralimana owners enjoyed ındı-
vidual rights in the land but carried on their
activities collectively The nagaram type of
village consisted of the villages settled and
dommated by combinations of traders and
‘merchants. ‘Thas happened possibly because
trado declined and merchants moved to vik
lages. In the Chalukya areas rural affairs. were
‘managed by villago elders called mahayana. On
the whole the period cirea A.D. 300-A.D. 750
provides good evidence of ruralexpansion, rural,
‘organization and better use of land.

Social Structure

We can present a rough picture of the social
structure that developed ia this period. Society
was dominated by princes and priests. The
princes claimed the status of brabmanas or
kshatrıyas though many of them were local
tribal chiefs promoted to the second varna
‘through bonefactions made to the priests. The
priests invented respectable family trees for
‘these chiefs and traced their descent from age-
old solar and lunar dynasties. This process

175. + NEW STATES AND RURAL EXPANSION IN THE PENINSULA.

enabled the new rulers to acquire legrtimacy in
tho eyes ofthe people. The priests wore mainly
brahmanas, though the Jaina and Buddhist
tmonks should also be placed in ths category
In ts phase priests gained ın influence and
authority because of land grants. Below the
princes and priests came the peasantry, which
was divided into numerous peasant castes.
Possibly most of them wore‘called sudras in
the brahmanical system. IF the peasant and
artisan castes failed to produce and render
services and payments, t was looked upon as a
departure from the established dharma or norm

163

Such a situation was desenibed as the age of
Kali, It was the duty of the king to put an end
to such a state of as and restore peace and
order which worked in favour of chu and
priests, The ttle dharma-maharaa therefore 1s
adopted by tae Vakaaka, Pallva, Kadamba
and Western Ganga kings. The real founder
of tho Pallava power, Simhaverman, is credited
with coming to the rescue of dharma when it
was best withthe evil atributos typical of the
Kalıyuga. Apparently at refors to his supprs-
sion of the Kalabhras who upset the existing
social order

‘EXERCISES

1. Survey the main currents of the history of peninsular India during the period

AD. 300-A.D. 750.

Outline the history ofthe Pllavas of Kanchi and the Chalukyas of Badam
Disouss the postion of the brahmanas ın the Penunsule.

Doseribe the temple architecture ofthe Pallavas and the Chalukyas

What burdens were imposed on the peasantry?

Discuss the factors leading to the formation of new states ın peninsular Inda

176. CHAPTER 24

India’s Cultural Contacts with the Asian Countries

Medieval lawgvers aad comméntators or-
dained that 2 person should not cross the seas.
This would imply that Indie shunned all ela-
tions with the outside world, But this 1s not so,
for India maintained contacts with its Asian
aeighbours since Harappan times, Indian trad-
rs went to the cities of Mesopotamia, where
their seals belonging to the period between
2400 B.C. and 1700 B.C have been found.
From the beginning of the Christian era India
‘maintained commercial contacts with China,
South-East Asis, West Asia and tho Roman
empire. We have son how the Indian land
routes were connected with the Chinese Silk
Route, Wo have also dwelt on India’s com-
mercial intoroourse with the easter part of the
Roman emprre, la addition to this Indie sent
its missionaries, conquerors and tradors to the
neighbouring countries where they founded
setilements

‘Tho propagation of Buddhism promoted
India's contacts with Sri Lanka, Burma, China
And Central Asta. Most probably the Buddhist
misionaries wore sent to Sri Lanka in the reign
of Asoka in tho thurd century B.C. Short in.
Seriptions in Brabmi soript-belonging to the
Second and first centuries B.C. have been
found in Sri Lanka, In course of time Buddhism
same to acquire a permanent stronghold in Sri
Lanka. In the carly ceatunes of the Christian
sra Buddhism spread from India to Burma.
‘The Burmese developed the Theravada form

of Buddhism, and erected many temples and
statues ın honour of the Buddha What is more
significant, the Burmese and Sn Lanka Bud
dhists produced a rich corpus of Buddhist litera.
ture, not to be found im India. All the Pali
texts were compiled and commented upon
an Sel Lanka. Although Buddhism disappeared
from India it continued to command a large
following in Burma and Sri Lanka, which is
the case even now.

Beginning with the reign of Kanıshke a large
‘umber of Indian missionaries went to China,
Central Asia and Afghanistan for preaching
their religion, From China Buddhism spread
to Korea and Japan, and it was in search of
Buddhist texts and doctrines that soverat Chinese
pilgrims such as Fa-hsien and Hsuan Tsang
came to India. Eventually this contact proved
frvitfol to both the countries, A Buddhist
colony cropped up at Tun Huang, which vas
the starting point of the companies of mer-
chants going across the desert. The Indians
learnt the art of growing silk from China,
and the Chinese learat from India tho art of
Buddhist painting.

“The two other great centres of Buddbism
in anciont times were Afghanistan and Central
Asia. lo Afghanistan many statues of the
Buddha and monasteries have been discovered,
Bogram and Bamiyan situated in the north of
this country are famous for such rehes. Begram
15 famous for ıvory work, which as similar to

177. it
| INDIA CULTURAL CONTACTS wr Tm AIAN COUNTRIES 165
ou

25, Bslongung to the fourth century A.D. Written

"32" language was used for official and day-to-day

correspondence as well as for the preservation

and propagation of Buddhism In Central Asia

Buddhism continued to be a dominant religious

force till it was replaced by Islam around the
end of soventh century A.D.

Indun culture also spread to South-East
‘Asia, but not through the medium of Buddhism
[Except in the case of Burma it was mostly dif-
used through the brahmanical cults. The name
‘Suvarnabhumi was given to Pegu and Moul-
meitt in Burma, and merchants from Broach,
Banaras and Bhagalpur ‘waded with Burma
Considerable Buddhist remains of Gupta times
have been found in, Burma. From the fist cen-
tary A.D. India established close relations with
Java in Indonesia, which wos called Suvarna-
dvips orthe land of gold by the ancient Indians,
‘The earliest Tadian settlements ın Java w
‘established ın A D. 56. In the second century
of the Christian era soveral small Indian pr

en vated Java I tho th cry AD,
|e found the brahmanit zeigen prevalent
there Inthe early ventas of tho Chratan
Lera the Palos founded ther colones in
Indian workmanstop m Kuskan ine, Rain Sumatra. Exento these flowered te the
tas the diinehon of posesumg the tallest Kingdom of Sri Via, wich contd to ben
Buddha statue cut out of rock ın the arly important power and a cence of Indian colure
centuries ofthe Chritian era, I fas thousands ram eh othe tntheetary ADT Hind
of nara and ation eaves 10 which {he scfloment n JavaanáSomate bam channels
monis wed Buddhism contd’ 10 bold forthe radiation of Indian etre The pros
ground in this country nll the seventh century of founding settlements continued afterwards.
AD. when it vas supplanted by slam In Indo-Chins, which le at preset ded
A sia process Ok place 1a the Coral: ato. Vietnam, Kampuchea and Lado, the
Asan ropubl of the USSR. Excavations have Judas set up {mb powerful Kiolonis" In
corales” Buddhist monasts, spas. and Kamen and Champa The powerfl nga
tasenpions, nd mannsepts wien in indian of Kamboja dental wth modern Kampuchea,
Iangukges at several places in the Central Asan was founded the sith century À D. Ts clero
parts of the USSR Asa result of extension were devotees of Sve They detloped Kamboja
the Kastan rule Pra writen Kaos as a centre of Sanskrit Ing, and nomerous
cap spread to Central Asta, where we And © insenptons wee composed inthis agua.
Gang ‘Patric inscriptions and manuscripts Tntheneghbooriod of Kemboyeat Champs,

a Sa la a Bomyan In Ahn

178. 166

embmaong Southern Vietnam and the fringes
of sorher Vietnam, it sems thatthe traders
set up their colonies. Tho king of Champa was
also 4 Sara, and the oficial language of Champa
was Sansknt. This country was considered to
bea grat centre of education inthe Vedas and
Dharmasastras.

India settlements in the Indian Ocean con
tinsed to flourish tl he-hutecnth century, and
during this period interminglod with the local
peoples. Continuous commingling gave rise to
à new typo of art, language aud literature. We
find in these countries several art objects, which

D gold

ANCIENT INDIA

many folk plays are performed on 1ts basis,

‘The Indonesian language called Bahasa Indonesia -
contains numerous Sanskrit words.

In: respect of sculptures the head of the
Buddha from Thailand, the head from Kamboja
‘and the magnificent bronze images from Java are
repatded as the best examples of the blending
of Indian art with the local art traditions of
South-East Asia. Similarly beautiful examples
of painting comparable to those of
beta found not only in Sci Lanka but in the Tun
Huang caves on the Chmese border,

It would be wrong to think that religion alone
contributed to the spread of Indian culture
Missionaries were backed by traders and con-
querors. Trade evidently played a vital part in
‘establishing India's relations with Central Ana
and South-East Asia. The very names Suvarne-
bhumi and Suvarnadvipa given to territories in
South-East Asia suggest Indians’ search for

Trade led not only to exchange of

É goods but also of elements of culture. It

U2 General Pew of the Temple of Berobudur

‘how a happy blending, of both Indian and

digenous elements. It 15 astonishing that the
greatest Buddhist templo is found not im Indre
but ın Borobudur m Indonesia Considered to be
tho largest Buddhust temple in the whole world,
vas construciod ın ths eighth century À D,
and 436 images of Bitddha were engraved ou ıt

‘The temple of Ankorvat in Kampuchea 1s
larger than that of Borobudur. Although this
templo belongs to medieval times ‚ can be
compared to the best artistic achievements of
the Egyptians and Greeks. The stories. of tha
Ramayana, and Mahabharata aro written ın
relief on the wall of the temple. The story of
tho Ramayana is so popular in Indonesia that

would be maccurate to hold that the Indians

EE! alone contributed to the culture of their neigh-

bours. Tt'was a two-way traffic The Induns
acquired the craft of minting gold coins
from the Greeks and Romans. They learnttheart’
of growingsilkfromChina, that of growing betel
leaves from Indonesia, and several other pro-
ucts fro the neighbouring countries: Similarly
the method of growing cotton spread from
Tdi to China and Central Asia, However,
Indıun contribution seems to be more important
in ar, religion, script and language. But in no
case the culture which developed ın the neigh-
bouring countries was a replica of the Indian
culture. Just as India retained and developed
its own personality m spit of foreign influences,
similarly the countries in South-East Asia evolved
their own indigeaous culture by assinilating the
Todian elements

179. INDIA'S CULTURAL CONTACTS WITH THE ASIAN COUNTRIES 167
EXERCISES
1. Give an account of India's cultural contacts with Central A

2. Deseribe the spread of Indian culture in South-East Asia.
3. What did the Indians borrow from foreign countries ın ancient times?

180. CHAPTER 25 a

Transformation of the Ancient Phase

Social Crisis and thie Origin of Land Grants
‘The central factor that ultimately transformed
the encient Indian society into medieval sooty
was Ihe practice of land grents Why did this
practice originate? The chartes say that the
vers, munly kings, wanted to acquire religious
nent, and the receivers, mainly monks and
priests, needed means for performing religious
res, But the practice really came into being
because «of a serious crisis that affected the
anciont social order. The varna society was
based on the producing activities of the peasants
‘who were called vaisyas and of the Inbourers
who Were called sudras, The taxes collected by
the soyal ofcers from the vaisyas enabled the
ngs to pay slants to then officials and sol-
ders, res their priests, and purchase luxury
add other articles from merchants and big
actsens But in he third-ourth centuries A.D.
a deep social criss aflicd this system. Con-
temporary Puranic texts complain of a situa-
von in winch varna or socra clases discarded
the functions assigned to them The lower
orders attempted to arrogatb to themselves the
status and functions of tht higher orders. In
other words they refused do pay aies and
render labour services. This led to varna-sam-
hara or ontermintute of social classes Varna
barners were attacked because the producing
masses were oppressed with heavy taxos and
impositions, and were denied protection by the
kings, This state of afais 1s known as Kalıyuga.

im the Purane passages of the third Mount
centunes A.D.

Several meesures were adopted to overcome
the crisis The almost contemporary law-book:
of Manu advises that the vaisyas and sudras
should not be allowed to deviste from their
duties This may have led to coercive measures
But a more important step to meet the situation
was to grant land Lo priests and officials in
eu of salaries and remuneration, Such practice
had the advantage of throwing the burden of
collecting taxes and maintaining law and order
in the donated areas on the beneficiaries They
could deal with the recaleitrant prasants on the
spot. The practice could also bring new lands
under cultivation, Moreover by implanting
brahumanss in the conquered tribal areas the
teibal people could be taught.the brahmanical
way of lie and the need of obeying the king
and paying taxes to him

Decline of Central Control

Land grants became frequent from the AND
century A.D According to this the brahmanas
were granted villages free from faxos, All the
taxes which were collected by the king from the
villages were transferred to the brahmanas.
Sn addition to this the beneficiarios were given
the right to govern the people living in the
donated villages, Government officials and royal
retainers were not permitted to enter the git
villages. Up to the fifth century A.D. the euler

181. TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANCIENT PHASE

grnerally retained the right to punish the thieves,

but in later. times the beneficiaries were
‘authorised to punish all cruninal offenders. So
the brahmanas not only collected taxes from
the peasants and artisans but also maintained
law and order in the villages granted to them.
Villages were granted to the brahmanas for
ever, so that the power of the king was heavily
‘undermined from the’end of the Gupta period.
In the Maurya period taxes were assessed and
collected by the agents of the king, and law and
order were maintained by them. But as a result
of land grants there sprang up many pockets
which were fres from royal control.

Royal control was further eroded through the
‘payment of government officials by land. grants
In the Maurya period the officers of the state
from the highest to the lowest were generally
paid in cash. The prictice continued under the
Kushans who issued a large number of copper and
gold coins, and it lingered under the Guptas. But
from the sixth century A.D. the position seoms
to have changed. The law-books of that century
recommended that services should be rewarded
in land. Accordingly from the time of Harsha-
vardhana public officials were paid ın land
revenues. A fourth of the royal revenue was
‘earmarked for the endowment of great public
servants. The govemors, ministers, magistrates
‘and officers were given portions of land for their
personal upkeep. All this created vested interest
at the cost of royal authority.

New Agrarian Economy

We notice an important cHange in the agrarian
economy. Landed beneficiaries could not, cui
vate lands by themselves, nor, could they collect
revenues by themselves. The actual cultivation
was aatrusted to peasants or shareeroppers who
wore attached to the land but did not legally own,
it. The Chinese pilgrim sing states that most
Indien monasteries got their lands cultivated by
servants and others, Housn Tsang describes the
sudras as agricultunsts, Which. suggests that

16

they no longer cultivated Jand mainly as slaves
and agricultural labourers; “they possibly oocu-
pied it temporarily. This evidently happened mm
the old settled arcas in north lod.

‘Whoa villages were granted in the tribal areas
the agrioulturitts were placed under the control of
religious beneficiarios, especially the brahmanas,
because the brahyoanas began to be granted land
on a large scale from the fifth-sxth ceatuces
From the sixth century onwards shateoroppers
and peasants we e particularly asked to stick to
tho land granted to the beneficiarios ın the back
ward and mountainous areas such as Orissa, Dec.
can, ete. From there the practico. spread to the
basin of the Ganga. In north India also artisans
and peasants were asked not to leave the villages
granted to the beneficiaries. So they could not
move from one village to another, on the other
hand they had to live in the same vilage to
‘ater to ats all possible needs.

Decline of Trade and Towns

From the sixth century A.D. trade began to
decline. Trade with the western part of the
Roman empire ended in the thud century, and
Silk tado with Iran and the Byzantium stopped
in the middle of the sixth century. India carried
on some commerce with China and South-East
Asia, but its benefits were reaped by the Arabs
‘who acted as middiomen. In the pre-Muslin

„Period the Arabs practially monopolized the ex

Port trade of India. The decline of trade for well
cover 300 years aftor the sixth century 19 striking
ly demonstrated by the practical absence’ of
‘gold coins in the country. The paucity of coms
after the sixth contury is true not only of north
India but also of south India,

‘The decline of trade led to the decay of town.
Towns flowished in west and north Inda
under the Satavahanas and Kushans. A few
cites continued to thrive in Gupta times. But
the post-Gupta period witnessed the ruin of
many old commercial cities in worth India.
Excavatiogs show that several towns in Haryana

182. ro

and cast Panjab, Porana Qjla (Delhi), Mathura
Hastinapur (Meerut distro), Sravasti (Uttar
Pradésh), Kausambı (near Allababad), Rajghat
(Varanasi), Chirand (Saran district), Vaisa and
Patalputra bagan to decline in the Gupta
period, and mostly disappeared in post-Gupta
times, The Chinese pilgrim Hsoan Tsang visited
several towns considered on account
of thee association with the Buddha but found
them almost deserted or dilapidated. On account
‘of restricted market for Indian exports, artisans
and merchants Iving in these towns flocked to
he countryside and took to cultivation. In the
late fifth century a group of silk weavers from the
western coast migrated to Mandasor in Malwa,
gave up sik weaving and adopted other pro
fessions. On account of the decay of trade and
towns the villagers had to most their needs in
respect of oil, salt, spices, cloth, eto, all by
themselves. So this gave rie to smaller units
of production, ach unit mecting its own
needs, « . ú
From the sixth ocatury A.D. onwards some
hinges occurred in the social orgamzation, In
the Gangetic basin in north India the valsyas
were regarded as free peasants, butiand grants
crtated landlords between the peasants on the
one hand and tho king on the other, so that the
vaisyas became as good as the sudras. inthis
way tho old brahmanical order was modified.
This modified social order spread from north
India into Bongal and south India as a result of
land grants to the brahmanas, brought from the
north, from the Afrsinth centuries. In the
outlying areas we-find mainly two orders, the
brabmanas and the sudras

(Changes La the Varna Syitem

‘Frequent seizures of power and land grants
gave rise to several eatogories of landed people
‘When a person acquired land and power he
naturally sought a high position in society. He
might belong to a lower varia, but he might be

ANCIENT INDIA

favoured with generous land grants by his
master, This created dificulties because though
economically well of, socially he was low.
‘According to the Dharmasastras social postions
hitherto were mainly regulated by the vara
system. The people were divided into four
varaas, the brehmanas being the highest and
tho sudras being the lowest. The economie tights
of a person were also determined by the vama
to which ho belonged. So some changes had to
be made m the written texts to fecogaizo the
position of te new landed classes. An astrologer
called Vargharmbire, who belonged to the
sixth century, prescribed houses in sizes varying
according to the varng, as was the old practice
But he also fixes the size according to the grades
of Various classes of ruling chef. Thus formerly
all things in society were graded according to
the varnas, butnow they also camo to be deter-
‘mined according to the landed possessions of
a person,

From the seventh century onwards numerous
castes were created. A Purana of the eighth
century states that thousands of mixed castes
were produced by the connection of vaisya
women with men of lower castes. This inples
that the sudras and untouchables were divided
into countless sub-castes. So were the brahman
1, and the Rajputs who appeired as an impor-
tant factor in Indian polity and society around
the seventh century. The, number of castes
increased on account of the nature ofthe econa-
my in which people could not move from one
place to another. Although’ people living, ın
different areas followed. the’ seme occupation,
they became divided fito sub-castes according
10 the territory to’ which they belonged. In
addition to this many tribal peoples were
admitted into Hindu society because of the
land givats given fo the brahmianas in the
aboriginal tracts Most of these peoples were
enrolled as sudras and mined castes. Every
tribe was now ‘given the status of a separate
caste in Hindu society.

183. TRANSFORMATION OF THE ANCIENT PHASE

Cultural Developments

In about the sixth-seventh centuries started
‘the formation of sub-national units such as
Andbra, Assatn, Bengal, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu,
eto. The identity of the sub-national groups is
recognized by both foreign and Indian sources.
‘The Chinese travellor Hsuan Tsang, mentions
several nationalities Visakhadatta, an author
of about the sixth century A.D., speaks of
different regions inhabited by peoples different
in customs, clothing and language The Jaina
books of the late eighth century notice the
existence of 18 major peoples or nationalities.
It describes the physical features of 16. It pro-
duces samples of thor language and says some-
thing about their character,

‘The sixth-seventh centuries are equally ım-
portant in the history of Sanskrit literature.
Sanskrit continued to be used by the ruling class
from about the second century A.D. As the
rulers came to lve in pomp and splendour, the
style oftheir language became verbose and ornate
“The ornate style in Sanskrit prose and poetry bo-
‘carne common from thoseyenth century, and the
traditional Sanskrit pandits still love to write
in it. The best example of verbiage in prose 1s
found in the weitings of Bana Although the
rose of Bana Was ot easy to imitate teontinued
to serve as a model for Sanskrit weiters in the
‘medieval period.

From the seventh century A.D.
a remarkeble development an the
tory of India. Buddhist writings from eastern
India show the faint beginnings of Bengali,
Assamese, Maithili, Oriya, and Hindi, Similarly
the Jaina Prakrıt works of the same period show
the beginning of Gujarati and Rajasthani. It
Seams that each region came to develop its own
language on account of its isolation from the
others. On the break-up of the Gupta empire
there arose several independent principalities,
which naturally hindered countrywide contacts
and communications. The dechne of trade meant

m

lack of communication between the various re-
‘ons, and this provioted the growth of regional
languages.

Regional scripts became more: prominent
from the seventh century A.D. From Maurya
to Gupta times, although the script underwent
changes, more or less the same serpt Contre
ued to obtain throughout the country, Thus a
person who has mastered the soript of the
Gupta age can read inscriptions from different
parts of the country ın that period But from
the seventh century every: r gion came to have
its own serpt, and hence nobody can read post
‘Gupta mscripuons found ın diflerent parts of
the country unless he learns several seripts

Bhaktt aod Tantricism

In sculpture and construction of templos
every region came to evolve its own syle from
the seventh-sighth centurles Parteularly south
India tended to become the land of stone
temples. Stone and bronze were the two mam.
media ın which divinities were represented,
Bronze statues bogan to be manufactured on an
impresuve scale, Although they are also found
m good numbers ın the Himalayan territories,
‘they predomnated im south India because of
their use in brahmanica] temples and in casera,
India because of their use in Buddhist temples
and monasteries. Although the same gods and
goddesses were worshipped throughout the
country, people of every region portrayed them
in sculptures in thexr own way.

We also notice some religious changes an
post-Gupta times. Hindu divinitis came to be
arranged according to their grades in the hierar-
chy. Just. as society was divided into unequal
classes based on ritual, landed property, mili-
tary power, etc, so the divinities were also
divided into unequal ranks. Vishnu, Siva and
‘Durga appeared as.suprem deities, presiding
Over many other gods and goddesses, who wore
placed in lower positions as retamers and
attendants. Especially the supreme mother

184. an

goddess was represented in a dominating pos-
(ure in relation to several minor deities. This
was reflected in both ‘art and literature, The
monastic organization of the Jeinas, Saivites,
Vaishnavits, eo. also came to bo divided into
about five ranks. The highest rank was oocu-
pied by the acharya, whose coronation took
Paco n the same manner as the coronation of &
prince.

From the seventh century A.D. the Bhakti
cult spread throughout the country, and es-
pecially in the south Bhakti meant that people
made all kinds of offerings to the god in return.
for which they received thoprasada of the favour
of the god, Tt meant that the devotees com-
pletely surrendered to their god. This practice
can be compared to the complete, dependence
of the tenants on the landowners. Just as the
tenants offered and rendered various services to
the lord and then received land and protection,
as a kind of favour from him, a similar relation
came to'be established bétween the individual
and bis god. ,

‘The most remarkable’ development in. the
religious field in India from about the sixth
century A.D. was the’ spread of tantricism.
In the fit-soventh centuries many brahmanas
received land in Nepal, Assam, Bengal, Orisa,
central India and the Descan, and it is about
thine tat antic tvs, arios and paces

ANCEÑT INDIA

also appeared. Tantricism! admıtted both women
and sudras into sts ranks, and laid great stress
on the use of magic rituals. Some of the ritual
may have been in use in carlier times, but they
wore systematized and recorded in the tantric
texts from about the sixth century A.D. They
were intended to satisfy the material desires of
the, devotees for physical possessions and to
cure the day-to-day diseases and injuris. Ob-
viously tantricism arose as a result of the large-
scale admission of the aboriginal peoples in
brabmanical society. The brahmanas adopied
many of the tribal rituals and charms, which
were now oficially compiled, sponsored and
fostered by them. In course of time these were
distorted by the brahmanas and priests to serve
the interests of their rich clients. Tantricism
permested Jainism, Buddhism, Sajvism and
Yaishnavism. From the seventh century it con-
tinved to hold ground throughout the medieval
age. Many medieval manuscripts found. m
différent parts of the country deal with tantcicism
and astrology, and he two ae completely mixed
with etch other.

‘Thus in the suth and seventh contunes we
notice certain striking developments in polity,
society, economy, language, script and religion,
This shows that in this period ancient India was
coming to an end and medieval Inda was
taking shape. .

EXERCISES

- La What is meant by ths end ofthe ancient
poy, conan and society the AR

seventh centuries,
‘What developments do you notice in religion and culture in the Äfth-seventh
centuries?

period?

185. CHAPTER 26

Sequénce of Social Changes

‘There are no written texts for the study of
society in pre-Vedie timos. Archacology tell us
that people lived m émail groups in the hilly
areas in the Palaeolithic Age The main source
of their subsistence was the game they hunted,
and wild fruits and vegetation roots they col.
lected. Man learnt to produce food and live in
houses towards the end of the stone age and
ho beginning of the: metal age. The neolithic
and chalcofithir communities lived on the up-
lands not far from the ills and rivers. Gradually
there arose peasant villages in the Indus basin
area, and eventually they blossomed into the
urban society of Harappa, with large and small
houses. But once the -Harappan civilization
disappeared, urbanism did not reappear in
India for a thousand years or so.

Tribal and, Pastoral Phase

For the history of society from the tomo of
the Rig Veda we can also use writen texts
They tell us that the Rig Vedic society was
primary pastoral, People were semi-nomadie,
and their chit possessions consisted of cattle
nd hores. The term for cow (ga) oscura 176
times in the eacier parts of the Rig Veda.
Catto were considered to be synonymous mtb
wealth, and a wealthy person was called gomat.
Wars wero fought forthe sako of cattle, and
therefore the raja whose main duty was to
protest the cows was called gopa ot gopan.
Cow was 50 important to the family that the

daughter was called dur, that ıs one who
miks. So mbmate was the acquaintance of the
‘Vedic people with kine that when they came
across the buffalo in India they called it govala
or cow-haired. In contrast to references to cows
those to agriculture are fewer in the Rig Veda.
Cattte-earing therefore was the main source of
livelihood.

In such a society people could hardly produce
anything over and above what was needed for
their subsistence. Tribesmen could afford only
ocasional presents for theır chiefs, The main
income of a chief or a prince came from the
spoils of war, He captured booty from enemy
tubes and exacted tributes from hostile tribes
and tribal compatriots. The offering of tribute
recoived by him was called ball. Tt sooms that
the tribal Kinsmen gave trust and voluntary
presents to the tribal hiel. In return the chief
led them from victory to victory and stood by
‘thom in dificult times. The respect and ooca-
sional gifts received by the prince from his
tribesmen may have become customary in Vedic,
times. But defeated hostile tribes were mado to
pay tributos, Periodicel sacrifices provided an
important occasion for the distribution of those
gifs and tributes. The lions share went to the «
priests in lieu of the prayers they offered to
gods on behalf of thet patrons. At one place
in the Rig Veda tho invoked god is asked to
bestow wealth only on priests, princes and
sacrifices. This suggests an attempt at un-

186. ma

‘equal distribution. Princes and priests wanted to
tab more at the cost of the common people,
although people voluntarily gave a larger share
to thir chiefs and princes out of deference and
berause of their miliary qualities and serca.
Ordinary members of the tribe received a share
which was known as amsa or Bhaga Dist
bution took place in folk assemblis, which
wore attended “by the rajas dnd ther tribal
followers,

‘Aihough artisans, peasants, pests and war
riors appear oven in the caer portions of the
‘ig Veda, socity es à whole was tribal, pastoral,
‘eomi-aomadic and egalitarian, Spots of war and
cattle constituted the maın forms of property.
Cattle and women slaves were generally given
as gil. Gifts of corals are hacdly mentioned
because those were not produced on any consi-
derabl scala, Therefore apart, from the booty
captured ia wars, thre was no other substantial
source for he ‘maintenance of princes and
ries. JE was possible to havo high ranks,
but apr high social classes. Princes and prists
employed women saves for domestic service,
but their number may not have been large. The
Rig Vedic society did not have a serving order
in tho form of the sudens,

Agelcltre and the Origin of Upper Orders
"Wan the Vedio people moved from Afgha-
ris and Panjab to westem Uttar Pradesh
“toy became full-fodged agro. In later
Vedic times we aotco continuous setemeats
for two to. thre ceatuies, This gave rise to
territorial chiefdoms. Out of the tributes obtin-
ed from peasants and others the princes could
perform series and reward. thes press.
The later Vedio peasant paid to the nobles and
Warriors who in their tum paid to the prists;
in addition, ho also paid sacciiial ves to the
ptiests. The pensant supplied food for smiths
Chariotmakers and carpenters, who mainly
served the emerging clas of warriors. But the
later Vodie peasant could not contribute to the

ANCIENT INDIA

rue of trade and towns; this feature became
prominent ın the ago of the Buddha, Ms
sky dl mot Iw Ge de of mu

Fe Vete communities had established an.
ther a taxation system nor a professional emy,
There did not exist collectors of taxes apen
from the kinsmen of the prince. Payment mado
to the king was not much different from the
sacrificial offering mado to the gods. The tna!
milita of the pastoral society was replaced by
the pesant militia of agnculturl, society
‘The ms or the tribal peasantry formed the
sena or the ,armed host The peasaatry in
later Vodio times was called force (bala). The
army to protect the asvamedia horse comprised
both the kshatrıyas and the vis, Armed with
tows, quivers and shields, the Former acted as
military captains and leaders; armed with sticks;
the later constituted tho rank and filo. For ths
sake of victory the chief or noble was asked
to cat from tho some vesscis with the vis, Thé
ppnests stressed through rituals the subjection
ofthe peasantry or vaisyas to the warrior nobles
but at this stage the process of turing the
tribesmen into taxpaying peasants was very
weak. On account of the use of the wooden
ploughsharo and indiscriminate killing of entle
1m sacrifices the peasants did not produce much
over and above their needs. Hence they could
not pay regular taxes. On the other hand princes
‘were not completely alienated from the peasants
In consonance with tribal practices the rajas were
expected to extend agriculture and evento lend
their hands to plough, so thatthe gap between the
valsya and therajanya was not very wide. Although
the nobles and warriors ruled over their peasant
kinsmen, they had to depend upon peasant
iia for Aghting agunst enomios and they
could net grant land without the consent ofthe
tribal peasantry. AU this placed tem m &
dificult position and could not sharpen
‘tho distinctions between the rulers and the
rule. .

187. SBQUENCE OF SOCIAL. CHANGES

Varas System of Production and Goveroment

‘The uso of iron tools for crafts and cultiva-
tion created. conditions for the transformation
of the comparátivly ogaltarian Vedic sovity
into a fully agricultural and class<ivided social
‘order ih the sixth century B,C. Ones the forested
areas of the middle Gangetic basin were cleared
with the help of the iron axe, one of the most
fertile parts of the world was opened to set.
ment. Now we find numerous rural and urban
seitloments, Large territonal states resulted in
the formation of the Magadhan empire. All
this was possible because with the help of the
iron ploughshare, sickles, and other tools pea:
sants produced & good deal more than what
they needed for their subsistones. Peasants
needed the support of artisans, who not only
provided the peasants with tools, clothing, ete,
but also supplied weapons and luxury articles
to the princes and priests. The technique of
production in post-Vodie times attamed a much
hugher level than that found an the Vedic age.

‘The now technique and the use of force
enabled some people to possess large stretches
of land which needed a good number of slaves
and hired labourers. In Vedic times people.
cultivated their folds with the help of thelr
Taruly members, there is no word for wage-
‘amer ın Vedic literature, But slaves and wage-
earners engaged in cultivation became a regular
feature ın the age of the Buddha. In the-Maurya
period they worked on large state farms. Pro-
bably 150,000 people captured in Kalinga by
‘Asoka were drafted for work im farms and
mines. But by and large slaves in ancient India
were meant,for domestic work. Generally the
small peasant occasionally aided by slaves. and
hired labourers played the dominant role in
production.

With the new technique peasants,” artisans,
hited Inbourers and agrialtural slaves produced
much more than they neoded for their sub-
sistence, A good part of this produce was
collected from them by princes and priests For

ns

regular collection admınistativo and religious
methods were devised. The king appointed tax-
collectors to assess and collect taxes. But it
was also important to conivince people of the
necessity of oboying the raja, paying Him taxes
and offering gifts to the priests, For this purpose
the varna system was devised, According to it
members of the three higher vernas or social
orders were. dist aly from those
of the fourth vama, The twice-born were en-
titled to Vedie studies and investiture withthe
sacred thread, and the fourth varın or the
sudeas were excluded from it. They were meant
for serving the higher orders, and some law-
givers ceserved slavery only for the sudras.
Thus the twice-born can be called citvens and
the sudras non-citizens. But there grow distine-
tions between citizen and citizen in the ranks
of the twceborn. The brahmanas were not
allowed to take to the plough and manual
work Gradually the contempt of the higher
vamas for manual work roached such limts -
that they developed hatred for tho hands that
practised crafts and thus came to look upon
some manual labourers as untouchables. The
more a person withdrew from physical labour,
the purer he cams to be considered, The vaisyas,
although members of the twice-torn group;
worked as peasants, herdsmen and artisans and
later as traders, What 13 more important, they
were the principal taxpayers. whose payments.
‘maintained the kshatriyas and brabmanas. The
varoa system authorised the kshatriya to collect
taxes ftom the peasants and tolls from traders
and artisans, which enabled him to pay his
priests and employees in cash and kind.

‘The rate of payment and evonomie privileges
differed according to the varna to which a
person belonged. Thus a brabmana was required
to pay two percent interest on loans, a kshatriya
three per cent, a vaisya four per cent, and a
sudra five per cent. Sudra guests could be fed
only if they had done some work at the house
‘of the host These rules laid down in the Dharma

188. 16

stras orlaw-books may not have been observed
steitly, but they indicate the norros which were
sat by society

Since both priests and warıors lived on the
taxes, tributes, tithes and labour supplied by
peasants and artisans, their relations were
marked by occasional feuds for the sharing of
social savings. The kshatryas were also hart
by the vanity of the brahmanas, who claimed
the highest status in socıety. But both resolved
their confits and differences ın face of the
‘opposition of the vaisyas and sudras. Ancient
touts emphasize that the kshatriyas cannot
prosper without the support of the brahmanas,
and the vrahmanas cannot prosper without the
support of the kshatriyas, Both can thrive and
rule the world only if they cooperate with each
ot

‘Socal Crisis and Rise of Landed Classes
For several conturtes the system worked well
in the Gangetic basin, which saw a successive
series of largo states. Ta the frst and second
centunes A.D. st was marked by bumping trade
and urbanism, In this phase art Rourishod as
never before. The climax of the old order was
reached in about the third century. Then its
progretsivo cole seems to havo been exhausted,
Around the third century A.D. the old social
formation was afflicted with a deep crisis.
‘The crisis is clearly reflected in the description
of the Kali age in those portions of the Puranas
which belong to the third and fourth centuries
AD. The Kali age is characterised by varna-
intermixture of varnas or social
orders, which ımplies that tho vaisyas and
sudras (peasants, artisans and labourers)
eher refused to perform producing fonctions
assigned fo them or else the vaisya peasants
declined to pay taxes and the sudras refused
to make their labour available, They did not
observe the varna boundaries relating to mar.
riage and other types of social intercourse. On
account of this situation’ the epics emphasize

ANCIENT INDIA

the importance of danda or cocreive measures,
‘and Manu Jays down that the vaisyas and
sudtas should nôt be allowed to deviate from
theif duties. The kings appear as upholders and
restorers of the varna system. /

But coercive measures alone were not suf-
‘rent to make the peasants pay and labourers
work. Instead of extracting taxes directly through
its own agents and thea distributing them
among its: priestly, military and other em
ployees and supporters, the state found it con.
venient to assign land revenues directly to
priests, military. chieft, administrators, ete,
for their support. This development was in
sharp contrast to the Vedic practice Formerly
only the community had the right to give land
to priests and possibly to princes. But now the
caja usurped this power and obliged the leading
members of the community by granting land to
them. These beneficiarios were also empowered
to maintain aw and order. This is how fiscal and
administrative problems were solved. New and
expanding kmgdoms wanted more and more
taxes, These could be obtained from the tribal
backward arcas provided the tribals adopted
now methods of agriculture and were taught to
bo loyal. The problom was tackled by granting
land in the tribal areas to enterprising brah-
mamas, who could tame the inbabitants of the

* wild tracts and make them amenable to discip-

tine.

In backward arcas land grants to brahmenss
‘and others spread agricultural calendar, diffused
‘the knowledge of ayurveda medicine und thus
contributed to increase in overall agricultural
production. Art of writing and the use of Prakrit
and Sanskrit were also disseminated. Through
land grants civilization spread in the deep south
and far east although some spade work had been
done by traders and by Jainas and Buddhists
earlier. The grants brought to the Hindu fold a
largenumber of aboriginal peasants who came to
be rankedas sudras, The sudras therefore began
to becalled peasants and agriculturists in early

189. ‘SEQUENCE OF SOCIAL CHANGES

medieval texts. On the other hand land grants,
especially in developed areas, depreciated the
position of independent vaisja peasants. Hence
vaisyas and sudras came closer to each other
from Gupta times onwards socially and eco-
nomically, But the most significan! consequence
of land grants was the emergence of clas of
landlords living on the produce of the peasants
This prepared the ground in about the Sth-6th
‘centuries A.D. for a new type of social fore
mation which can be called feudal

lts therefore not possible to give one label to
society ın ancient India, but we have to thak of
several stages m its evolution. The food-gather-
‘ng society of the Palaeolithic Age was succeeded
by the food-producing societies of neolithic and
chalcolithic communities, Eventuall the peasant
communties developed into the Harappan
urban societies Then we Lave a break followed

m

by a society of horseusers and catitnders,
Tho Rig Veda indicate a social formation which
was largely pastoral and tribal Tho pastoral
society became agacutural m later Vedic umes,
butts primitive agriculture did not yield much,
and so the rulers could not get much at the cost
of tho peasants The class-divided sootety comes
into full view ın post-Vedio timos. It came to
be known as vama system. This social organi»
zation rested on the producing actvites of the
Yasyas supplemented by those of the sudras
By and large, the social system worked well
from the age of the Buddha to Gupta tines,
Then it underwent a change on agcount of
internal upheavals. Pests and officials began to
be granted lands for their mantenancg, aod
gradually there emerged a class of landlords
beten the peasants and the stato This under-
mined the position of the vaisyas and caused
modification m the vara system.

EXERCISES

. Describe the main stages m the evolution of Indian society in ancient timos,
. Why is society in the time of the Rig Veda called pastoral?
What factors led to the iso of social inequalites in ancient India? A
In what way did the land grants mark a new stage ın the development of Indian soctety?

190. CHAPTER 27

Legacy in Science and Civilization

Religion sud Formation of Social Classes

In spite of the existence of towns in Harappen
times and agam for about 1,000 years from
the Maurys to the Gupta period the ancient
Indan civilization was not as urban as the
ancient civilizations of Gresco and Rome. The
arte part of the subcontinent was hundreds
of kilometres away from the se-cott, and it
could not develop much trade and commerce
Indian life therefore remained primarily agra-
rian, and us people comparatively immobile.
In comparison with, westem cultures religion
fxerased a far stronger influence in India
Every field of ancient Tada ie—economy
polity, ar, Titerature—was strongly inuenced
ty religion. In addition to Hinduism India gave
sige to Jamism and Buddhism, Although Chis-
tianity came to this country in about the fst
century A.D. it did not make much headway m
ancient times. Buddhism also disappeared from
India in course of ime, though it had spread
as fa as Japan inthe cast and as far as Central
Asia i the north-west In the process of difu-
sion Buddhism projected a good deal df Indian
art, language and Lterature in the neighbouring
ares.

‚Religion infiuenced the formation of sobial
lasses in Indie m a pecuhar way. In other
ancient societies the duties and functions of
social clases wore fixed by law which was
Targely enforced by the state, But in India
vara laws enjoyed the sanction of both the

state and religion. The functions of priest,
warriors, peasants and labourers. were defined
in law and supposed to have been laid down by
divine agencies, Those who departed from their
functions and were found guilty of offences
were subjected to secular punishments as well
s the performance of rituals and penances, all
differing according, to the varnas. Each varna
was given not only a social but also a ritual
istic recognitiot In course of time varnas or
social classes and jaris or castes came to be
regarded hereditary in the eyes of law and
religion. All tus was done to ensure that vaisyas
produce and pay taxes and sudras serve as
labourers so that brahmanas act as priests and
kchatriyas as rules, The need of carrying out
their respective fonctions was so strongly
ingrained in the minds of the various classes
that ordinarily they would never think of
deviating from their dhacma The Bhagavadgita
taught that people should lay down thor lives
in defence of their own dharma rather than
adopt the dharma of others, whichis dangerous.
The lower orders worked hard in the firm
bol that they would deserve a better life in
the next world or birth This bole lessened
the intensity and frequency of tensions and
conflcis between those who actually produced
and those who lived off these producers as
princes, priest, officials, soldiers and big mer-
chants. Hence the necessity for exercising
coorcion against the lower orders was not 0

191. LEGACY IN SCIENCE AND CIVILIZATION

strong in ancient India. What was done by
slaves and other producing sections in Greece
and Rome under the treat of whip was done
by the vaisyas and sudras out of conviction
formed through brabmanical indoctrination.

Pilosopical Systems
The Indian thinkere looked upon the world
as illusion and deliberated deeply on the ıch-
tion between the soul and God. In fret
Philosophers of no other country delved so
deeply into this problem as the Indians di.
“Ancient Indın is considered famous for its
contribution to philosophy and spirtualsm.
But the Indians also developed a matenalistic
view of the world, Tn the systems of philo-
sophy which the Indians created wo find elements
of materialist phulosophy in the sankhya system
of Kapıla, who vas born around $80 B.C,
He believed that tho soul can atan tiberation
only through real knowledge. Real knowledge
‘an be acquired througa observation, inference
and words The sankhya system does not recog
nize the existence of God. According to it, the
world has not been created by God but by
“nature and the world and human life are ce
ulated by natural forces.

Materilist philosophy recerved the greatest
impetus (rom Charvaka, who lived in about
the sith century B.C. The philosophy that he
propounded 1s known as lokayata. Ho argued
that what is not experienced by man through
his sensual organs does not relly exist, implies
that gods do not exist. The Indians thus de-
veloped both the ideaist as well as the matenat-
ist systems of philosophy. “The xdealist system
taught that the world 1s an illusion and ignor-
ance, People were asked by the Upanishads to
abandon the world and to strive for real know-
ledge. Western thinkers have taken to the
‘tachings of the Upanishads because they a
unable to solve the human problems created
by modern technology. The famous German
philosopher Schopenhauer finds in his system

m

a place for the Vedas and the Upanishads.
Ho-used to say that the Upanishads consoled
hun ım thus life and would also console him
after death.

Crafts

‘It would be wrong to think that the Indians
did not make any progres in materialist euro,
‘They attained proficiency ın several feds of
production. The Indien eraftsıen wero great
experts in dyeing and making various Kinds
of colours. The baso colours made in India
were so shining and lasting that the beautiful
pautas of Ajanta and Elora ar stil inact.

Smic the Indians were great experts in
the art of making sec. This craft was developed
first ın Inda The Indian secl was exported to
many countries of the world from vary early
times and came to be called woote in later
fumes. No other country in the world coulé
manufacture such steel swords as those made
by Indian craftsmen. They were in great demand
in the entire region from Asi to Europe

Polity

As regards political organization India was
the only other countiy with Greece to make
experiments in some kind of democracy. The
country also produced a great ruler ia Asoka,
‘who, m spite of his great victory over Kalinga,
adopted a policy of peace and non-aggression.
Asoka and several other Indian kings practised
religious toleration and stressed that the wishes
of the followers of the other religions should be
respected.

‘Science and Mathematics
“dia made an inponanı contribution to
science. In ancient times religion and scence «
were inextricably linked together. Astronomy
made great progress in the country becauso thé
planets came to.be regarded as gods, and thelr
‘movements began to be closely obsetved. Their
study became essential on account of their

192. 180

connection with changes in seasons and weather
conditions which were important for agricule
tural activites, The scence of grammar and
linguistios arose becanse the ancient brabmanas
strested that every Vedio prayer and every
‘mantra skould be recited with meticulous cor
‘ectnes. Ja fact the fist result of the scientific
outlook of Indians was the pfodustion of
Sanskrit grammar. In the fourth century B.C.
Panini systematized the roles governing Sanskrit
and produced a grammar called the Ashradhyay.

By. the third century BC. mathematics,
astronomy and medicine began to develop
separatély. In the field of mathematics tbe
anciont Indians mado three distinct contribue
tions the notation system, the decimal system
and the use of zero. The eachest epigraphic
fendence for the une ‘of tho decimal system is
am the beginning of the Sh century A.D. The
Indian notational system was adopted by the
‘Arabs who speedd it ia the Western world,
‘The Indian numerals are called Arabie in
English, but the Arabs themselves called their
momerals Anda. Before these numerals ap-
‘peared in the West they had been used in
India for centurtes. They aro found in the
inscriptions of Asoka, which were wetten ın
he third century B4

‘Theo Indians were the first to ase tho decimal
system. The famous mathematician Aryabhatz
(AD. 476-500) was acquainted with ıt. The
Chinese learn this system from the Buddhist
missionaries, and the Western world borrowed
tt from the Arabs when they tote in contact
‘with India. Zero was discovered by the Indians
ın about the second century B.C. From the
very beginning the Indian mathematicians con-
sidered zero 85 & separate numeral, and it was
used in this sense in sume of arithmetic. In
Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D.
873. The Arabs learnt and adopted it from
India and spread it in Europe. So far as algebra
is concerned both the Indians and the Greeks
contributed to it, but m Western Europe its

ANCIENT INDIA

knowledge was borrowed not (om Oreces but
om the Arabs who had acquired it fom Tad,

Tn tho socond century B.C. Aptstamba pro.
diced a practical geometry for the construcnon
of allars at which the Kings could offer ero
foes. I describes acute angle, bluse aagle,
right angle. Aryabhata formulated the rule for
finding the area of a triangle, which led to the
origin of trigonometry. The most famous work
of this time is the Surpasiddhante, the Uke
Of which ı not found in contemporary ancien:
East

The most renowaed scholars of astronomy
were Aryabhata and Varabamubira Arjabhats
belonged to the Mh century, and Varahe-
ara to the sixth, Aryabhatd caleuated th
position of the planets according to the Baby.
Tonian method. Ho discovered the causo of
lunar and solar eclipses The circumference al
the earth which ho measured on the basis of
speculation is considered to be correct even nov.
He pointed out that the sun is stationary and
the earth rotates, The book of Aryabhata is
called the Arzabhonya.

Varahamikias well mown work j called the’
Brihatsambita, which belongs 10 the sixth
century AD. Varbamihira slated that the
moon fotates round the earth and the earth
Totates round the sun. Ho utilized several Greek
‘works to explain the movement of the planets
and some otber astronomical problems. Al
though the Gresk knowledge infuenoed Indian
astronomy, there 15 no doubt that the Indian,
pursuod the sobject further and made use of it
in their observations of the planets. ‘

Im the applied field Indian craftsmen con:
teibated mich to tho progress of chemistry.
‘Tho Indian dyers invented lasting colour and
thay also discoverad the blue colour. Tt bat”
been already stated how the Indian smiths were
the fist in the world to manufacture sic

‘The ancient Indian physicians studied, ans

193. LEGACY IN SCIBNCE AND CIVILIZATION

tomy. They devised methods to diaguose diseases
and prescribed medicines for their cure. The
earliest mention of medicines is m the Atharva
Veda. But, as ia other ancient societies, the
remedies recommended were replete with magi:
cal charms and spells, and medicine could not
develop along scientific lines.

In post-Maurya times India produced ‘two
famous scholars of the Ayurveda, Susruta and
‘Charaka. In the Susrufasamhira’ Susruta des-
cribes the method of operating cataract, stone
disease and several other ailments He men
tions as many as 121 implements to be used
for operations. In the treatment of disease he
lays special emphasis on diet end cleanliness.
Charaka wrote the Charakasamhıta in the
second century A.D. It 5 like an encyclopaedia
of Indian medicine. It describes various types
of fever, leprosy, hystena (mirgi) and tuber-

culosis Possibly Charake did not know that -

some of these are infectious. His book con.
tains the names of a large number of plants
and herbs which were to bo used as medicine.
‘The book is thus useful not only for the study
of Indian medicine but also for that of ancient
Indian flora and chemistry. In subsequent
centuries Jodaan medicine developed on the
lines laid down by Charake

Geography

Ancıcat Indians also made somo contribue
ton to the study of geography They had litle
knowledge of the geography of the lands out
side Inda, bat the rwers, mountain ranges,
places of plgramage and durent regions of the
country are deseribed inthe epics and Puranas
Although the Indians were acquainted with
‘China and Westera countries, they neither had
any clear dea of where they lay nor of their
distances from India

In early times the ancient Indians obtained
some knowledge of navigation and they conte
buted to the craft of shupbuilding. But since
imporant polite powers had thaw seats of

181

power far away from the coast and since there
was no danger {rom the sea side, the ancient
Indian princes did not pay any particular
attention to navigation.

Art and Literature

‘The ancient Iadan masoos and craftsmen
produced beauhful works of art. The mono-
lit pillars ercoted by Asok are famous for
their shining polish, which matches with the
polsh on Northern Black Polished ware It ıs
sul a mystery how the eraftsmen could achieve
tus kind of polish om pallers and pottery
The Mauryan polished pillars were mounted
by, statues of animals, especially Lons The
fion capital has been adopted as the national
emblem of the Government of India. We may
‘also refer ta the cave temples of Ayanta as well
as the famous Ajanta paintings, which go back
10,the begmning of the Cheistan era In a way
‘junta is the birthplace of Asian art Tt com
tains as. many as 30 cave temples, constructed
between the second century B.C. and the seventh
century A.D, The pamtıngs appeared in the
second century AD, and most of them belong
to Gupta times Their themes were borrowed
from stories about previous ancarnations of
the Buddha and from ancient literature. Tho
achievement of Indian painters at Ayanta has
been lauded by all art connoisseurs. The Ines
and colours used at Ajanta display a proficiency
which 15 not found in the world before the
renaissance in Europe Indian art, moreover,
was not limited to Indie, st spread to Central
‘Asia and China at one end and (0 South-East
Asa on the other The focal point for the
spread of Indian art ınto Afghanistan and the
neighbourmg partof Central Asia was Gandhara.
Elements of Indian art were fused with those
of Central Asian and Hellenistic art giuing cise
10 a new act style called the Gandhara style
‘The first statue of the Buddha was fashioned sn
this style, Although its features are Indian the
size and the presentation of the head and the

194. 182

drapery show Greck mfuence,
temples constructed im south India
some ways as models for the construction of
tomples ın South-East Asa We have already
refered to the temple al Aakorvat 1a Kampo-
ches and the temple at Borobudur in Java,
Tn the field of education we may refer to the
huge monastic establishment of Nalanda, It
attracted students not only ftom diferent parts
of India but also from Tibet and China, The
standards of exammation were stil, and only
those who could pass the test proscribed. by
the diarapandita or the scholar at the gate

ANCIENT INDIA,

could be adranted to this unuversty. Nalanda
1s one of the earliest examples of a residential
cumeachng mstlution which housed thou
sands of monks devoted to Teaming, philo-
sophy and meditation

Jn the field of literature the Indians produced
the Rig Veda, which 1s the earliest specimen
of Indo-Aryan literature, and on the basis
of which an attempt has been made to deter.
mine the nature of the Aryan culture In Gupta
times we have the works of Kalidasa, whose
play Abluinamasakuntalom has been translated
into all the important languages of the world,

EXERCISES

plslosophy.

astron]

. State the contribution of ancient India to art, language, literature, religion and

. Diseribe the main schools of Indian philosophy.
>, Write short notes on ancient Indian medicine, geography, mathematics and

What did India contribute to since and technology?

195. Bibliography

GENERAL

BEN Dit, Sas e Fae Soc! Polar, Cats, 1944
3 Allan, TW Has and WHY Dogue, ie Cambalge
Snes Hon) of Ind, Part ImAneent Ind,

Dal, 1968

AL Basham (ed), 4 Culural History of Inda, ford,
1975

AL Basham, The Wonder tht mos I, London. 1994

DM Bose & Others, Cone Hito of Se ae Mo,
Now De, 1971

3 Viol 1) P Sat, Poll Maso of In fone
the Bas Times 10 he Th Ceras AD, Caleta,

1057

DN ha. Ace Ja die Og, New
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DD. oa, An Ian 1 dhe Sty of tn
Hasty, Bombay, 19: E

DD Kane Te ie an! Cnil of Ann
India in Historical Outins, Londen, 1965

HG Raycheudhuri Polen Hurry of Ancent Ind,
edo Calcuta, 1972

HG. Rawlnsen, fudiu—A Short Calta Histor,
London, 1937

lakanin Sastri & G Semvesacha

Hi of Ie, New Deli, 1970

RS Storm, Aspets of Pola des and Hesitation
Ancel ha, And edn., Deli, 1968

RS. Stma, Lahr où Early Ian Sot and Econo,
Dons, 1966

Roma Tope, 4 Hm of ne, Vol A, Pengur, 1866

RS Trpadı, Hany of Ancient Ina, Del, 1960

Sir Mortimer Whecer & AL Basham, Oxford Huy of
Ind, (Revsed) Part 1, Oxford, 1998

CHAPTER 2—The Construction of Ancien Indian Hise

KA

Advanced

ton,
3, Fiona, (1) P Spratt, Pola! story of Iida from
the Eurbest Tones tothe h Century AD , Cale,

1357

1

CHAPTER 3-The Geogrupbkal Seins

CC. Davies, Historical Atlas of the ion Perle,
Londen, 1956

E Subin Reo, The Pen of Inda, 20d odo,
Barodo, 1958

CHAPTER 4 The Stone Age

CHADFEIR The Sie Copper Phase

CHAPTER $-Tue Hasan Citation

DP Aguaral, Copper Dore dpe, New Delhi, 1971

B&R Allen, The Boil of Puán Clics, Ma
mandsworth, 1948

Walle. A Frec Je, The Rote of Anc Inda, New
Yok, 1971

A Ghosh, City m Par Historical In, Sole, 1973

DH Gordon, The Prehumne Boskepcund of Indi
Cie, Bombay, 1958

5 Mol, ‘Mobemo-Daro aud the Ine Clan, 3

vol, London, 191
$ Pat ane Ind Harman, 1830 nd
pris)

MED Sl, Prey ad Pony a nnd
Pakistan, Poors, 197%

HD Sarkalı, Pako of Judo, Dei, 1977

B.Subba Rao, The Personal of Ind, nd cé, Barats,
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REM eier, rl alu au Pb, London, 1959

REM Wieder, Th Inden Colas, 3rd edn, Came
hunde, 1908

REM Wheels, Canton of the Inder Valley and
Beyord, London, 1966

CHAPTER 7—Adveot of the Aryans and he Age of the

Rog Veta

CHAPTER $Me Later Vetic Phase Tran to

State and Soca! Formation

Joy Paso, Jud ofthe Age of e Broma, Calcuta,
1969

E Benveniste, (ir) E Palme, b-Fugpem Language
and Steely, London, 1973

AA, Macdonellé AB, Reh, Vedi
and Subjects, Londen, 1912

EJ Rapson (ed), Cambridge Hotory of Ii. ol. I,
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RS Sharma, “Forms of Property the Ealy Ports of
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Index of Nunes

196. Via Trpaë, The Pated Greware—An Los Ase
Glare of Norhem Inde, Del, 1976

CHAPTER 9 Jinan and Budi

y Rat ete Bud Tl, aor, 189

AK Werder, Indan Audähtm, Varacsı,

OF saan u Mm Ida RIOS
4 Di Bombay, 1992

RS Sharma, “Material Background of the Org of
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CHAPTER 10—Tenoral Sates and the Fest Marae

‘aa ple

HE Raychandhun, Polical tory of Anc Ji,
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CHAPTER 11—Tranian end Macedonian Ivaions

ES Rap (0), Camindee Fue of Ina, VO.
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Curran 2 state 8 Vr Sail Ag de

ae

AN Bose, Socaland Rural Economy of Norikem Inia, 2
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DR. Chasana, Slavery m Arie Id, New Debs, 1960

‘Richard Fick, The Sell Organisation I North Ind
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Narendra Wale, Society at the Tine of the Budo,

RK Mosier, Asoka, London, 1928

KA Nikon Sas (ed), Age of the Nandos and
Mauyes, Basars, 1952

Rois Thapar, Are andthe Déc of the Maures,
Oxford, 1961

REM, Whaler, arly Tdi and Pain, London, 1989

CHAPTER 15—Coural Asan Contacts and Ter Results

Cantal Asia in the Kahan Pend, 2
Tes

A atome pe often none Sub,

Vols, Moscow,

a Nau ie aos, Our, 1937

N. Puri a under te Kath, Bombay, 1965

‘CHAPTER 16—The Age of dit Sataraanas

JA. Nishant Ses, À ivory of South lade, 4d
ein, Madras, 976

KA. Nike Sas (Gé), 4 Compretensie History of
Ind, Val M, The Mewes and Smarahane,
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ANCIENT INDIA

RS Shama, pets of Plana! Tes and Inston

niert Inda, Delay 1963, Chapter XIV

© Yasdsni (ed), The Barly History of the Detsn,
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CHAPTER 17--Tte Dave of History in the Deep Sout

V. Kaoakasabten Pl, The Tame Een Handed
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KA kan San, Moro y of South Ii, chen,
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CHAPTER 18Ca, Trade and Tomas in the Poe

Maurya. Age

S.L. Aah, En nda Economies Statism the Bee
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FI. Gupta, Roman Coins from Andi Pradesh, Hyde.
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W Schof, The Penplas of the Botinaean Sea, 1912

REM Wieder, Rome Beyond Ihe Imperial Fronten,
London, 1954

CHAPTER 19—The Rie and Growthof he Gupta Rape

‘CHAPTER 20—Ue lo he Guna

IF, Fleet, nsenpns of he Early Gupta Kings, London,
1885, Chapters EU

1 The History of the Imperial Gupta,
Allataba, 1967

RC Miaundar AS Alster (et), Th late Gino
Age, Banaras,

WA. Che Un Te Trl of Pen or Reed of
Bude" Kogdoms, Cambridge, 1933

CHAPTER 21—Spread of Cirlzatin lo Eastern ad

PC Choudhury, Histor) of Chacon of the People of
‘Assam to the {2th Centuy AD, Ga, 1959

BC. Mayumdar (ed), Butory of Bengel, Dacca, 1943

Nibarcann Ray, Bargatr laos Gm Bengal}, Calewe,
tr

INK Sahu (08), History of Ont, Vo. 1, Caleta
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CHAPTER 22 Hari and is Times
S. Beal (te), The Life of Bluen Talore, London, 1888
D Devahut, Horta, À Poll Std), Oxford, 1970
RS Tria, Hoy of Kaas) Banas, 1937 Repent)
TT Waters edited by TW. Rhys Davids & S W Bisbal,

‘On Yuan Chang's Travels in Ino, 2 Vois, London,
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EM. Macau, Su fat Pony, Macs, 195

KA Nilsen Sat, History of Souk fo, di edo
Madras, 1976

CHAPTER 24—Todl's Cul Conacs withthe Asn

Castries

PC. Eng, indio eid Centred Ast,” Cas
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197. DIBLIOGRAPHY

George Coedes, The Indlamzed States of South Bou Ase,
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KA Niakaota Sasın, Aspects of India's History ond
Gute, Dela, 1974

CHAPTER 25—transformation of the Ancient Phase

RS Sharma, “Problem of Transiten from Ancent to
Mette m Indian History", The Jndan Ftorical
‚Renem, Vol. I, No I, Delt, 1974

RS Sharma, Scrl Changes n Early Medir India (ir

135

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Lecture, Del, 1969

CHAPTER 27—Lefacy ln Science and Creation

DM. Bose & Others, Concise History of Selene in no,
New Deli, 1971

DP Chattopadhyaya, What us Long and What s Deed in
indian Philosophy, New Debi, 1976

M: Minyauna, Outes of Indian Philosophy, London,
1970

199. Index
(Mattar covered by the Contents 1s generally Jet out in the Indes.)

4 Aryabhata, 147,199
. Asoka 1, 65, 1,77, D, 87,97, 9, 100, 117, 138, 142,

Abklnanasakuralai, 146, 182 448,175,179

‘secutueaten, play of 99,117 Asratas, 57,93

odhyakshas, 93, Astcology, 112, 172

Adi 0 astronomy, 112, 17, 179,180

Abo, 160, 161 Asvaghosha, 11

Afghanistan, 4,17, 86, 102, 105, 106, 107, 126, 139, Athen Pedo, 5, 61, 51, 181

137,164, 176 Auanjkhein, 58, 132

Avant, 17, 69, 7, 72, 7), 99
Avesta, 45
AAyadhya, 69, 7, 104, 158

Agrar economy, 6, 61, 156, 163 avalos, 32

"agriculture, $, 8,46, 54, 88, 6, 39,66, 61,7, 80, Ayurveda, 176, 181

FD EVER D DA De

aora, LT 8

‘Aber, 26

Aluzeza Brakmana, 56 Bactns, 109, 102,105, 106

‘Anta ratings, 14, 166, 179, 185 bol, 47, 2, 13

Ajaasiva, 71, 7, 13, 82 baled, 2

Abraton,91 Bonito, Ue, 166

Barata, 7, , 183,138, 171
8

lead, 77
Alvar sino, 160

“Ammaravat, 98, 110, 118, 219, 117
As

10, 46, 8, 148,130, 152
w

Barter Caves for Gaya 88

y Basar, 69
Ab, the rules of Tana, 76 + etl 0 at à A
‘Andhra Pradesh, 12, 17, 9, 24, 9, 96, 97, 98, 98, 110, Beas, 76,

144, 10,126, 11,132, 15,158,198, 171 Bars TA
Anga;69, 71,95 Bhogwadeta, 13, 146, 178
Ankara (in Kampuchea), 166,182 Bhortagauka (casa), 83
‘Arab, 163,180 Biucaa, 1,46, %
Arama (rp), 5, 8 + Herbe, $e
chlore, 94.5, 119,145 bimalika, 20
Arikamedu, 14, 126, 128, 130, 112 bhojuka, Rt

59,72, 73,12, 84, 87,90, 9,140,174 Bab, 142, 150 E

us,
‘arin, 76,96 6), 7,8, E, 54,86, 96, 194, 138,155

an, 67,94, 10,14, 181

black war, 26
Blcksmh, 16, 128
och, 22

200. us

Borobudur (ladon), 166,182
Boil 77
160

Brn 15 3,5, 6, 6, 68, 0,8, 5, 88,
90,987, a, 154, 2, 10, 1,168, NE
Joh 15,6 eo

ahead, 15,

Arten, 194,13, 14, 192, 156,160

bramaoizaton, 117

Beabrsputa, 1, 12, 150, L

Bee Gat 58, 90, ses, io 16

Binz, 160

Broach, 128, 110, 132, 165

roses, 4 3, 39, 43, 45, 46, 16,167,175

Boch (Gautama, 60,6, 64, 65, 66, 67,180, 81, 84,
oe 0, 14, 165,107

Bera, à

Ban. 15, 948,298.99 208 18,12,
e D Da, 16, 185 1e Va d

Boddhst ar, 544

Butdhin Covnel, 90, 106, 109

Bodéhst monks, US, 149

teal, 28

Burden, 26

bureauriey, 93, 9, 140
ra, 17, 65, 30,164, 165

but ek, 3, 18,2, 8, 6,106, 116
Burahor, 23

‘Byzantine empre, 134, 169

©

caqpentes, 78,326, 4
cate, 3, Be msn
alejo, 1

is uta 155,19, 10,161

‘Chanda Pradyots Mabaso, 71
Chandal, 26,28, 30
etapa, 97

Chantudaro, 34
+ Charaka, 1, 181
‘Gharakavamhie, 1,

Canvas,
‘Chemistry 112, 180

ANCIENT INDIA.

chietéons, 10,

ras 0.16, 167,101

Grand, 2,26, 31, 61,131, 170

citadel 34,36

culling, da

CChotanigpar, 19, 20, 21, 31, 72, 9, 152

ob, 4 61,71, 3, 7,80, 104, 06, 107, 208, 13, 1
A 10,1 1, 1419, 5,15, 156,16

cd dde da, 39,46,47,32, 54,61, 62,00
105,103, 126, 08,13

3
Cotos, 8,3% 38.39 8, 16 12, 12, 16
‘cows, 28, 47,48, 5,

es 9,778, 0, BL, 98, 16,16, 15, 19

ira aw, 24
ation, 12, 19,24, 9, 130,170, 175
araña Gita) 1

Darmatad,26
dando, 150
Darun, 5
desa 45,49
Dasyus 46,9
Descan, 3 15, 38,86, 1, 98,99, 100,102, 105, 114, 16,
123, 31, 11,156,158, 160

decima system, 47,180

Davaka, 151

harm, 65,61, 8

e

bar, 90, 91, 98, 99, 117, 16%, 178
Dbarasasrs, 7,62, 9, 117,149, 151, 166,170, 1756.
Dharmasuiat, 7,84

haul 97

gamers, 6

Digha Nikaya, 84, 126

Dilo (Bahrain), 39

Disperadaa, 1.
‚do (Gang Vans), 1, 14,37, 31, 32, 5254,13,
153,154

ape, 5
Aci, 126,179

E
chtdolé path (ang mage), 6, 65

201. NDE

cakes, 2

Euphrates, 39, 77

Parse, 8, 138, 141, 142, 144, 152, 164, 165
feudal ape, 153

feudal development, 141

feodatones, 118, 138, 140, 141, 152, 153, 154
frs cu, 40, 49,50

forced labour, 83, 40, 142, 159, 162

e

Ganda, 22,73

Gandhara, $2, 6,71, 28,105, 109

Gandhar art, 8, 14,110,181

gesdiakas(pertumero, 117

Sans, 1,20, 0, 7,7, 7 7,005, 150

Gangas of Mysore, 17, 1

inge ba. 3,12, EEE
1,91, 96,33, 89,100, 105, 106,149,170, 17,176

alas, 55,113,128

goats, 19, 24,28

Godavari, 12, 22, 114, 116, 119, 156
, 66, 106, 107, 116, 126,1

Ma, 1,

128, 140,14
ra A 2080 01138
opta er, 135,151

Harappa, 34,36, 37,38, 41,43, 44
ars (Harihavardhana), 8, 10,153,169

189

Harshacharta 8,153, 185

yea du, 7
Fais 12 2, $8, 71,11, 70

Hazarba

Herd

Himalayas, 1, 10, 12,

Hiadel, 3,2, 4,4

7, 94
169, 178

Hindukush, 10,75, 102
horses, 38,46, 2, 2, 54,100, 107,12, 134,154, 173
Hauan Trang, 8,351,155, 194,155, 164, 16, 0,171
Hans, 1, 138, 142,155,

Inden 45, 9,5, 59

Tndraprashe,

Ida 112110.12,14,24,3, 3.16, 7,85, 86 105,16

ioscitias, 2 4 8,41,

re.
61,66, 6, 11,7, 80, Bh,

120, 126, 18, 130, 134,

‘adarbs, 159

Kara, 8

alabbras, 15, 160,163
Kaiba, 8

hall 8

Katibangan, 34 36, 37, 28, 63

Kalidasa, 7, 146, 52,182
Kaling,13,7,88,9093,94 96.97.96, 100,148 149159,75

202. 190

Reta, 96
Kimura, 150,151
Rambo, 75
Kuna, 1%, 193, 154
Kane, 135,138, 189, 16, 161
Kandhar, 8,90
Kapla, 19
Koh, 71 7600.4
Kanmaage 1
Kama ho), Ban, 97,98, 114,131, 181,
154,136,361,
0308, 1, 2, 22, 106,109, 153
Kasi, 69,71, 72,93

5,72, 78, 90, 87,106, 130,131,

era cz
Khan, 3,
Kaori) 85,6691 18
et ope mn) 1, 19,38 45,4
KiyberPas,

Ress en of

Kia

Koto 716,19

Koala, $3, 62,63, 9,71, 72, 40,81, 82, 83,93
Keith (ver) 14,21, 116, 119, 121.14. 160

Katucralas, 83
Ms $69 0 62, 0, 4,45 18,1,
124,142 10, Im

10,103,108, 3, 134,169
naga (Kara 6, 64, 7

as

lund grant, 5,117, 138, 141, 142, 148, 149, 150,151,

153, 154,136,158, 13,161, 16) 168, 170. 16, 177
los righ, 151
ad ie docena. 10
Joguages,egonal, 17
dA, 113,131
eater workers,
Theo, 9,94
Mers

ANCIENT INDIA

Ineo reta, 179
shal 34 38,40
Loti, 71

May Pad, 14,15, 19,28, 717,98, 99,14,
as

Mag Eins mn,
32,83, 94,99, 100. 135, 142,158, 15

sante amalapure,1,16, 1

Maure, 2 6, $2, 146, 1

nahen, 118

manda.

mahamares, 3, 10,117

Mahapadoa Nénda, 72,73

14,20, 26, 28,30,

128, 132, 16,171

le, us,

10,114,

Mahishanat 7
Malaya Penieslo. 17
Mali, 71

Malwa, 15,26, 30,7, 105, 14
Manse 145,

mont, 2,93

Mano. 10,108, 68,576

raruseupt, 6,10

Macathan, 13

sons, 109

Matharas, 14,149

mathemales, 6, 147,

hur, 0 181010, 12,126, 38,90, 1%,
132,14

Maur dynasty, 72,86

Maurzas, $, 7,13, 79,134

Mayussarmse, 139

Mes, 6, 1,934, 5,96, 1

wa 5,38, 40,1 80,81, (17,125,132, a, 15,
1,164,

Negi, emma es in,

stele mane, 9, ¡Poma
metlorking, 1,

ring, 92

Moherorcaro, 24, 36,37, 36,43, 44
monarchies (a repubes) 84
monasteries, 66, 67, 118, 165, 173
money economy 131

mote godess, 30, 49

Mura, 6

203. oe 197
Murugan, 124 phallus worship, 41, 46
Marundas, 135, Pika, 24
Plprahva, I
x pla, 38, 46,34, 5, 61 66,6, 81, 96,99, 26
152, Y
nageram, M Papa
Ne Bess ane o, 6, 67, 14,146,154, ona 76
185, 182 pou, 4,116, 128, 131
alas, 149 Doster, 24, 8,30, 42, 4,44, 5, $485, 78, 107,120, 30
Nagasena, 104,108 Prakelt, 6, 8, 64,28, 1, 111, 1:3 146, 149, 136, 165,
Nardas, 72, 15,76, 77, 82, 86, 87, 97 11
Narasırihatarman, the’ Pallava King, 160 Prasenajt, 71
Narmada, 1,20, 26,28, 14 ro 0,1044
29, 114 118 Prises
Navdeiol 26,28 pubs

ato, 3,114,
Nestehus, 77
Nepal 4, 10, 66,94, 172

oras, 26,30

rsa, 7,91

cuate,

Nortec Black Polished Wate, 78, 80,95, 96,97 98,181

o
‘ees, 12, 17,28, 86,87, 98,148,149, 151, 169
Ons, 10

r

(paddy, 73.81, 83,84, 116, 120,124, 152, 161
Pant Gay Ware, M4 1, 35,7

7, 94,96, 100, 104, 153,

72,73, 78, 80, 94, 128

58,55, 38, 73, 60, BL, 2, 83,34, 85,94, 9,

124, 130,14, 14%, 148, 149,163, 168, 169,170, 174,
195,176,177

peasant sooty, 99

pasto,

Eaton I ne Chalakyan kn. 1 154

Fm ee ne Gi Te 16.10.11. 116,1
parois, 47,95

uthyamnta Sungs, 100

Rajasthan, 3, 14,17, 26,28, 152
Rejacorangii, 8

Rajghat, 6, 81, 170

aigle, 6), 62,71, 72, 3, 78, 80
Raps, 15, 142,170

Ramapalı, 6
aaron 2 66, 14,16, 16
Ranch
Rango,
ashen, 4.10.10
publ, 83, 4,35
revenue 42,34, 87.123

12, 2, 2, 33,5416, 2)
6A, 45,46. 4, 48,49, 5
tare 78,96, 116

555, 7118

Ron D 13,1313, 78
routes, 128,132

Rudta, 3

Rudradaman 1, 105, 111, 114

sob (assembly), 4, 55,
‘serie, cult of, $7
Sabet Mahe, 6
Saivsm 182, 172

Saka, 15,100, (OAT, 108, 154, 117
Saka era, 116

204. 192 . ANCIENT INDIA

Eu Solan ranges, 10
A Sumatra, 165

‘Sema Vado, 51 Sepasddiamo, 130

Su, 311, 181
Sandhyakara Nandı, § ‘Swsrasamb, 18)
Sandrototas,7 Suvarrabhum, 16,166
Soon eu 7,122, 124,128 ‘etarbaras, 6
Sanganciall,
Pe r
cando, 19
cami, 9 Tama 3, 7,123

roski, 2, 5,6, 1,15, 62, 66, 91, 108. 106,11, 186, Tara Ned, (4 6,85, 120,222, 192,151,156, 5,16),
149, 15, 152, 160, 168, IT, 176, 180 2,17.

78
same, 80 E , 9, 81, 52, 83,85, 87,94, 9, 124, 149,14,
malta or slkediyetaha, 83 "is 8 3186, 3, 1 1
sa systen, 77 15,196

Seunderenendn, 111 276, 20, $7, 100, 105, 326,128, 330
help, 106,20, 171 Traga, 5

Setas, 1, 100,102 0,40, 43,106,107, 126

BS 0d 0 00.10.01 3,183

se

Spt omcare? 5, 4,93, 118 im

Pic Ne E 3,106

sheep, 19,24,25 Tet

sl, 30, 123,10, 134, 14, 16, 166 prets

Silk-Route (Se Road), 107, 12, 10, 164 tall, 2 73, 83, 87, 107, 15, 175
100

O Tos

Singh, OH. 4,85, 68737, 8, 86, 86,916 I, I
Slap, 72 Va, isis tis LV, 1 UV
suple, 97, 148 trade, d, 39,47, 17,89, 93,123, 123,130, 132, 14, 153,
Siro, 4, 14, 145,156 16,165, 174 + 236,166, 16, 171, 17,176

canibal, 1, Usada, 7, 80,83, 94, 96,307,117, 118,121, 153, 17, 164,
Slaves, 47, 49, 7,3, 4,94, 12,1, 142,169, 178, 118, 166,167, 177
1 rade roues 12,90, 17,128

stave soc, 4 allow, 64
Smt, 7, 146 ba oligarchs, 83

q ¡reso
Son, 2, 72,73 Abe, 173, 194,176
Sopara 12,132 urs. 66
‘ple whots 30
spioaog, 30 u
Sravan, 69, 28,0, 106,131, 170

Sr Lana, 6,63, 90,122,123, 197, 64,167 - dis

ES Un, 71, 72, 73, 80, $), 109,105, 130,132, 137

untovchabes ©, 142, 154 170, 175
apenayana, 5,84

Upanishads, 6,5, 199

soar cen

ee
48,557, 3,6, 64,6, 0, 146,108, 10,1, ban, 180,192
TE Usha, 50

205. inex 193

tour, 24 Vikrares Samat, 105
‘tar Pradesh, 3, 19,24, 69, 71, 78, 5D, $1, 83, 84, 96, Ykvanuankadenachan, à
105,132, 134,138,153, village essen, 56
villas, pes of, 50, 81,162
v Vishou, 87, 108, 10,143, 145,150, 156,160, 171

MUR

Vafayan or Baravas, 159. Vistam

Visa, 61,62, 6, 72,78, 80, 93, 94,134, 140

Vachnausm, 5,108, 152,172 w

visyas, 56, 37,8, 60,61, 62, 2, 84,85, 99,124, 134,160,

14, 163, 170, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178 ages 38, £0 &
Vas, weaving, 24,30, 5,9%, 123
Vakatakas 137 138 weights, 42, 87,93
Val, 7, 64, 67,138 “heat, 12, 24,28, 20,31, 38,
‘Vana, 180, 182 ores, 3,6, 63, 8 66,6593, 121,124, 1,146,172
Varia, 170,180,

Yaranas, 12, 69,78 8, 81,105 x
Vardhaans Maha, 60, 61, 62, 110

acne, 178 Kernen, 15

varna, 2,7, 49,56, 59,6), 62,64, 65, 83, 94,85, 98, 118,

163,16, 170, 175,176,178, Y
Yasha, 45, 47
vassal, 14), 150 ‘Yamuna, 58,1, 128, 130
Vatapi ern Badan), 158,160 Yow Velo 6,51
Valsa, 6,71 arena,

Vedi sacices, 149, 159

vessas(weschaats), 78 o a
via, 118,109

Viksarcitya, 8, 105 000, 160