animal health vet 2nd year pdf.pdf

Based on the Syllabus of Diploma in Animal Science (I.Sc. Vet) Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT)

1. Dr. Manoj karki


Based on the Syllabus of Diploma in Animal Science (I.Sc. Vet)
Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT)


















A Handbook of Animal Health Vol: 1
Compiled by: Dr. Manoj karki
B.V.Sc & A.H
Email: [email protected]
2022/8/24

2. Dr. Manoj karki


Unit: 1
Different Tissue of Animal Body













• A tissue is a group of cells connected to each other that collectively
perform similar functions in an organism.
• All contents of the body including structures and various organs are
made of tissues.
• These tissues vary in their structure, function, and origin.
• The animal tissues are divided into epithelial, connective, muscular and
nervous tissues.

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Types of Animal Tissue
The different types of animal tissues include:
Epithelial tissue is made up of layers of tightly packed cells that line the
surfaces of the body for protection, secretion, and absorption. Examples of
epithelial tissue include the skin, the lining of the mouth and nose, and the
lining of the digestive system.
Muscle tissue is made up of cells contain contractile filaments that move past
each other and change the size of the cell. There are three types of muscle
tissue: smooth muscle which is found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal
muscle, which is attached to bone and moves the body; and cardiac muscle
which is found only in the heart.
Nervous tissue is made up of the nerve cells (neurons) that together form the
nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.
Connective tissue is made up of many different types of cells that are all
involved in structure and support of the body. Bone, blood, fat, and cartilage
are all connective tissues. Connective tissue can be densely packed together,
as bone cells are, or loosely packed, as adipose tissue (fat cells) are.
Epithelial Tissue
1. They cover the body, organs, blood vessels and all body cavities.
2. The cells are thin and lower most layer rest in a basement membrane.
3. Basically protective. Could be secretory and absorptive in function.

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Types: They are of two types.
• 1. Simple (made up of one layer of cells) and
• 2. Stratified (made up of number of layers of cells)

Simple:
• i) Simple epithelium: Made up of one layer of cells. Depending on the
shape of cells, it could be of following types.
• ii) Simple squamous epithelium: Made up of thin, flattened cells. Form
lining of mouth, lungs and capillaries. Allow exchange of gases and
materials.
• iii) Simple cuboidal epithelium: Made up of cube like cells. Present in
kidney tubules. Secretory and absorptive in function.
• iv) Simple columnar epithelium: Made up of long column-like cells
with generally nuclei at the base. Present in the lining of stomach,
intestine, salivary glands. Secretory and absorptive in function.
• 2) Stratified epithelium: Made up of number of layers of cells. Covers
the body. Protective in function.

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Muscle tissue
• There are three types of muscle tissue:
• skeletal
• smooth
• Cardiac
Muscular tissue performs the following functions:
• It helps in movement and locomotion.
• It supports the bones and other structures.
• It is responsible for peristalsis and parturition.

Classification of Muscular Tissue
• The muscular tissue can be classified as:
Classification Function
Cardiac It helps in blood circulation and keeps
the heart pumping
Smooth These help in peristalsis and other
involuntary functions of the body.
Skeletal Provide support, help in movement and
maintain homeostasis

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Smooth Muscle
• Muscle tissue in the walls of internal organs such as the stomach and
intestines is smooth muscle. When smooth muscle contracts, it helps the
organs carry out their functions.
• For example, when smooth muscle in the stomach contracts, it squeezes
the food inside the stomach, which helps break the food into smaller
pieces. Contractions of smooth muscle are involuntary. This means they
are not under conscious control.
• Non voluntary

Skeletal Muscle
• Muscle tissue that is attached to bone is skeletal muscle. Whether you
are blinking your eyes or running a marathon, you are using skeletal
muscle. Contractions of skeletal muscle are voluntary, or under
conscious control.
• Skeletal muscle is the most common type of muscle in the human body.
• is a voluntary muscle

Cardiac Muscle
• Cardiac muscle is found only in the walls of the heart. When cardiac
muscle contracts, the heart beats and pumps blood. Cardiac muscle
contains a great many mitochondria, which produce ATP for energy.
This helps the heart resist fatigue.
• Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary, like those of smooth
muscle.
• Non voluntary

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Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue makes up the peripheral and the central nervous system.
It develops from the ectoderm of the embryo. It possesses the ability to
initiate and transmit the nerve impulse. Its main components include:
• Neurons – These are the structural and functional unit of nervous
system. It comprises an axon, cell body and dendrites.
• Neuroglia – These are special cells found in the brain and spinal cord.
They provide support to the neurons and fibers.
• Neurosecretory Cells – These function as endocrine organs. They
release chemical from the axons directly into blood.
• A neuron consists of three basic parts: the cell body, dendrites, and axon.
• The cell body contains the nucleus and other cell organelles.
• Dendrites extend from the cell body and receive nerve impulses from
other neurons.
• The axon is a long extension of the cell body that transmits nerve
impulses to other cells. The axon branches at the end, forming axon
terminals. These are the points where the neuron communicates with
other cells.

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Connective tissue
• Connective tissue is a biological tissue that is important in supporting,
connecting or separating different types of tissues and organs in the
body. All connective tissue is made up of cells, fibers (such as collagen)
and extracellular matrix
• Connective tissues are made up of fibrous cells. Blood and Bone are
good examples of specialized connective tissues.
• The connective tissues perform the following functions:
• They attach organs and tissues together.
• They store fat in the form of adipose tissues.
• They help in repairing tissues.
• They prevent the organs from mechanical shocks.
• The organs also help in defense.

Bone Tissues
• Bones consist of different types of tissue, including compact bone,
spongy bone, bone marrow, and periosteum. All of these tissue types are
shown in figure below.
• Compact bone makes up the dense outer layer of bone. Its functional
unit is the osteon. Compact bone is very hard and strong.
• Spongy bone is found inside bones and is lighter and less dense than
compact bone. This is because spongy bone is porous.
• Bone marrow is a soft connective tissue that produces blood cells. It is
found inside the pores of spongy bone.
• Periosteum is a tough, fibrous membrane that covers and protects the
outer surfaces of bone.

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Blood
• Called erythrocytes are made in the red bone marrow.
• Blood is a fluid connective tissue. It circulates throughout the body
through blood vessels by the pumping action of the heart.
• Blood in arteries carries oxygen and nutrients to all the body’s cells.
Blood in veins carries carbon dioxide and other wastes away from the
cells to be excreted.
• Blood also defends the body against infection, repairs body tissues,
transports hormones, and controls the body’s pH.
• Red blood cells have a short life span of approximately 120 days
Composition of Blood
• The fluid part of blood is called plasma. It is a watery golden-yellow
liquid that contains many dissolved substances and blood cells. Types of

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blood cells in plasma include red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets. It about 55 % of total blood volume
• The trillions of Red blood cells in blood plasma carry oxygen. Red blood
cells contain hemoglobin, a protein with iron that binds with oxygen.
• White blood cells are generally larger than red blood cells but far fewer
in number. They defend the body in various ways. For example, white
blood cells called phagocytes swallow and destroy microorganisms and
debris in the blood. Are commonly known as leukocytes and are
produced in the yellow bone marrow and lymph nodes.
Platelets
• Platelets are cell fragments involved in blood clotting. They stick to tears
in blood vessels and to each other, forming a plug at the site of injury.
• They also release chemicals that are needed for clotting to occur.
• Also known as thrombocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are
fragments of bone marrow cells. They have no nuclei. Platelets assist in
the clotting of blood and prevent excessive bleeding

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Gross anatomy of Digestive, skeletal, digestive, respiratory, circulatory,
reproductive, urinary,, nervous, sensory system:

Digestive System
Digestion is the process of breaking down feed into simple substances that can
be absorbed by the body. Absorption is the taking of the digested parts of the
feed into the bloodstream. Digestion is all activities of alimentary tract and its
associated glands in the preparation of food for absorption and in the rejection
of the residue. In simple term, digestion is a portal for nutrients to gain access
to the circulatory system. Foodstuff are broken down to very simple molecules
resulting sugars, amino acid, fatty acid etc are then transported across the GI
tract lining into blood. Factor that involve indigestion are:
 Mechanical factor which include mastication, deglutination,
regurgitation, vomition, defecation etc
 Secretary factor which include digestive glands and their activities
 Chemical factor which include HCl and enzymes
 Microbiological factor which include microbes like bacteria and
protozoa

Monogastric Ruminant Monogastric Hindgut
fermentor
Pig, Poultry, Dogs,
Cats
Cattle, Buffalo,
Sheep, Goat, Deer
Horse, rabbit
Basic functional Anatomy of the digestive system:
• Mouth
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine

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• Large intestine
• Anus










Ruminant digestive system
The principal feature of the ruminant digestive system is fermentation
digestion due to presence of bacteria and protozoa. The process of regurgitating
food for remastication takes place in ruminant stomach which has 4
compartments namely rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. The cow's
digestive tract consists of the mouth, esophagus, a complex four-compartment
stomach, small intestine and large intestine. The stomach includes the rumen
or paunch, reticulum or "honeycomb," the omasum or "manyplies," and the
abomasum or "true stomach."

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The rumen:- The rumen (on the left side of the animal) is the largest of four
compartments and is divided into several sacs. It can hold 25 gallons or more
of material, depending on the size of the cow. A microbial population in the
rumen digests or ferments feed eaten by the animal. Conditions within the
rumen favor the growth of microbes. The rumen absorbs most of the volatile
fatty acids produced from fermentation of feedstuffs by rumen microbes. Tiny
projections called papillae increase the surface area and the absorption capacity
of the rumen.
The Reticulum:- The reticulum is a pouch-like structure in the forward area
of the body cavity. The tissues are arranged in a network resembling a
honeycomb. A small fold of tissue lies between the reticulum and the rumen,
but the two are not actually separate compartments. Collectively they are called
the rumino-reticulum. Heavy or dense feed and metal object eaten by the cow
drop into this compartment. The reticulum lies close to the heart. Nails and
other sharp objects may work into the tissue and cause "hardware disease." If
not prevented by a magnet or corrected by surgery, infection may occur and
the animal may die.
The Omasum:- This globe-shaped structure (also called the "manyplies")
contains leaves of tissue (like pages in a book). The omasum absorbs water
and other substances from digestive contents. Feed material (ingesta) between
the leaves will be drier than that found in the other compartments.
The Abomasums: - This is the only compartment (also called the true
stomach) with a glandular lining. Hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes,
needed for the breakdown of feeds, are secreted into the abomasum. The
abomasum is comparable to the stomach of the non-ruminant.


Rumination
Cows may spend 35 to 40 percent of each day ruminating (cud chewing). The
amount of time spent ruminating depends on the diet. Little ruminating occurs

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when cows eat grain or finely ground rations. But when eating long hay, cows
may ruminate for several hours. Mature cattle spend little time chewing while
eating feed. Thus, during rest periods, cows regurgitate (bring up) soft feed
wads (cud) to re-chew and break into smaller pieces. They also re-salivate the
feed and re-swallow it. This process makes the feed easier for the microbes to
digest.
The small intestine: - The small intestine measures about 20 times the length
of the animal. It is composed of three sections: the duodenum, jejunum, and
ileum. The small intestine receives the secretions of the pancreas and the
gallbladder, which aid digestion. Most of the digestive process is completed
here, and many nutrients are absorbed through the villi (small finger-like
projections) into the blood and lymphatic systems.
Cecum:- The cecum is the large area located at the junction of the small and
large intestine, where some previously undigested fiber may be broken down.
The exact significance of the cecum has not been established.
Large intestine: - This is the last segment of the tract through which
undigested feedstuffs pass. Some bacterial digestion of undigested feed occurs,
but absorption of water is the primary digestive activity occurring in the large
intestine.

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A four-compartment stomach, which includes
Rumen (paunch)
Reticulum (“honeycomb”)
Omasum (“manyplies”)
Abomasum (“true stomach”)







Digestive system of poultry:
Avian Digestive System

The digestive system of any animal is important in converting the food the
animal eats into the nutrients its body needs for growth, maintenance, and
production (such as egg production). An animal's body breaks down food
through both mechanical and chemical means. In many animals, mechanical
action involves chewing; however, because birds do not have teeth, their
bodies use other mechanical action. Chemical action includes the release of
digestive enzymes and fluids from various parts of the digestive system. After
being released from food during digestion, nutrients are absorbed and
distributed throughout the animal's body.

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Parts of a Chicken Digestive Tract
The chicken has a typical avian digestive system. In chickens, the digestive
tract (also referred to as the gastrointestinal tract or GI tract) begins at the
mouth, includes several important organs, and ends at the cloaca.

Beak/Mouth
As with most birds, a chicken obtains feed by using its beak. Food picked up
by the beak enters the mouth. Chickens do not have teeth, so they cannot chew
their food. However, the mouth contains glands that secrete saliva, which wets
the feed to make it easier to swallow. Also, the saliva contains enzymes, such
as amylase, that start the digestion process. The chicken uses its tongue to push
the feed to the back of the mouth to be swallowed.

Esophagus
The esophagus is a flexible tube that connects the mouth with the rest of the
digestive tract. It carries food from the mouth to the crop and from the crop to
the proventriculus.

Crop
The crop is an out-pocketing of the esophagus and is located just outside the
body cavity in the neck region. Swallowed feed and water are stored in the crop
until they are passed to the rest of the digestive tract. When the crop is empty
or nearly empty, it sends hunger signals to the brain so that the chicken will eat
more.
Although the digestive enzymes secreted in the mouth began the digestion
process, very little digestion takes place in the crop—it is simply a temporary
storage pouch.

Proventriculus
The esophagus continues past the crop, connecting the crop to the
proventriculus. The proventriculus (also known as the true stomach) is the
glandular stomach where digestion primarily begins. Hydrochloric acid and
digestive enzymes, such as pepsin, are added to the feed here and begin to
break it down more significantly than the enzymes secreted by the salivary
glands. At this point, however, the food has not yet been ground—this organ
is called the proventriculus.

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The ventriculus, or gizzard, is a part of the digestive tract of birds, reptiles,
earthworms, and fish. Often referred to as the mechanical stomach, the gizzard
is made up of two sets of strong muscles that act as the bird's teeth and has a
thick lining that protects those muscles. Consumed feed and the digestive
juices from the salivary glands and proventriculus pass into the gizzard for
grinding, mixing, and mashing.
When allowed to free-range, chickens typically eat small stones. The acidic
environment in the proventriculus softens the stones, and then the strong
muscles of the gizzard grind them into tiny pieces. The stones remain in the
gizzard until they are ground into pieces small enough to pass to the rest of the
digestive tract.

Small Intestine
The small intestine is made up of the duodenum (also referred to as the
duodenal loop) and the lower small intestine. The remainder of the digestion
occurs in the duodenum, and the released nutrients are absorbed mainly in the
lower small intestine. The duodenum receives digestive enzymes and
bicarbonate (to counter the hydrochloric acid from the proventriculus) from the
pancreas and bile from the liver (via the gall bladder). The digestive juices
produced by the pancreas are involved primarily in protein digestion. Bile is a
detergent that is important in the digestion of lipids and the absorption of fat-
soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K).

The ceca (plural form of cecum) are two blind pouches located where the small
and large intestines join. Some of the water remaining in the digested material
is reabsorbed here. Another important function of the ceca is the fermentation
of any remaining coarse materials. During this fermentation, the ceca produce
several fatty acids as well as the eight B vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, and vitamin B12). Because the
ceca are located so close to the end of the digestive tract, however, few of the
produced nutrients are absorbed and available to the chicken.

Large Intestine (Colon)
Despite the name, the large intestine is actually shorter than the small intestine.
The large intestine is where the last of the water reabsorption occurs.

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Cloaca
In the cloaca, the digestive wastes mix with wastes from the urinary system
(urates). Chickens usually void fecal material as digestive waste with uric acid
crystals on the outer surface—that is, chickens do not urinate. The color and
texture of chicken fecal material can indicate the health status of the chicken's
digestive tract: the white, pasty material coating chicken fecal material is uric
acid, the avian form of urine, and is normal. The reproductive tract also exits
through this area. When a hen lays an egg, the vagina folds over to allow the
egg to leave through the cloaca opening without coming into contact with feces
or urine.














Anatomy: - Deals with the study of biological structure body.
 Veterinary Anatomy:-
Veterinary Anatomy concerned with the structure and form of the organ
and tissues of principle domestic animals and birds.

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1. Systemic anatomy: -
Here the structures of particular organ systems are studied serially
without going to the details of the surrounding structure.

2. Surgical Anatomy:-
This is an applied part of the subject where the structures of same
specific sites are studied for application in surgical practices. (Surgery is
a branch of medical science which deals where the treatment of injuries
or disease by manual procedures operation with the hand

3. Radiological Anatomy: -
Here the structure of the body are studied with the help of X–ray/
ultrasogoraphy

4. Comparative Anatomy: -
In this method Analogous structure of different species of animals
are studied on comparatively body.

 DIVISSION OF GROSS ANATOMY
Osteology :- Study of bones.
Arthology:- Study of Joints
Myology:- Study of muscles.
Splanchnology:- Study of the vicaral organs of differents system.
Angiology:- Study of the heart and vessels
Neurology:- Study of the nerrous systems .
Aesthesiology:- Study of the organs of special sense

DESCRIPTIVE ANATOMICAL TERMS
Anterior = front
Lateral or External = Away from median plane.
Posterior = Back, Medial.
Superficial = Close to surface.
Internal = Below.
Deep = Beneath Superficial.
Proximal = Upper or superior.
Distal = Inferior or lower.
Cranial = Towards the head end.

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Caudal = towards tail end.



SKELETON SYSTM

SKELETON
Skeleton can be defined as hard frame work of the body which supports
soft structure.
skeleton is composed of :-
 Bones
 Cartilages
 Ligaments
Functions :-
 Responsible for the maintenance of the shape, flexibility as well as
locomotion of the body.
 It provides the attachment of muscles.
 It gives protection to the vital organs in the thorax, pelvic and skull.
 It is a basic structure for movement.
 It accommodates blood forming tissue like bone marrow.
 It is store house of minerals for future utilization.

Classification of bones:-
1. Long bones :-

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There are the long hollow cylindrical types of bones found in the
limb. There are weight bearing bones. (E.g.:- Femur, Humerus)
2. Short bones:-
There are small piece of partially smooth surface bones mainly found in
the joint and helps in their flexibility or mobility. (E.g.: - carpal bones)
3. Flat bones :-
They are flate irregular boney plate’s designed for important organs of
the body. (E.g.:- scapula, some cranial bones of skull)
4. Irregular bone:-
These also irregular, small bones with rough irregular surfaces generally
found in the mid line of the skeleton. (E.g.:- Vertebra)
5. Pneumatic bones:-
Some long bones of birds have Cavities inside their bodies which
accommodate air sac through pneumonatic foramen in living condition.
(E.g.:- Humerus of Fowl.
Bones situated close to the nasal cavities
6. Sesamoid bones:-
There are small sesame (seed) like bones develop within tendon and
ossify after birth. (E.g.:- Pattela)
7. Visceral bones:-
There are found in the viceral of some Animals & birds.
Eg:- Os psnis in dog.
Os cardis in ruminant.
Os opticus in fowl.









Fig: Skeleton of cattle

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STUDY ABOUT FORELIMB
List of the fore limb of bones are:
1. Scapula
2. Hemures
3. Radius and ulna
4. Carpal bone
5. Metacarpal bone
6. Phalanges bone
7. Sesamoid bones

STUDY ABOUT HIND LIMB
List of the hind lime bones are:-
1. Hip bone
2. Femur
3. Patella
4. Tibia
5. Fibula
6. Tarsal
7. Metatarsals
8. Phalanges and sesamoids

Vertebral column
The vertebral column consists of a series of bones called vertebrae linked
together to form a flexible column with the skull at one end and the tail at the
other. Each vertebra consists of a ring of bone with spines (spinous process)
protruding dorsally from it. The spinal cord passes through the hole in the
middle and muscles attach to the spines making movement of the body possible
The shape and size of the vertebrae of mammals vary from the neck to the tail.
In the neck there are cervical vertebrae with the two top ones,
the atlas and axis, being specialized to support the head and allow it to nod
“Yes” and shake “No”. Thoracic vertebrae in the chest region have special
surfaces against which the ribs move during breathing. Grazing animals like
cows and giraffes that have to support weighty heads on long necks have extra

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large spines on their cervical and thoracic vertebrae for muscles to attach
to. Lumbar vertebrae in the loin region are usually large strong vertebrae with
prominent spines for the attachment of the large muscles of the lower back.
The sacral vertebrae are usually fused into one solid bone called
the sacrum that sits within the pelvic girdle. Finally there are a variable
number of small bones in the tail called the coccygeal vertebrae

Fig: The regions of the vertebra


Circulatory system

The circulatory system is centered on the HEART, a muscular organ that
rhythmically pumps BLOOD around a complex network of BLOOD
VESSELS extending to every part of the body.
Blood carries the oxygen and nutrients needed to fuel the activities of the
body’s tissues and organs, and it plays a vital role in removing the body’s waste
products.

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 Blood flows (circulates) in the body through the heart, the lungs, and the
veins and arteries (the blood vessels) that make up the circulatory
system.
 The blood flow in the whole body is called systemic circulation; the
lungs’ blood flow is the pulmonary circulation; the heart’s is the
coronary circulation.
 Blood high in oxygen appears red and blood low in oxygen, which is
rich in carbon dioxide, appears blue.
Veins and arteries
 Veins and arteries are known as blood vessels. Arteries carry blood away
from the heart and veins carry blood toward the heart. Arteries carry
blood from the heart to the body’s tissues, while veins carry blood back
from the tissues to the heart.
 The major blood vessels that branch out of the heart are the aorta, the
vena cava, and the pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins. As well as
these blood vessels, there are many smaller veins and arteries that carry
blood to and from different parts of the body. At the very smallest level,
thin tubes called capillaries allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other
chemicals to pass between the blood and the tissues.
TYPES OF BLOOD VESSEL
Arteries have relatively thick elastic walls that enable them to withstand the
high pressure of blood pumped from the heart. By the time the blood has been
forced through capillaries and arrived in veins, its pressure has dropped, so
veins have thinner walls.

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HEART
The heart contracts tirelessly – more than 2.5 billion times over an average
lifetime – to pump blood around the body. These contractions are triggered by
electrical impulses that originate in a specialized area of heart tissue. The
signals spread through the muscle in the wall of the heart via a network of
conducting fibers.
INSIDE THE HEART
The heart has two upper chambers, called atria, and two lower chambers, called
ventricles. Blood from the body arrives in the right atrium. This blood is low
in oxygen, and is shown here in blue. The blood passes to the right ventricle,
which pumps it to the lungs to pick up more oxygen. The left atrium receives
oxygen-rich blood (red) back from the lungs. This passes to the left ventricle,
which pumps it by way of the aorta to the body.

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The heart has two upper (receiving) and two lower (pumping) chambers. Blood
flows into the upper chambers (the right atrium and the left atrium). The lower
chambers (the right and left ventricles) pump blood out of the heart. The heart
valves open and close to keep blood flowing in the correct direction.
The vena cava
Blood that has circulated through the body has to come back to the heart to get
more oxygen. The superior vena cava brings back the blood from the head and
the limbs in the upper part of the body. The inferior vena cava brings back
blood from the lower part of the body.
The pulmonary arteries
The pulmonary arteries are the major vessels that carry blood from the heart to
the lungs. The right branch of the main pulmonary artery takes blood to the
right lung, the left branch to the left lung.
The pulmonary veins
The pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart.
The aorta
The aorta is the major artery that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to
the rest of the body.
BLOOD
Blood is composed of a straw-colored fluid, plasma, and huge numbers of
blood cells that float in the plasma. Of the two main types of blood cell, red
blood cells carry oxygen to the body’s tissues, and white blood cells help
defend the body against infection. Blood also transports nutrients, proteins
needed for blood clotting, and waste products.

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Functions of Blood:
On the basis of the above description, the general functions of blood are:
(1) Transport of Food Materials.
(2) Transport of Respiratory Gases.
(3) Transport of Hormones.
(4) Transport of Excretory Matter.
(5) Transport of Heat.
(6) Defense against Infection.
(7) Temperature Regulation.
(8) Water Balance.
(9) Maintenance of pH.
(10) Prevention of Excessive Loss of Blood.
(11) Helps in Healing.
(12) Maintenance of Physiological Cooperation


Endocrine and exocrine gland of animals

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• endocrine system, any of the systems found in animals for the
production of hormones, substances that regulate the functioning of the
organism







a. Endocrine glands release their secretions directly into the blood. In other
words they have no ducts.
b. Endocrine glands secrete chemicals called hormones.
c. Hormones are transported from the endocrine glands to all parts of the
body by the blood system.
d. Although hormones are carried throughout the body they only affect
specific target organs and tissues
The position of endocrine organs have been indicated in red on the diagram
of a composite male and female dog shown below

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List of endocrine gland
• Ovary
• Pancreas
• Thyroid gland
• Pituitary gland
• Testis
• Adrenal gland
• Pineal gland
• Parathyroid gland

On the diagram of the brain below indicate the position of
the Hypothalamus and Pituitary gland

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In the table below list 3 hormones produced by the pituitary gland and state
the function of each.

Hormone Function
1.Growth hormone.
Stimulates growth of the body by increase
in length of the long bones
2.Oxytocin Stimulates milk "let down"
3.Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates the development of the ovarian
follicle.
4: Luteinising hormone(LH)
Stimulates development of the corpus
luteum of the ovary
5: Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Stimulates the production of concentrated
urine

31. Dr. Manoj karki

Fill in the following table with the endocrine organ the hormones are
produced by.


Hormone Produced by:
Insulin Pancreas
Progesterone Corpus luteum
Oestrogen Ovarian follicle
Growth hormone (Anterior) pituitary gland
Adrenaline Adrenal medulla
Antidiuretic hormone (Posterior) pituitary gland
Testosterone Testis
Aldosterone Adrenal cortex
Melatonin Pineal gland
Oxytocin (Posterior) pituitary gland

32. Dr. Manoj karki

Thyroxine Thyroid gland

Male Reproductive System
• The male reproductive system consists of a pair of testis that produces
sperm, ducts that transport the sperm to the penis and glands that add
seminal plasma to the sperm.
• Primary sex organs - Testicles
• Secondary sex organs - Epididymis, vas deference and penis.
• Accessory sex glands - Seminal vesicles, prostate and bulbo-urethral
glands.
Scrotum:
• It is a cutaneous pouch in which testicles are located.
• The scrotum of the domestic animals is located between the thighs except
boar and cat.
• In the boar and cat the scrotum is located caudal to the thighs.
Functions
• It holds the testes.
• It regulates the temperature of testes by contractions, relaxations and
through sweating.
Testes
• They are two in number.
• They are suspended by spermatic cords.
• They are the primary organs of reproduction in males, just as ovaries in
females.
• They are considered primary because they produce male gametes
(spermatozoa) and male sex hormones (androgens).

33. Dr. Manoj karki

• Each testicle has two surfaces, two borders and two ends.
• Each lobule contains some seminiferous tubules
• The seminiferrous tubule is made up of two types of cells: Germ cells
(spermatogonia)
• which form spermatozoa and Sertoli cells which are also called sperm
mother cells or nurse cells
• Leydig cells or interstitial cells are found between the seminiferous
tubules
• The Leydig cells produce male sex hormone testosterone.
• Germ cells - produce sperm
• Leydig cells - produce testosterone
• Sertoli cells - Nutritive to spermatozoa, Protective to spermatozoa,
Supportive to spermatozoa
Epididymis:
• It is curved, elongated structure, it has head, body, and tail
• Head s the upper enlarged part which occupies the upper end of the testis
• The body and the tail are narrow and contain the single duct of
epidydimis
Function:
• Transportation of spermatozoa
• Maturation of sperms
• The tail (cauda) act as storage house of sperms
• The head of epidydimis is the site of absorption of excess fluid. More
than 90 % fluid leaving testis is absorbed in the head of epididymis

34. Dr. Manoj karki

Vas deferens (ductus deferens)
• It is a thin tube starts from the tail of epididymis, passes upward along
border of testes
• The terminal portion of the vas deferens is little dilated and is known as
ampulla
• Ampulla is absent in dog and cat but well developed in stalllion
Function:
• Transport of sperm from epididymis to urethra through peristaltic
movement during ejaculation
Urethra:
• It extend from the neck of the bladder to the glans penis
• It serves as common passage for the urine and semen
• During ejaculation in the bull, ram and doe there is a complete mixing of
spermatozoa with fluid from acessory glands
Accessory gland:
• The accessory sex gland are located along the pelvic portion of urethra
• They include vesicular gland or seminal vesicle , prostate gland and
bulbourethral or cowpers gland
Vesicular gland/ seminal vesicle:
• They are situated to the neck of urinary bladder and lateral to the
ampullae
• They secret fluid that add volume, nutrients and buffers to the semen
• Semen: sperm+ seminal plasma
• Secretion contain: fructose, prostaglandin, citric acid, vitamin C,
riboflavin etc..
• The fructose is the main source of energy for speratozoa motility.
(mostly ruminants secrets fructose)

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• Boar secrete inositol
• The vesicular secretion of bull is yellow in color due to presence of
vitamin riboflavin
• Contribution 60 % total semen volume
• The gland is absent in dog and cat
Prostate gland:
• It is a single gland located around and along the urethra just posterior to
the duct of the vesicular glands
• It is well developed in dog
• Prostate fluid is alkaline, it helps to neutralize the acidity of the vaginal
tract and provides the motility and fertility
Bulbourethral gland/ cowpers gland:
• There are two small gland on either side of dorsal part of urethra
• They are small size and shape of walnut in bull, but much larger in boars
• Secretion of gland flushes the urine residue from the urethra before
ejaculation in bull
Penis:
• It is the organ of copulation in males
• It consists of 3 parts: root, body and glans
• Root: it begins at the ischial arch
• Body: it is largest part of organ between root and glans
• Glans penis: it is free conical end of the penis
• The erectile tissue is a sponge like system of irregular blood channels.
When a male is sexually stimulated these erectile tissue become filled
with blood under high pressure resulting in erection of penis

36. Dr. Manoj karki

• Bull , buck, ram , boar have a sigmod flexure, s shaped bend in penis
which permits it to be retracted completely into the body
• Cremaster muscle: this muscle pull the testis upward direction in cold
weather
• Dartos muscle: downward in hot season
• Erector penis muscle: erectile of penis, pull the penis upward when this
muscle contract
• Retractor muscle: this muscle pull the testis back into the sheath after
ejaculation
Types of penis:
• Fibro elastic penis: has small and confined blood spaces, and there
species are divided by large amount of fibrelastic tissue.
• The fibro elastic penis appear in bull, boars, ram, buck
• Sigmoid flexure present
• Musculo vascular: types of penis blood spaces are relatively larger and
the lining and septa are more delicate and more muscular
• Stallion, dog and rabbit have this type of penis
• The vascular type of penis contain large ratio of erectile tissue
• Sigmoid flexure absent
Function of penis:
• Passage of urine
• Performing sexual intercourse and deposition of semen in female tract
Penis of bull
• 36 inch long from root to tip
• The glans penis is 7.5-12.5 cm
• Diameter of penis less than 4 -5 cm

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• Retractor penis muscle is well developed
• Stallion penis: length 50 cm, diameter 2.5-6 cm free from prepuce
• Ram and buck: 30 cm length, diameter 1.5-2 cm, glans penis 5-7 cm
• Boar: no glans but spirally twisted counter clock wise













The Female Reproductive System of Domestic Animal

38. Dr. Manoj karki

Female reproductive tract of cow
• When organism multiply or produce offspring.
• Fertilization fusion of male and female gametes.
• The female reproductive organ consist of the ovary, uterus, cervix,
vagina and vulva.
• Duct system: (oviduct, uterus, cervix, vagina)
• The duct system has two major function:
• Transport of gametes and nourishment (foster) of embryo/ fetus
Ovaries:
• Are a pair of organ of female reproductive system.
• Ova /egg are female gamete produced by the ovaries.
• Female hormone: oestrogen and progesteron
• In each ovaries there may be as many as 75000 follicles.
• Except for poultry both the ovaries are functional in all farm animals.
Mostly right ovary functional Bird: one ovary and one oviduct left most
functional
• Two in number laying in the abdominal cavity sizes are 0.5 to 1.5 Inch
diameter and 0.5 to 1.5 inch width & thickness.
Function:
production of eggs or ova and production of female hormone i.e. estrogen

39. Dr. Manoj karki

• The size of ovaries is highly variable from animal to animal.
• They are richly supplied with blood vessels and nerves
• The shape of ovary varies according to the species and stage of estrus
cycle.
• ovaries appear as cluster of grapes – sow, bitch cat
• ovaries are ovoid shaped – cow, ewe
• ovaries are kidney shaped due to presence of ovulation fossa









Oviduct: salpinx
• They are paired structure that connect ovaries to the uterus
• They are not attached firmly to the ovaries but lie closed to them.
• Length of oviduct about 20 to 30 cm and it attached to the broad
ligament.
• Estrogen hormone: hard and constriction
• Progesterone: dilate
The oviduct may be divided into 4 parts:
1. Isthmus: first half portion (uterine) is narrow and thick walled

40. Dr. Manoj karki

2. Ampulla: it is major portion of oviduct distal to infundibulum.
Fertilization generally occurs in ampullary region
3. Infundibulum: it is funnel shaped opening near the ovary.
4. Funnel at the tip of each tube catch the egg after it is released from
ovaries.
5. Fimbriae: it is the ovarian end of the oviduct enlarged with fringed
edges










Function of oviduct:
• Fimbriae help to pick up ovum after ovulation
• Oviductal secretion provides:
1. Sperm capacitation/ capable and sperm hypermotility
2. Conduct environment for fertilization
3. Specific cleavage including protein that promote cleavage division of
zygote
The ciliary movement along with muscular movement help in:

41. Dr. Manoj karki

1. Mixing of oviduct content which improves sperm encounter
2. Transport zygote into uterus
3. Regulate egg transport
4. Prevent tubal implantation : eg, ectopic preganancy
Uterus:
• It is a hollow elongated muscular membranous structure that extend
from utero- tubal junction to cervix
• It consist two uterine horns (coruna) and a body
• The shape and arrangement of horns vary according to species:
Types of uterus:
• Duplex uterus: two cervix, two horn, but no uterine body. Eg, rabbit,
rat, mouse






• Bicorunate uterus: one cervix, small uterine body, two separate long
horns,. Eg, sow, bitch, cow, cat

42. Dr. Manoj karki

• Bipartite uterus: one cervix, well developed body and two hornes. Eg,
mare
• Simple uterus: one cervix, very large body, horns absent






• In ruminant, the interior of uterus present mushroom like non glandular
projection called caruncles.
Function of uterus:
1. Uterine contraction towards oviduct help in transport of sperm to the
site of fertilization
2. Uterine contraction towards cervix help in moving zygote from oviduct
into uterus
3. Pregnancy is housed in uterus. Implantation and development of young
embryo into an offspring can take place only in uterus
4. Play a key role in maintenance and regression of CL.
Cervix:
• The cervix is also known as the neck of the womb.
• It is a spincter like structure and lies between uterus and vagina. 5 to 10
cm long
• Made by fibrous organ composed of connective tissue
• In ruminants, the cervical canal has transverse or spirally interlocking
ridges known as annular rings (four fold only).

43. Dr. Manoj karki

• In sow the rings are cork screw shaped
• Note: the cervix is tightly closed during pregnancy and anoestrus
period and relax only during oestrus (heat) and parturation.









• Cervical mucus consist of macromolecules of mucin which are
composed of glycoprotein (25% protein, 75% carbohydrate)
• The cervical mucus contain ceveral enzymes including glucuronidase,
amylase, esterase, phosphate..
• It is rich in mucus secreting goblet cells, which secrete antiseptic
discharge seen coming out of the vulva during heat. (antibacterial
effect)
Function of cervix:
• Protect upper reproductive tract from noxious agent by acting as barrier
for entry of foreign agents
• Helps in sperm transport
• Sperm selection center: motile sperm can pass through cervix
• Cervical mucus secretion is important for:
• Sperm transport and sperm selection

44. Dr. Manoj karki

Vagina:
• It is thin walled tubular and quite elastic in nature.
• Vagina Has a good nerve and vascular supply
• Vaginal fluid is composed of IgA (first line of defence) and IgG
(protect from body infection)
• The vagina serves as a birth canal at the time of parturation.
• Average length of this structure is 20 cm. the length increase during
pregnancy
Function:
• Part of the birth canal
• Vaginal secretion in cow has specific smell at estrus which is detected
by bulls
• Produce antibodies against heterologus sperm (semen of donor who is
not women patner)
• Female organ of copulation and site of semen deposition during natural
services
External genitalia
• The vulva or external genitalia consist of the vestibule, the labia
majora: the labia minora, the clitoris and the vestibular glands.
• Labia majora is the outer lip of vulva. Labia minora is not prominent in
farm animals. Labia majora contain sebaceous and tubular glands.
Clitoris
• Length is 5-10cm but, in hidden under the tissues. Located ventrally
and is
• homologous to the glans in the male. It contains erectile tissue and well
supplied with sensory nerves

45. Dr. Manoj karki

Urinary system
The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists
of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary
system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood
pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH.
The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of
urine. The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which
leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units
called nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes
(in the form of urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, The female and male
urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.
Urine is formed in the kidneys through a filtration of blood. The urine is then
passed through the ureters to the bladder, where it is stored. During urination,
the urine is passed from the bladder through the urethra to the outside of the
body.
800–2,000 milliliters (mL) of urine are normally produced every day in a
healthy human. This amount varies according to fluid intake and kidney
function
The kidneys in mammals are bean-shaped organs that lie in the abdominal
cavity attached to the dorsal wall on either side of the spine (see diagram 12.2).
An artery from the dorsal aorta called the renal artery supplies blood to them
and the renal vein drains them.
Kidney:
Kidneys are situated behind vertebral column in the abdominal cavity at the
level of 12
th
thoracic vertebra to 3
rd
lumbar vertebra. It is paired lobulated in
ruminant and smooth in horse and bean shaped in dog.

46. Dr. Manoj karki

To the naked eye kidneys seem simple enough organs. They are covered by a
fibrous coat or capsule and if cut in half lengthways (longitudinally) two
distinct regions can be seen - an inner region or medulla and the outer cortex.
A cavity within the kidney called the pelvis collects the urine and carries it to
the ureter, which connects with the bladder where the urine is stored
temporarily. Rings of muscle (sphincters) control the release of urine from the
bladder and the urine leaves the body through the urethra.



Kidney Tubules Or Nephrons
It is only when you examine kidneys under the microscope that you find that
their structure is not simple at all. The cortex and medulla are seen to be
composed of masses of tiny tubes. These are called kidney
tubules or nephrons. A human kidney consists of over a million of them.

47. Dr. Manoj karki


Diagram- Several kidney tubules or nephrons

Diagram - A kidney tubule or nephron
At one end of each nephron, in the cortex of the kidney, is a cup shaped
structure called the (Bowman’s or renal) capsule. It surrounds a tuft of
capillaries called the glomerulus that carries high-pressure blood. Together
the glomerulus and capsule act as a blood-filtering device. The holes in the

48. Dr. Manoj karki

filter allow most of the contents of the blood through except the red and white
cells and large protein molecules. The fluid flowing from the capsule into the
rest of the kidney tubule is therefore very similar to blood plasma and contains
many useful substances like water, glucose, salt and amino acids. It also
contains waste products like urea.



Bovine kidney


Function of kidney:
 It eliminates waste products of metabolism such as urea, uric acid and
creatine
 It regulates the osmotic pressure of the body fluids and the volume of
extracellular fluids by regulating the excretion of sodium and water
 It eliminates foreign compounds from the body like penicillin and sulpha
drugs
 It produces a number of special substances like
 Rennin :proteolytic agent and important for BP regulation
 Erythropectin: Hormones stimulates the Production of RBC from
bone marrow
 Prostaglandins : role in reproductive organs derived from essential
fatty acid Kinnins : regulates the vascular dilation

49. Dr. Manoj karki

Nephron:
The functional and structural unit of the kidney is nephron. The nephorn
consists of two major components, the renal corpuscle and the renal tubule.













Fig.Structure of nephron

The renal corpuscle is responsible for the filtration of plasma and is a
combination of the two structures: Bowmans capsule and glomerulus
1. Glomerulus: is the tuft of capillaries on the course of an arteriole and is
encased within the bowman’s capsule. The glomerulus contains a network of
branching and anastomosing glomerular capillaries that, compared with other
capillaries, have high hydrostatic pressure (about 60 mm Hg). The glomerular
capillaries are covered by epithelial cells, and the total glomerulus is encased
in Bowman’s capsule.

50. Dr. Manoj karki

2. Bowmans capsule : consist of single layer of flattened cell resting on a
basement membrane and is expanded blind end of nephron. The inner layer of
bowman’s capsule closely surrounds the capillaries and the outer layer is
continued with proximal convoluted tubule.
The glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule constitute malphigian body. The
malphigian body is the major site for filtration of the fluid from the blood.
In renal corpuscle, much of the water and small molecular weight constituents
of plasma are filtered from the glomerular capillaries flows into Bowman’s
capsule and then into the proximal tubule,which lies in the cortex of the kidney.

3. Proximal convulated tubule:
It is the continuation of outer layer of the Bowman’s capsule. It is the largest
(longest) and most winding protion of the nephron. It reabsorbs most of the
constituents of the glomerular filtrate that are needed by the animal body. The
cells of proximal segment secrets the waste products from the blood to its
lumen.
3. Loop of Henle:
Loop of Henle is interposed between the proximal and distal convoluted
tubules. It is a U-shaped tube and begins near glomerulus as a continuation of
the proximal tube. Loop of Henle consists of three limbs. They are:-
i. Thin descending limb: It is continuous from the proximal straight
tubule present mostly in the cortex. It is lined by simple squamous
epithelial cells. The walls of the descending limb are very thin
therefore is called the thin segment of the loop of Henle.
ii. Thin ascending limb: It terminates at the junction of the inner and
the outer medullae. Ascending limb are very thin. After the ascending
limb of the loop has returned partway back to the cortex, Cortical
nephrons lack thin ascending limb and its wall becomes much thicker,
and it is referred to as the thick segment of the ascending limb.

51. Dr. Manoj karki

iii. Thick ascending limb: It returns to its glomerulus of origin in the
cortex and passes between the afferent and efferent arterioles. It is
lined by cubical epithelial cells. At the end of the thick ascending
limb is a short segment, which is actually a plaque in its wall, known
as the macula densa. The macula densa plays an important role in
controlling nephron function. There is low permeability to water and
active reabsorption of sodium chloride.

4. Distal convoluted tubule:-
It is shorter and less twisted than the proximal convoluted tubule lies in the
renal cortex. It extends from the termination of the ascending limb of loop of
Henles to collecting tubule. DCT is responsible for reaborption of sodium
ions by an active process which is controlled by the adenocortical hormone
aldosterone. Sodium reabsoption is coupled with the secretion of hydrogen or
potassium ions into the DCT.

4. Collecting tubules: The collecting tubule is the straight terminal portion of
the nephron, several collecting tubules converges to form a collective duct. The
collecting tubules and ducts are not normally permeable to water; however in
the presence of antidiuretic hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary, the
collecting tubules and ducts becomes permeable to water which is then drawn
out by the high osmotic pressure in then intestinal tissue of the medulla. The
loop of Henle and antidiuretic hormone thus provide a mechanism for the
production of urine which is hypertonic with respect to plasma.
As the glomerular filtrate flows through the tubules over 99% of its water and
varying amounts of its solutes are normally reabsorbed into the vascular
system, and small amounts of some substances are also secreted into the
tubules. The remaining tubular water and dissolved substances becomes the
urine.
In each kidney, there are about 250 of the very large collecting ducts, each of
which collects urine from about 4000 nephrons

52. Dr. Manoj karki














Nervous System
The nervous system is the part of an animal's body that coordinates its
behavior and transmits signals between different body areas. In vertebrates it
consists of two main parts, called the central nervous system (CNS) and the
peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord.
The PNS consists mainly of nerves, which are long fibers that connect the CNS
to every other part of the body.

53. Dr. Manoj karki

Functions of the Nervous System
The nervous system has basic functions:
1. Sensory function - to sense changes (known as stimuli) both outside
and within the body. For example the eyes sense changes in light and the
ear responds to sound waves. Inside the body, stretch receptors in the
stomach indicate when it is full and chemical receptors in the blood
vessels monitor the acidity of the blood.
2. Motor function - The second function is the response to the stimuli
that causes muscles to contract or glands to secrete.
All nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells or neurons. These transmit high-
speed signals called nerve impulses. Nerve impulses can be thought of as
being similar to an electric current.
The Neuron
Neurons are cells that have been adapted to carry nerve impulses. A typical
neuron has a cell body containing a nucleus, one or more branching filaments
called dendrites which conduct nerve impulses towards the cell body and
one long fiber, an axon, that carries the impulses away from it. Many axons
have a sheath of fatty material called myelin surrounding them. This speeds up
the rate at which the nerve impulses travel along the nerve.

54. Dr. Manoj karki

Parts of the Nervous System
When we describe the nervous system of vertebrates we usually divide it into
two parts .
1. The central nervous system (CNS) which consists of the brain and
spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS) which consists of the nerves
that connect to the brain and spinal cord (cranial and spinal nerves) as
well as the autonomic (or involuntary) nervous system.


Fig The nervous system of a horse
The Central Nervous System
The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It acts as a
kind of ‘telephone exchange’ where a vast number of cross connections are
made.
When you look at the brain or spinal cord some regions appear creamy white
(white matter) and others appear grey (grey matter). White matter consists
of masses of nerve axons and the grey matter consists of the nerve cells. In

55. Dr. Manoj karki

the brain the grey matter is on the outside and in the spinal cord it is on the
inside.






The Brain
The major part of the brain lies protected within the sturdy “box” of skull called
the cranium. Surrounding the fragile brain tissue (and spinal cord) are
protective membranes called the meninges and a crystal-clear fluid called
cerebrospinal fluid, which protects and nourishes the brain tissue. This fluid
also fills four cavities or ventricles that lie within the brain. Brain tissue is
extremely active and, even when an animal is resting; it uses up to 20% of the
oxygen taken into the body by the lungs. The carotid artery, a branch off the
dorsal aorta, supplies it with the oxygen and nutrients it requires. Brain damage
occurs if brain tissue is deprived of oxygen for only 4-8 minutes.
The brain consists of three major regions:
1. The fore brain which includes the cerebral hemispheres,
hypothalamus and pituitary gland;
2. The hind brain or brain stem, contains the medulla oblongata and
pons and
3. The cerebellum or “little brain”.

56. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig. Longitudinal section through the brain of a dog
The Forebrain
The cerebral hemispheres are the masses of brain tissue that sit on the top of
the brain. The surface is folded into ridges and furrows called sulci (singular
sulcus). They make this part of the brain look rather like a very large walnut
kernel. The two hemispheres are separated by a deep groove although they are
connected internally by a thick bundle of nerve fibres. The outer layer of each
hemisphere is called the cerebral cortex and this is where the main functions
of the cerebral hemispheres are carried out.
The cerebral cortex is large and convoluted in mammals compared to other
vertebrates and largest of all in humans because this is where the so-called
“higher centers” concerned with memory, learning, reasoning and
intelligence are situated.
In humans and some animals the functions of the different regions of the
cerebral cortex have been mapped.

The hypothalamus is situated at the base of the brain and is connected by a
“stalk” to the pituitary gland, the “master” hormone-producing gland. The
hypothalamus can be thought of as the bridge between the nervous and

57. Dr. Manoj karki

endocrine (hormone producing) systems. It produces some of the hormones
that are released from the pituitary gland and controls the release of others from
it.It is also an important center for controlling the internal environment of the
animal and therefore maintaining homeostasis. For example, it helps regulate
the movement of food through the gut and the temperature, blood pressure and
concentration of the blood. It is also responsible for the feeling of being
hungry or thirsty and it controls sleep patterns and sex drive.
The Hindbrain
The medulla oblongata is at the base of the brain and is a continuation of the
spinal cord. It carries all signals between the spinal cord and the brain and
contains centers that control vital body functions like the basic rhythm of
breathing, the rate of the heartbeat and the activities of the gut. The
medulla oblongata also co-ordinates, swallowing, vomiting, coughing and
sneezing.
The Cerebellum
The cerebellum (little brain) looks rather like a smaller version of the cerebral
hemispheres attached to the back of the brain. It receives impulses from the
organ of balance (vestibular organ) in the inner ear and from stretch receptors
in the muscles and tendons. By co-ordinating these it regulates muscle
contraction during walking and running and helps maintain the posture
and balance of the animal. When the cerebellum malfunctions it causes a
tremor and uncoordinated movement.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cable of nerve tissue that passes down the channel in the
vertebrae from the hindbrain to the end of the tail. It becomes progressively
smaller as paired spinal nerves pass out of the cord to parts of the body.
Protective membranes or meninges cover the cord and these enclose cerebral
spinal fluid.

58. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig - The spinal cord
If you cut across the spinal cord you can see that it consists of white matter
on the outside and grey matter in the shape of an H or butterfly on the
inside.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves that are connected to the
brain (cranial nerves), and nerves that are connected to the spinal cord (spinal
nerves). The autonomic nervous system is also part of the peripheral
nervous system.
Cranial Nerves
There are twelve pairs of cranial nerves that come from the brain. Each
passes through a hole in the cranium (brain case). The most important of these
are the olfactory, optic, acoustic and vagus nerves.
Olfactory nerves - (smell) carry impulses from the olfactory organ of the nose
to the brain.
Optic nerves - (sight) carry impulses from the retina of the eye to the brain.

59. Dr. Manoj karki

Auditory(acoustic) nerves - (hearing) carry impulses from the cochlear of
the inner ear to the brain.
Vagus nerve - controls the muscles that bring about swallowing. It also
controls the muscles of the heart, airways, lungs, stomach and intestines .











Spinal Nerves
Spinal nerves connect the spinal cord to sense organs, muscles and glands in
the body. Pairs of spinal nerves leave the spinal cord and emerge between each
pair of adjacent vertebrae.
The sciatic nerve is the largest spinal nerve in the body. It leaves the spinal
cord as several nerves that join to form a flat band of nervous tissue. It passes
down the thigh towards the hind leg where it gives off branches to the various
muscles of this limb.

60. Dr. Manoj karki

The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system controls internal body functions that are not
under conscious control. For example when a prey animal is chased by a
predator the autonomic nervous system automatically increases the rate
of breathing and the heartbeat. It dilates the blood vessels that carry blood
to the muscles, releases glucose from the liver, and makes other
adjustments to provide for the sudden increase in activity. When the animal
has escaped and is safe once again the nervous system slows down all these
processes and resumes all the normal body activities like the digestion of food.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system originate in the spinal cord and
pass out between the vertebrae to serve the various organs. There are two
main parts to the autonomic nervous system -- the sympathetic system and the
parasympathetic system.
The sympathetic system stimulates the “flight, fright, fight” response that
allows an animal to face up to an attacker or make a rapid departure. It
increases the heart and respiratory rates, as well as the amount of blood flowing
to the skeletal muscles while blood flow to less critical regions like the gut and
skin is reduced. It also causes the pupils of the eyes to dilate. Note that the
effects of the sympathetic system are similar to the effects of the hormone
adrenaline.
The parasympathetic system does the opposite to the sympathetic system. It
maintains the normal functions of the relaxed body. These are sometimes
known as the “housekeeping” functions. It promotes effective digestion,
stimulates defecation and urination and maintains a regular heartbeat
and rate of breathing.

61. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig - The function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system

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Respiratory System of the Dog
The respiratory system includes the:
 Mouth and Nose
 Trachea
 Lungs and Smaller Airways (bronchi and bronchioles)
The respiratory system is responsible for taking in oxygen and eliminating
waste gases like carbon dioxide. Because dogs and cats do not sweat through
the skin, the respiratory system also plays an important role in regulation of
temperature.

Respiration in Birds
Birds have a unique respiratory system that enables them to respire at the
very high rates necessary for flight. The lungs are relatively solid structures
that do not change shape and size in the same way as mammalian lungs do.
Tubes run through them and connect with a series of air sacs situated in the
thoracic and abdominal body cavities and some of the bones. Movements
of the ribs and breastbone or sternum expand and compress these air sacs so
they act rather like bellows and pump air through the lungs. The evolution of
this extremely efficient system of breathing has enabled birds to migrate vast
distances and fly at altitudes higher than the summit of Everest.
Respiratory system of Ruminants
The components of respiratory system are respiratory passages and lungs. The
components are Nose, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea and Bronchi are continuous
open passage to the Lungs therefore called respiratory passage.
1. Nose/ Nasal cavity
 It is the first part of respiratory passage and extends from exterior to
nasopharynx. This bilateral irregular tubular passage is enclosed by
facial bones and cartilages.
 External opening is known as anterior nares (nostrils). These are
common shaped oblique opening placed on either side of the muzzle.

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 When air is breathed in it passes from the nose to the alveoli of the
lungs down a series of tubes. After entering the nose the air passes
through the nasal cavity, which is lined with a moist membrane that
adds warmth and moisture to the air as it passes. The air then flows
through the pharynx or throat.

2. Pharynx
 Pharynx is second part of respiratory passage and extends from the
larynx.
 The air that passages through nasal cavities reaches the nasopharynx
and oropharynx to enter the larynx.
 Pharynx passage that carries both food and air.

3. Larynx
 It is an elongated musculo-cartilaginous compartment situated
between the pharynx and trachea.
 The air then flows through the pharynx or throat, a passage that
carries both food and air, to the larynx where the voice-box is
located.

4. Trachea
 It is an elastic tube extends from larynx to the level of the base of
the heart and is made up of cartilages and membrane.
 These are about 50-60 cartilages in the form of incomplete rings
with the open end placed dorsally. The rings are completed by
connective tissue and smooth muscle fibers of tracheal muscles.
 The tracheal tube is about 60 cm longs and terminates by
bifurcating into two (right and left) bronchi at the base of the heart
which enter into corresponding to lungs.
 It has two parts- cervical part and thoracic part.

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5. Lungs
 Lungs are a pair of main organ of respiration. They occupy most
part of the thoracic cavity.
 Each lung invaginates into corresponding pleural cavity and is
covered by pleura.
 It is pink in fresh condition and the organ is soft and spongy in
appearance.
 The right lung is bigger than the left lung. Lungs have border,
base, apex and surface.
 The lungs fill most of the chest or thoracic cavity, which is
completely separated from the abdominal cavity by the
diaphragm. The lungs and the spaces in which they lie (called the
pleural cavities) are covered with membranes called the pleura.
There is a thin film of fluid between the two membranes. This

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lubricates them as they move over each other during breathing
movements.
 The lugs are divided into lobes by fissures of variable depth.
 The right lung presents four lobes- 1.Apical, 2. Cardiac, 3.
Diaphragmatic 4. Accessory or intermediate.
Left lung presents three lobes- 1. Apical, 2. Cardiac and 3. Diaphragmatic













The sense organs Dr. Manoj karki

The sensory nervous system is a part of the nervous system responsible for
processing sensory information. A sensory system consists of sensory neurons,
neural pathways, and parts of the brain involved in sensory perception
Animals can sense a wide range of stimuli that includes, touch, pressure, pain,
temperature, chemicals, light, sound, movement and position of the body. All

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sense organs respond to stimuli by producing nerve impulses that travel to the
brain via a sensory nerve. The impulses are then processed and interpreted in
the brain as pain, sight, sound, taste etc.
The senses are often divided into two groups:
1. The general senses of touch, pressure, pain and temperature that are
distributed fairly evenly through the skin. Some are found in muscles and
within joints.
2. The special senses which include the senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing
and balance.
Touch and Pressure
Within the dermis of the skin are numerous modified nerve endings that are
sensitive to touch and pressure. The roots of hairs may also be well supplied
with sensory receptors that inform the animal contact with an object.
Pain
Receptors that sense pain are found in almost every tissue of the body. They
tell the animal that tissues are dangerously hot, cold, compressed or stretched
or that there is not enough blood flowing in them. The animal may then be able
to respond and protect itself from further damage

Diagram 15.1 - The general senses in the skin

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Temperature
Nerve endings in the skin respond to hot and cold stimuli (See diagram 15.1).
Awareness of Limb Position
There are sense organs in the muscles, tendons and joints that send continuous
impulses to the brain that tell it where each limb is. This information allows
the animal to place its limbs accurately and know their exact position without
having to watch them.
Smell
Animals use the sense of smell to locate food, mark their territory, and identify
their own offspring and the presence and sexual condition of a potential mate.
The organ of smell (olfactory organ) is located in the nose and responds to
chemicals in the air.


Diagram 15.2 - The olfactory organ - the sense of smell

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The olfactory sense in humans is rudimentary compared to that of many
animals. Carnivores that hunt have a very highly developed sensitivity to
scents. For example a polar bear can smell out a dead seal 20 km away
Snakes and lizards detect odours by means of Jacobson’s organ. This is
situated on the roof of the mouth and consists of pits containing sensory cells.
When snakes flick out their forked tongues they are smelling the air by carrying
the molecules in it to the Jacobson’s organ.
Taste
The sense of taste allows animals to detect and identify dissolved chemicals.
In reptiles, birds, and mammals the taste receptors (taste buds) are found
mainly to the upper surface of the tongue. Each receptor cell has a tiny “hair”
that projects into the saliva to sense the chemicals dissolved in it.

Diagram 15.3. Taste buds on the tongue

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The sense of taste is quite restricted. Humans can only distinguish five different
tastes (sweet, sour, bitter, salt, and metallic) and what we normally think of as
taste is mainly the sense of smell. Food is quite tasteless when the nose is
blocked and cats often refuse to eat when this happens.
Sight
The eyes are the organs of sight. They consist of spherical eyeballs situated in
deep depressions in the skull called the orbits. They are attached to the wall of
the orbit by six muscles, which move the eyeball. Upper and
lower eyelids cover the eyes during sleep and protect them from foreign objects
or too much light, and spread the tears over their surface.
The nictitating membrane or haw is a transparent sheet that moves sideways
across the eye from the inner corner, cleansing and moistening the cornea
without shutting out the light. It is found in birds, crocodiles, frogs and fish as
well as marsupials like the kangaroo. It is rare in mammals but can be seen in
cats and dogs by gently opening the eye when it is asleep. Eyelashes also
protect the eyes from the sun and foreign objects.

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Structure of the Eye
Lining the eyelids and covering the front of the eyeball is a thin epithelium
called the conjunctiva. Conjunctivitis is inflammation of this membrane. Tear
glands that open just under the top eyelid secrete a salty solution that keeps
the exposed part of the eye moist, washes away dust and contains an enzyme
that destroys bacteria.
The wall of the eyeball is composed of three layers (see diagram 15.4). From
the outside these are the sclera, the choroid and the retina.

Diagram 15.4 - The structure of the eye

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The sclera is a tough fibrous layer that protects the eyeball and gives it rigidity.
At the front of the eye the sclera is visible as the “white” of the eye, which is
modified as the transparent cornea through which the light rays have to pass
to enter the eye. The cornea helps focus light that enters the eye.
The choroid lies beneath the sclera. It contains a network of blood vessels that
supply the eye with oxygen and nutrients. Its inner surface is highly
pigmented and absorbs stray light rays. In nocturnal animals like the cat and
jackel this highly pigmented layer reflects light as a means of conserving light.
This is what makes them shine when caught in car headlights.
At the front of the eye the choroid becomes the iris. This is the coloured part
of the eye that controls the amount of light entering the pupil of the eye. In
dim light the pupil is wide open so as much light as possible enters while in
bright light the pupils contract to protect the retina from damage by
excess light.
The pupil in most animals is circular but in many nocturnal animals it is a slit
(a long narrow cut) that can close completely. This helps protect the extra-
sensitive light sensing tissues of animals like the cat and possum from bright
sunlight.
The inner layer lining the inside of the eye is the retina. This contains the light
sensing cells called rods and cones.
The rod cells are long and fat and are sensitive to dim light but cannot detect
colour. They contain large amounts of a pigment that changes when exposed
to light. This pigment comes from vitamin A found in carrots etc. A deficiency
of this vitamin causes night blindness. So your mother was right when she told
you to eat your carrots as they would help you see in the dark!
The cone cells provide colour vision and allow animals to see details. Most are
found in the centre of the retina and they are most densely concentrated in a
small area called the fovea. This is the area of sharpest vision, where the words
you are reading at this moment are focussed on your retina.

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Diagram 15.5 - A rod and cone from the retina

The nerve fibres from the cells of the retina join and leave the eye via the optic
nerve. There are no rods or cones here and it is a blind spot. The optic nerve
passes through the back of the orbit and enters the brain.
The lens is situated just behind the pupil and the iris. It is a crystalline structure
with no blood vessels and is held in position by a ligament. This is attached to
a muscle, which changes the shape of the lens so both near and distant objects
can be focussed by the eye. This ability to change the focus of the lens is
called accommodation. In many mammals the muscles that bring about
accommodation are poorly developed, Rats, cows and dogs, for example, are
thought to be unable to focus clearly on near objects.
In old age and certain diseases the lens may become cloudy resulting in blurred
vision. This is called a cataract. Within the eyeball are two cavities,
the anterior and posterior chambers, separated by the lens. They contain
fluids the aqueous and vitreous humours respectively, that maintain the
shape of the eyeball and help press the retina firmly against the choroid so clear
images are seen.
Hearing
Animals use the sense of hearing for many different purposes. It is used to
sense danger and enemies, to detect prey, to identify prospective mates and to
communicate within social groups. Some animals (e.g. most bats and dolphins)

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use sound to “see” by echolocation. By sending out a cry and interpreting the
echo, they sense obstacles or potential prey.
Structure of the Ear
Most of the ear, the organ of hearing, is hidden from view within the bony
skull. It consists of three main regions: the outer ear, the middle ear and
the inner ear (see diagram 15.9).

Diagram 15.9 - The ear



The outer ear consists of an ear canal leading inwards to a thin membrane
known as the ear drum or tympanic membrane that stretches across the
canal. Many animals have an external ear flap or pinna to collect and funnel
the sound into the ear canal. The pinnae (plural of pinna) usually face forwards
on the head but many animals can swivel them towards the source of the sound.
In dogs the ear canal is long and bent and often traps wax or provides an ideal
habitat for mites, yeast and bacteria.

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The middle ear consists of a cavity in the skull that is connected to
the pharynx (throat) by a long narrow tube called the Eustachian tube. This
links the middle ear to the outside air so that the air pressure on both sides of
the eardrum can be kept the same. Everyone knows the uncomfortable feeling
(and affected hearing) that occurs when you drive down a steep hill and the
unequal air pressures on the two sides of the eardrum cause it to distort. The
discomfort is relieved when you swallow because the Eustachian tubes open
and the pressure on either side equalises.
Within the cavity of the middle ear are three of the smallest bones in the body,
the auditory ossicles. They are known as the malleus, the incus and the
stapes because of their resemblance to the shape of these objects. These tiny
bones articulate (move against) each other and transfer the vibrations of the
eardrum to the membrane covering the opening to the inner ear.










The inner ear is a complicated series of fluid-filled tubes imbedded in the bone
of the skull. It consists of two main parts. These are the cochlea where sound
waves are converted to nerve impulses .The cochlea looks rather like a coiled
up snail shell. Within it there are specialized cells with fine hairs on their
surface that respond to the movement of the fluid within the cochlea by
producing nervous impulses that travel to the brain along the auditory nerve.

75. Dr. Manoj karki

Unit: 2
Animal cells: Structure and Function










• Cell is a structural and functional unit of life. A microscope is required
to study cell structure.
• Scientist Robert Hook First studied the cell structure in the year 1665
using a self designed microscope. A cell having following Structure and
Function of cell Organelles.
• On the basis of the cellular organization, cells are further classified as
eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Plant cells and animal cells fall under the
eukaryotic category

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• An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has
a true, membrane-bound nucleus along with other cellular
organelles.”
• Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining
characteristic is its irregular shape. This is due to the absence of a cell
wall.
• Animal cells range in size from a few microscopic microns to a few
millimetres. The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg,
• The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval
or rod-shaped.
• There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical, concave
and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can only
be seen under the microscope.

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Major Cell organelles are as follows
• Cell Membrane- Cell membrane enclose the cell and regulates the in
and out flow of substance. It is also known as plasma membrane which
form the covering of animal cell. It is elastic, living, double layer and
permeable membrane. It is made up of protein and lipid molecules.
• A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding
the cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding.
• Function-It regulated movement of molecules inside and outside the cell
Nucleus
• It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as
nucleolus, nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other
genetic materials
• It is the most important organelle of a cell and usually lies in the center.
It may lie in the periphery. Its basic function is cell division and
multiplication
• The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane.
• The nucleus contains chromosomes .chromosome contain information
for inheritance of features form parents to next generation in the form of
DNA ( Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
• Function- It controls all activity of cells. So it is also known as “control
room “of cell. Chromatin transmits hereditary characters from parent of
their offspring

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Nuclear Membrane
• It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also
referred to as the nuclear envelope.
Lysosome
• They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising
digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell
renewal process.
Centrosome
• It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which has a thick centre
with radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are
produced.
Cytoplasm
• A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed
within the cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus,
contained by the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus
• A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the
nucleus and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and
transporting the particles throughout the cell
Mitochondrion
• They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane.
They are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in
releasing energy
Ribosome
• They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules,
and they are the sites or help of protein synthesis.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of tubules like structure
found in cytoplasm .it is attached with the nucleus on one side and on other
side it is joined with plasma membrane . There are two types of ER-
i ) Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (RER)- Rough endoplasmic reticulum
looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosome
attached to its surface.
Function- RER concerned with protein synthesis and transport. RER
developed in protein exporting cells (ex. pancreatic cells and Liver) .
ii ) Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum (SER) – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
looks smooth under a microscope because it has free ribosome particles its
surface.
• Function- Smooth Endoplasmic reticulum helps in synthesizes and
transports lipids and steroids. Some kinds of smooth E. R transport
proteins from the rough E. R. And still other kinds break down energy
rich glycogen and fats.
• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) helps in the distribution of material. It
forms supporting framework of cell.
Vacuole
• A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in
maintaining shape and storing water, food, wastes, etc.
• .vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant cells have very large
vacuoles.
• Function- it helps in osmoregulation .It stores toxic metabolic waste

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Cell Division
• Cell division happens when a parent cell divides into two or more cells
called daughter cells.
• Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.
• All cells reproduce by splitting into two, where each parental cell gives
rise to two daughter cells.

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• These newly formed daughter cells could themselves divide and grow,
giving rise to a new cell population that is formed by the division and
growth of a single parental cell and its descendant.
• Types of Cell Division
• There are two distinct types of cell division out of which the first one is
vegetative division, where in each daughter cell duplicates the parent cell
called mitosis. The second one is meiosis, which divides into four
haploid daughter cells.

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• Mitosis: The process cells use to make exact replicas of themselves.
Mitosis is observed in almost all the body’s cells, including eyes, skin,
hair, and muscle cells.
• Meiosis: In this type of cell division, sperm or egg cells are produced
instead of identical daughter cells as in mitosis.
• Binary Fission: Single-celled organisms like bacteria replicate
themselves for reproduction.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
There are two primary phases in the cell cycle:
• Interphase: This phase was thought to represent the resting stage
between subsequent cell divisions, but new research has shown that it is
a very active phase.
• M Phase (Mitosis phase): This is where the actual cell division occurs.
There are two key steps in this phase, namely cytokinesis and
karyokinesis.
The interphase further comprises three phases:
• G0 Phase (Resting Phase): The cell neither divides nor prepares itself
for the division.
• G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell is metabolically active and grows
continuously during this phase.
• S phase (Synthesis): The DNA replication or synthesis occurs during
this stage.
• G2 phase (Gap 2): Protein synthesis happens in this phase.
• Quiescent Stage (G0): The cells that do not undergo further division
exits the G1 phase and enters an inactive stage. This stage is known as
the quiescent stage (G0) of the cell cycle.

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There are four stages in the M Phase, namely:
• Prophase
• Metaphase
• Anaphase
• Telophase



Reproductive hormone and their function:
 Reproduction hormones include heat (estrus) in cows. There is no
production with out reproduction. Hormone is a chemical messenger that
gets released from hypothalamus., pituitary gland, ovary, uterus, or
placenta. Different hormone have different points of release.
 After every 21 days the ovary release a mature ovum and the cow comes
on heat. The ovum travels through the fallopian tube to the uterus and
waits for sperm to get mated. The release and movement of the ovum
down to the uterus is called ovulation. If mating is done at this time,
fertilization will take place and animal will get pregnant. The whole
process of reproduction is governed by some chemical messengers which
are termed as hormones.
 Hormone are chemical which travels through blood.

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Key hormones that govern reproduction
1. Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH): GnRH is also known as
Mother Reproductive Hormone. It is released from the Anterior
Hypothalamus Area of Hypthalamus.
Functions:
• It induces the growth of follicles
• It cause the release of FSH and LH
2. Follicular Stimulating Hormone (FSH): FSH is also called folli- tropin.
It is released from anterior pituitary gland

Function in Female:
• It stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles

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• It enhance the estrogen production from ovarian follicle
Function of Male:
• It cause the growth of seminiferous tubules
• It influence the spermatogenesis
3. Luteinizing Hormone (LH): It is also called as Leutropin. It is release
form anterior pituitary
Function in Female:
• It helps in ovulation
• It helps in corpus luteum formation
• It cause maturation of ovarian follicules
Function in Male:
• LH acts on leydig cell for production of testosterone
4. Prolactin (PRL): it is release from the anterior pituitary.
Function:
• It influence the metabolic growth
• In female, induces the milk synthesis
• It induces the maternal behavior in animals for caring and nursing there
offspring
5. Oxytocin: it is release from hypothalamus. Oxytocin target is smooth
muscle of reproductive tract.
Function:
• Required for the delivery of fetus and helpful for expulsion of fetal
membrane
• Plays important role for milk letdown. Teats have tactile receptor which
send message to brain and from brain signal goes to hypothalamus to
secret oxytocin.

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6. Estrogen: Estrogen are steroid hormone and are responsible for the
development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics and for
induction of estrus behavior and ovulation in female animals.
Types of estrogen : Estron (E1), Estradion (E2), Estriol (E3)
Function :
• Estrogens establish the femininity
• Induces secondary sex characteristics and as well as sexual behavior
• Induces estrous behavior in female animals or cause the expression of
heat signs
7. Progesterone : it is steroid hormone which is responsible for maintaining
pregnancy in all female animals. In female it is mainly secreted from corpous
leutium (CL). But in male it is secreted from testes.
Function:
• It maintain the pregnancy
• It stimulates the growth of uterus during pregnancy
• It forms the milk alveoli of the mammary gland
9. Prosaglandins (PGs): PGs are hormone like chemical occurring naturally
in all mammals. These are not secreted by the glands but are secreted by the
cells scattered throughout the body.
Function:
• Cause strong contraction of smooth muscle of reproductive tract
• PGF2 alpha is the most important PG in females. Because it determines
the length of estrus cycle. In females, PGF2 alpha is secreted by the
endometrium, myometrium, placentome and graffian follicle.
• PGF2 alpha regress the CL.


ovary

87. Dr. Manoj karki


Unit-3 Animal health Dr. Manoj karki

Fungus
Fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic, unicellular (yeast form) or multicellular
tubular (hyphal or mold form), rigid cell-walled, and spore-producing
organisms. As eukaryotes, fungi contain membrane-bound nuclei and
organelles such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, microbodies, lysosomes, lipid bodies etc. Fungal cell membrane
has the sterol, ergosterol. Biosynthesis of this integral membrane component
is inhibited by the azole antifungals. Fungi are insensitive to antibacterial
antibiotics. Fungi lack chlorophyll. Hence, they are heterotrophic organisms
(dependent on absorption of organic carbon compounds from their habitat for
their nutrition) that are saprobes (living on dead organic matter) and/or
parasites (utilizing living tissue). They secrete enzymes into the substratum and
absorb the digested compounds through their cell walls resulting in
extracellular digestion and absorptive nutrition. The cell walls of fungi contain
chitin, chitosan, glucan, mannan and some other components
The fungus cause several diseases in animal. Ringworm is the most common
infectious skin disease affecting livestock. It is caused by a fungus, and is
transmissible to man. Typically the disease appears as crusty grey patches
usually in the region of the head and neck and particularly around the eyes.
Ringworm is a transmissible infectious skin disease caused most often
by Trichophyton verrucosum, a spore forming fungi. The spores can remain
alive for years in a dry environment. It occurs in all species of mammals
including cattle and man. Although, fungal infections cause little permanent
damage or economic loss. Direct contact with infected animals is the most
common method of spreading the infection.

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89. Dr. Manoj karki

Fungal structure:






















Hyphae under microscope

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Immunity and Immunization

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Classification of Immunity

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Types of innate immunity
 Species immunity: Animals of same species exhibit uniform pattern of
susceptibility to infections. B. anthracis infects human but not chicken.
Birds are immune to tetanus.
 Racial immunity: Algerian race of sheep is immune to anthrax which is
a common disease of other races of sheep.
 Individual immunity: Certain individuals may be found within a highly
susceptible population. This type of individual immunity is commonly
observed in an endemic outbreak of an infection.

Acquired Immunity: Resistance acquired by an individual during life is
called acquired or specific immunity. Acquired immunity is of two types:
active and passive.

Active immunity: Active immunity is the resistance induced in an individual
after effective contact with an antigen. It follows either natural infection or
vaccination. The immune system actively participates producing antibody and,
often, cell mediated immunity also. Active immunity develops slowly over a
period of days or weeks but persists for a longer time, usually for years.

Types of active immunity: Active immunity may be acquired either naturally
or artificially.

93. Dr. Manoj karki

Natural active immunity: It is acquired by natural infection by the organism
predominantly by subclinical infections after repeated exposure to small doses
of the infecting organism which pass unnoticed. Such immunity is usually long
lasting and plays important roles in preventing epidemics.

Artificial active immunity: It is the resistance produced by vaccination. The
vaccines are preparations of live, attenuated or killed microorganisms, or their
antigens or active materials derived from them.

Passive Immunity: The resistance that is induced in the recipient by transfer
of preformed antibodies against infective agent or toxin in another host is
called passive immunity. Passive immunity is of two types: natural and
artificial.

Natural Passive immunity: It is the resistance passively transferred from the
mother to foetus and infant, e.g. transfer of maternal antibody to foetus
transplacentally and to infant through milk (colostrum).
Artificial passive immunity: It is the resistance passively transferred to a
recipient by the parenteral administration of antibodies. Passive administration
of antibody is very useful in some clinical condition.


S.N
o.
Active immunity Passive immunity
1 Produced actively by the immune
system of host
Received passively by the host
and the host's immune system
does not participate.
2 Induced by infection or by contacts
with immunogen eg vaccine
Conferred by introduction of
ready- made anti bodies
3 Immune response – durable and
effective
Immune response- short lived
and less effective
4 Immunity develops only after a lag
period
Immunity effective
immediately
5 Immunological memory present due
to presence of memory cells.
Subsequent challenge with booster
dose more effective.
No immunological memory.
Subsequent administration of
anti body less effective due to
immune elimination.

94. Dr. Manoj karki

6 After antigenic stimulus negative
phase may occur due to antigen
combining with any pre-existing
antibody in blood.
No negative phase
7 Serves no purpose in
immunodeficient host
Applicable in
immunodeficient host
8 Used for prophylaxis to increase
body resistance
Used for treatment of acute
infection


Immunization: Immunization is the process by which an animal's immune
system becomes fortified against an agent. Immunization is done through
various techniques, most commonly vaccination. Vaccines
against microorganisms that cause diseases can prepare the body's immune
system, thus helping to fight or prevent an infection. Active immunization
involves administration of vaccines containing antigenic molecules (or genes
for these molecules) derived from infectious agents. Simply vaccination is the
administration of vaccines. As a result, vaccinated animals mount acquired
immune responses and develop prolonged, strong immunity to those agents.
When properly used, vaccines are highly effective in controlling infectious
diseases.

95. Dr. Manoj karki

Live attenuated microorganism:
 Living microorganism that are harmless or non-virulent
 Do not cause symptoms but still multiply
 Stimulate the body immune system
 Measles, tb , rubella

96. Dr. Manoj karki


Virus
Viruses are obligatory intracellular infectious agents of sizes ranging from 20
to 300 nanometer with an absolute dependence on living cells for their
replication.
Alternate or common names: smallpox, polio, measles, mumps, HIV, rabies












General structure of viruses
 A virus is a non cellular particle made up of genetic material and protein
that can invade living cells
 Viruses are smaller than bacteria; they range in size between 20-300
nanometer (nm).They can only be seen with an electron microscope.
 Viruses contain only one type of nucleic acid, either DNA or RNA, but
never both.
 Viruses consist of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat. Some
viruses have additional lipoprotein envelope.
 Viruses lack cellular organelles, such as mitochondria and ribosomes.
 Viruses are obligate cellular parasites. Viruses are completely dependent
on living cells, either eukaryotes or prokaryotes for replication and

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existence. They replicate only inside living cells. Viruses replicate
through replication of their nucleic acid and synthesis of the viral protein.
 Viruses do not multiply by binary fission but by a complex process
involving protein synthesis and nucleic acid production
 Viruses composed of nucleic acid either DNA or RNA, surrounded by a
protein coat called the capsid.
 The capsid is composed of small structural units called capsomeres.
 The capsid protects nucleic acid from inactivation by the outer physical
conditions.
 Some viruses have additional lipoprotein envelope , composed of virally
coded protein and host lipid. The viral envelope is covered with
glycoprotein spikes.
 Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria.


Basic Components of Viruses

A virus particle or virion is consists of nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) that is
covered by a protein coat called capsid. The combined nucleic acid and capsid
is called nucleocapsid. The nucleocapsid can either be naked or enclosed by a
membrane termed envelope. The capsid itself is made up of subunits called
capsomere.

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Viral Nucleic Acid
 This can either be RNA or DNA
 It contains the information necessary for directing the infected cells to
synthesis virus specific proteins
 It may be single stranded or double stranded
 It may be linear or circular
 It may be positive sense or negative sense ( a positive sense nucleic acid
possesses the same polarity as the mRNA and so can be translated
directly into protein without first being transcribed)
 It may be a single piece or segmented






















The Capsid
 It is made up of proteins arranged in multiple almost identical units called
capsomere
 It offers protection for the nucleic acid against adverse conditions

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 It possesses antigens used for virus identification in serological tests


The Envelope
 Present only in some viruses
 It is made up of lipids
 It is derived from the plasma membrane of the host cell during the release
of the virus from the cell by budding
 In enveloped viruses, capsomeres take the form of projections called
spikes or peplomers protruding out through the lipid bilayer of the
envelope
 The spikes are glycoprotein in nature
 Enveloped viruses are usually susceptible to detergent and are rendered
non infectious following damage to the envelope

Classification of viruses
Viruses are divided into two large groups:
 RNA containing viruses.
 DNA containing viruses.


Infected RNA viruses are
 Picornaviridae (picorna virus- smallest virus
 Calciviridae family
 Orthomixoviridae family
 Paramyxoviridae family
 Togaviridae family
 Falviriridae family
 Rhabdoviridae family
 Reoviridae family
 Coronaviridae family
 Retroviridae family

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Infected DNA viruses are
 Poxviridae family
 Herpesviridae family
 Adenoviridae family
 Parvoviridae family
 Papilomaviridae family
 Polymaviridae family

.
Differences between Bacteria and Virus
S.N. Characteristics Bacteria Viruses
1 Size Larger (1000 nm) Smaller (20-400 nm)
2 Cell Wall
Peptidoglycan or
Lipopolysaccharide
No cell wall. Protein coat
present instead.
3 Ribosome Present Absent
4 Number of cells
One cell
(Unicellular)
No cells
5
Living/Non-
Living
Living organisms
Between living and non-
living things.
6 DNA and RNA
DNA and RNA
floating freely in
cytoplasm.
DNA or RNA enclosed
inside a coat of protein.
7 Reproduce
Able to reproduce
by itself
Need a living cell to
reproduce
8 Reproduction
Fission- a form of
asexual
reproduction
Invades a host cell and takes
over the cell causing it to
make copies of the viral
DNA/RNA. Destroys the
host cell releasing new
viruses.
9 Under Microscope
Visible under Light
Microscope.
Visible only under Electron
Microscope.

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10 Benefits
Some bacteria are
beneficial (Normal
Flora)
Viruses are not beneficial.
However, a particular virus
may be able to destroy brain
tumors. Viruses can be
useful in genetic
engineering.
11 Treatment Antibiotics
Virus does not respond to
antibiotics.
12 Examples
Staphylococcus
aureus, Vibrio
cholerae, etc
HIV, Hepatitis A virus,
Rhino Virus, etc




UNIT-3 MICROBIOLOGY Dr. Manoj karki (B.V.Sc & A.H)

Microbiology: THE STUDY OF ORGANISMS THAT ARE TOO SMALL TO
SEE WITHOUT THE AID OF A MICROSCOPE
Bacteriology -Mycology –Parasitology Virology –Immunology

Microbiology: Microbiology is the study of living organism of microscopic
size. Microorganisms are very small, usually single-celled, organisms which
are not individually visible to the naked eye. Microorganisms can only be seen
by microscope. Microorganism includes bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and
viruses.

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Definitions and Terminology
Immunology:- It is the study of defense mechanism of body against infection
and disease.
Antigen: - It is a foreign substance which can give rise to an immune response
in the form of antibody production.
Autoimmunity: - The process of mounting immune response to self antigen is
called as autoimmunity and damage or disease occurred due to this process is
known as autoimmune disease. Example:- Rheumatoid arthritis
Sterilization:- It is the complete killing or removal of all living organism from
a particular location or material, sterilization can be achieved by heat, certain
gases, exposure to ionizing radiation some liquid chemicals and filtration.
Disinfection: - It is the Process of elimination of harmful micro organism by
liquid chemical agents known as disinfectants.
Antiseptics: - Antiseptics are disinfectant that can be used on the body surfaces
such as the skin to reduce the number of normal flora and pathogenic
organisms. They are less toxic and less effectives than the disinfectant.
Sanitation: - It means providing an acceptable level of microbial cleanliness
on inanimate objects like surfaces used in food preparation.
Asepsis: - It means prevention of microbes from reaching a protected
environment such as the microbiological inoculation in the operating room.
The sterilization of all materials and equipment’s used is the basis of asepsis.
Pasteurization: - It is the use of heat at temperature sufficient to kill certain
harmful organism in a liquid such as milk below that required for sterilization,
so as not to alter its quality but killing pathogenic organisms.

Organisms causing infectious diseases: Bacteria, Virus, Parasites and
Fungus
Bacteria
 Average size of bacteria is 0.5 ‐2.0 um in diameter.
 Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms containing DNA and
ribosome.

Classification of Bacteria
 Bacteria are divided into two major groups: Gram positive and Gram
negative. Both groups have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan. In
Gram-positive bacteria, the wall is thick, whereas in Gram-negative
bacteria, the wall is thin.

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 Bacteria have three distinct shapes:
 1. Spherical (cocci)
 2. Rod-shaped (bacilli)
 3. Spiral (spirilla)





Round rod spiral


Arrangement in different combination:
– diplococci , Chain = Streptoccus, Cluster =
Staphylococcus
–Streptobacillus

The bacteria consist of following structures. The different structure and their
function is given in following table.
Structure Function
Cell Wall Protects and gives shape
Outer Membrane Protects against antibodies (Gram Neg.
Only)
Cell Membrane Regulates movement of materials, contains
enzymes important to cellular respiration
Cytoplasm Contains DNA, ribosomes, essential
compounds
Chromosome Carries genetic information
Plasmid Contains some genes obtained through
recomb.

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Capsule & Slime Layer Protects the cell and assist in attaching cell to
other surfaces
Endospore Protects cell agains harsh enviornments


Bacteria Reproduction

1. Binary Fission
2. Conjugation
3. Spore Formation

1. Binary Fission
Cellular organism copies its genetic information then splits into two
identical daughter cells

2. Conjugation
Two organism swap genetic information, that contains the information
such as a resistance to penicillin
3. Spore Formation
Endospores are formed by vegetative cells in response to environmental
signals that indicate a limiting factor for vegetative growth, such as
exhaustion of an essential nutrient.
Infected gram positive bacteria are
 Enterococcus
 Lactobacillus
 Lactococcus
 Leuconostoc
 Pediococcus
 Streptococcus
 Bacillus
 Listeria
 Staphylococcus
 Streptomyces

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Infected gram negative bacteria are
 Escherichia coli (E. coli),
 Salmonella, Shigella,
 Enterobacteriaceae,
 Pseudomonas,
 Moraxella,
 Helicobacter,
 Stenotrophomonas,
 Acetic acid bacteria,
 Legionella


Unit: 4 Parasitology

Parasites
An organism which lives in or on other organism and get shelter and
nourishment is considered as parasite. The branch of science which deals with
the multidisciplinary aspects of biochemistry, physiology, biology,
immunology etc of parasite is called as parasitology

Terminology
Parasite: - An organism which lives in or on other organism and get shelter
and nourishment.
Accidental parasite: - Parasite which is found in the host other than normal
host.
Permanent parasite:-Parasite which is found in the host throughout the life
cycle.
Temporary parasite: - Parasite which is found in the host in some of the part
of life-cycle.
Hyperparasite: - Parasite of parasites
Parasitism: A form of symbiosis in which one organism (called parasite)
benefits at the expense of another organism usually of different species (called
host).

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Host:- one who harbours the parasite.











Definitive host: - Is the host in which the adult stage of the parasite lives or in
which sexual reproduction takes place e.g. man is definitive host for Ascaris,
Anopheles pharoensis for Plasmodium sp. parasites and pigs for Taenia
solium).
Intermediate host: - Harbours the larval (immature stages) or asexual stages
of a parasite (e.g. Culex mosquito is an intermediate host for Wuchereria
bancrofti, Pirenella conica is the intermediate host for Heterophyes
heterophyes, Biomphalarie sp. for intestinal Bilaharziasis … etc.).
Obligatory parasite: One which cannot live without host.
Endoparasite: Parasite which found within the body.
Ectoparasite: Parasite which found on the body.
Reservoir host: Usually a natural host, but host does not get infected from
parasite but it is a source of infection for other host.
Vector: An arthropod or any other invertebrate which transmit disease from
one animal to another.
Carrier: An animal/ person who harbors and excretes parasites.

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co









Common internal parasite

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Parasites that live on the surface of host are called Ectoparasites. Some
examples of ectoparasites are lice, mite etc. Parasites that live inside the host
are called endoparasites. Some examples of endoparsites are Giardia lamblia,
Ascaris lumbricoides etc.
Internal Parasites/ Endoparasites:
Helminths important in veterinary medicine are in four distinct taxonomic
groups: nematodes (commonly known as roundworms); cestodes (commonly
known as tapeworms); trematodes (commonly known as flukes);
The metazoa are classified into two phyla: Platyhelminthes and
Nemathelminthes. Platyhelminthesis divided into two classes: Cestodea
(tapeworms) and Trematodea (flukes) while nemathelminthes has only one
class Nematodea (roundworms).

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Nematodes and their characteristics
•Long, round bodies, unsegmented worms, tapered at both ends
•Most found primarily in intestine
•Attached to the mucosa and feed host blood and tissue fluid

Oesophagostomum(Nodular worm)

Males are 12-17mm long and females are 14-25mm long
•The tail of the female tapers to a fine point.
•The eggs have thin shell and are laid in the 8-16 celled stages.
•Occurs in the colon of sheep, goat, camel













Syngamus(Gape worm of fowl)

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 Found in the trachea of fowl, ducks
•The male and female parasites remain attached with each other and they
appear as they are always in copulation and both parasites remain in “Y” shape
manner.
•The size of the male parasite is 2-6 mm long and female parasite is 5-20 mm
long
•Eggs are barrel-shaped similar to those of Strongyluseggs but they have a
thickening near the operculum at either pole

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Ancyclostoma(Hook worm of dog and fox)
Found in the small intestine of dog, fox and rarely in human beings
•Males parasite are 10-12mm long and females are about 14-16mm long
•Anterior part of the parasite is bent dorsally and gives an appearance of hooks
•Eggs are oval, thin shelled and transparent with segmental embryo (2-16 cell
divisions)













Haemonchus (Stomach worm or Wire worm of ruminant)
Male are about 10-20mm long and females are 18-30mm long
•Males are reddish brown in colour but females are with white uterus and the
ovary spirally surrounds the red intestine giving it a barber’s pole like
appearance.
•Eggis yellowish in color; about 70–85 μmlong by 44 μmwide, and the early
stages of cleavage contain between 16 and 32 cells.

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Ascaris(Round worm)
 Male about 15-25cm long and 3-5mm wide and female is about 42cm
long and 5mm wide
•Both the ends are pointed
•posterior end of the male may be slightly coiled
•Eggs are oval in shape and measure about 57-75x 40-50μm which is very thick
shelled and is surrounded by an albuminous layer

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Nemathelminthes (Nematoda)
 They are free-living or parasitic.
 They are cylindrical and elongate, un-segmented body. Extremities are
tapering.
 Body covered with cuticle which is continuous with cuticular lining of
buccal cavity, alimentary tract and distal portion of genital tract.
Cuticular extension may form special adhesive structures.
 Internal organs suspended in body cavity. Digestive system tubular-
mouth (buccal capsule), esophagus, intestine, anus (cloaca).
 Excretory system contains un-branched vessels (canal) which opens by
a ventral pore.
 Nervous system consists of a number of ganglia connected by fibres
(nerve ring), which surrounds esophagus.
 Sexes usually separate. Male organs- single testis, a vas deferens, a
seminal vesicle, spicules, ejaculatory duct and cloaca. Female- two
ovaries, two uteri, and vulva.
 Life cycle generally consists of egg, L1, L2, L3, L4 and adult stage.
Larval stages pass through 4 ecdyses to become adult.
 Life cycle may be direct or indirect.



Common Cestodes and their characteristics

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Common Trematodes and their characteristics

Platyhelminthes (Trematoda and cestoda)
 These are also called flukes. They have dorso-ventrally flattened leaf like
body.
 They don't have body cavity.
 Have suckers, hooks or clamps for attachment to the host.
 Sub class Digenea are of Veterinary importance and have indirect life
cycle.
 Digestive system includes mouth and alimentary tract but no anus (blind
alimentary tract). Mouth leads into pharynx and intestine. Intestine
divides into 2 branches, which may branch themselves.
 Excretory system has flame cells, which discharges into an excretory
bladder.
 Respiratory and circulatory systems absent.
 Reproductive system hermaphrodite except Family Schistosomatidae.
 One Trematode egg may produce many individuals unlike Nematoda.
This multiplicative reproductive ability is called Polyembryony.

Fasciola (Liverfluke)
Size-F. hepatica(30x13mm, broad shoulders, anterior cone well developed).
•F. gigantica(25-75x12, shoulders not prominent, small anterior cone).
•Young fluke-lancet like. Mature-leaf shaped.
•Fresh-greyish brown.
•Ventral sucker at the level of shoulders, as large as oral and both readily seen.
•Egg-yellow, operculate, oval and large

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Paragonimus (Lungfluke)

P. westermanii–man, pig, dog, cat, fox, sheep, goat, cattle & wild animals.
•P. kellikotti–cat, dog, pig & wild animals.
•Adult-egg shaped, medium to fairly large, fleshy.
•Reddish in color when fresh.

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•Hermaphroditic, having both the female and male organs
•Occur in lung cyst (1-3 flukes)
•Eggs are yellow-brown, ovoid or elongate, with a thick shell, and often
asymmetrical with one end slightly flattened




















Figure : Egg of different internal Parasites

120. Dr. Manoj karki


Unit 5 Pharmacology

Introduction
Pharmacology means science of drugs. It is derived from two Greek words,
Pharmakon (drugs) and logos (study). The subject deals with all aspects the
study of drugs including, development, biological system interaction,
therapeutics and toxicology of drugs. Pharmacology can be defined as the
study of substances that interact with the living systems through chemical
processes. Pharmacology is the knowledge of history, source are physical and
chemical properties, and compounding, biological and physiological effects,
mechanism of action, absorption, distribution, biotransformation and excretion
and therapeutic and other uses of drugs. Pharmacology is a science based upon
an understanding of organic chemistry, biochemistry, physiology, pathology
and microbiology. Veterinary pharmacology is defined as the science of
substances used to prevent, diagnosis and treatment of animal disease.
Branches or types of pharmacology:-
1. Clinical pharmacology
2. Pharmacy
3. Therapeutics
4. Pharmacognosy
5. Chemotherapy
6. Pharmacogenetics
7. Posology
8. Toxicology
9. Table 1. Some abbreviation used in pharmacology
Abbreviation
s
Meaning
Ac Before meal
Pc After meal

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Sid Once a day
Bid Twice a day
Tid Three times a day
Gid Four times a day
o.d Every day
Gs Sufficient quantity
Qr Correct quantity
Sos If necessary
Stat Immediately
Sig/s Write on the lable
Haut Drench


The main routes of drugs administration are:-
1. Enteral :- oral, sub-lingual, rectal
2. Parenteral :- I/v, I/M, S.C
3. Topical or external
4. Inhalation


1. Enteral route/ administration
 Preferred route of administration by most of the patient.
 More extensive metabolism by liver
 Variable absorption

a. Oral administration
 Common route of drugs administration.
 Safe and painless.
 No need to sterilization.
 Convenient route because drugs can be given in the form of tablets,
bolus etc.

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b. Sub-lingual administration
 Some of the drugs, which are usually highly lipid soluble get rapidly
absorbed from the sub-lingual and buccal mucosa.

c. Rectal administration
 A drug is administered in the form of a rectal suppository (Retained
form).

2. Parenteral route/ administration
The term parenteral administration is often used in a restricted sense to
including the drug administration by injections like I/V, I/M, S/C.

a. Intravenous (I/V routes)
 Drugs are injected though nerves.

b. Intramuscular (I/M routes)
 Drugs are injected through muscles.

c. Sub-cutaneous (S/C routes)
 Drugs are injected through under the skin.

Some others routes/administrations are :-
a. Intradermal route
 Drugs are given within the skin layers (dermis).
 Used for testing the hypersensitivity of drugs.

b. Intra cardiac route
 Drugs are directly injected through the heart muscles.

c. Intramedullary route
 Drugs are injected through in medullary cavity of the bone.

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d. Intramammary route
 Drugs are injected in the mammary gland canal (in case of
mastitis).

e. Intrauterine route
 Drugs are injected directly though the uterus in uterine infection.

3. Tropical or external administration
The drugs are administered by this route generally affects to the part to
which they are applied externally. External route drugs are solution,
ointment, suppositories and powders.

4. Inhalation route/administration
Some drugs are gaseous in nature or volatile liquid are administered by
inhalation. They are administered both systemic and local affects.



Factors Affecting Drug Dosage
 Age: Young ones would require much less than an adult.
•Body Mass/ Weight
•Sex: Females usually require smaller doses than males.
•Breed and Species
•Workload: Heavy working animals may require larger doses.
•History of Administration: Chronic medicated patients may require larger
doses than their initial doses to obtain the same therapeutic effect.
•Time of Administration: Before or after meals.
•Frequency of Administration: A drug given frequently may need a smaller
dose than if administered at longer intervals.
•Pathology: depending upon the disease and its effect.

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•Genetics: The genetic structure of the individual may cause peculiar reactions
to medications in some patients.

Classification of drug based on used









Antibiotics
•An antibiotic or an antibiotic substance is a substance produced by
microorganisms, which has the capacity of inhibiting the growth and even of
destroying other microorganism. (Waksmann)

•An antibiotic is a chemical compound derived from or produced by a living
organism, which is capable in small concentrations, of inhibiting the life
processes of microorganisms. (Benedict and Langlykke)


Different Groups of Antibiotics
•Penicillin: Penicillin G, Benzyl Penicillin, Amoxicillin, Ampicillin,
Streptopenicillin, Dicloxacillin
•Cephalosporin: Cefazolin, Cefotetan, Ceftriaxone, Cefepime, Ceftaroline
•Floroquinolone: Ciprofloxacin, Enrofloxacin, Levofloxacin

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•Sulphonamide: Sulfisoxazole, Sulfamethoxazole, Sulfadiazine,
Sulfadoxine, Trimethoprim
•Aminoglycoside: Gentamycin, Neomycin, Streptomycin, Amikacin
•Tetracycline: Oxytetracycline, Doxycycline
•Macrolide: Erythromycin, Azithromycin
•Carbapenem: Meropenem, Estapenem, Imipenem

Classification of Antibiotics
I.According to antimicrobial activity
1.Bactericidal:
•Directly kill bacteria
•Eg: Aminoglycocides, Penicillins, Floroquinolones, Cephalosporines,
Carbapenems
2.Bacteriostatic:
•inhibit bacterial growth
•Eg: Tetracyclines, Macrolides, Sulphonamides, Lincosamides

II.According to source
1.Natural: Penicillin, Gentamicin, Cephalosporin
2.Synthetic: Moxifloxacin, Norfloxacin


III.According to spectrum of activity
1.Broad Spectrum
•Generally effective against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria
•Used when bacterial infection is suspected but causative agent has not been
identified
•Eg: Ampicillin, Tetracyclines, Ciprofloxacin, Enrofloxacin, Sulphonamides,
Erythromycin

2.Narrow Spectrum:
•Effective against only specific group of bacteria

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•Used when causative agent has been identified
•Eg: Penicillin G, Azithromycin, Vancomycin, Streptomycin, Cloxacillin,
1stand 2ndgeneration cephalosporins

IV.According to Mechanism of Action/Function
1.Inhibit bacterial cell wall synthesis: Penicillin, Cephalosporin,
Carbapenems
2.Inhibit cell membrane synthesis: PolymixinsB, E
3.Inhibit protein synthesis: Aminoglycosides, Macrolides, Mupirocin,
Chloramphenicol
4.Inhibit nucleic acid synthesis: Floroquinolones, Metronidazoles


Anthelminthic
•Anti –against and helminths –worms
•Anthelminthic are the drugs used for treatment of worm infestation
(nematodes, cestodesand trematodes)
•They either kill the worms or expel the infesting helminths from the body by
paralysing them without causing significant damage to the host.
•They may be broad spectrum or narrow spectrum

Anthelminthic Form/Route Spectrum Animals Dose
Albendazole Tablet Nematodes and some
trematodes
Cattle 7.5-10 mg/kg
Horse 5-10 mg/kg
Poultry, Sheep, Goat and pig 5 mg/kg
Dog 15 mg/kg
Oxyclonazide* Oral Suspension Nematodesand
Trematodes
Cattle 10 mg/kg
Sheep and goat 15 mg/kg

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Rafoxanide+Levamisole Oral suspension Nematodes and
Trematodes
Largeanimals 7.5 mg/kg


Purgatives
•Also known as CATHARTICS
•Drugs which promote defecation and are used in the treatment of constipation


Classification of Purgatives

1.Stimulants or irritant purgatives
•Stimulate intestinal motility
•Can result excessive fluid and electrolyte loss
•Ex: Emodin, Vegetable oils like Castor oil, raw linseed oil, etc., Senna and
bisacodyl

2.Osmotic Purgatives
•Draw fluid into the intestine by osmosis and thus increases the fluid content
of the fecesthat promotes peristalsis
•Ex: Magnesium hydroxide, Magnesium Sulphate, Sodium phosphate enemas,
Lactulose, Mannitol, Sorbitol, Polyethylene glycol

3.Bulk Purgatives
•Fibre containing that provides bulk to the diet
•Ex: Methyl cellulose, Bran, Agar agar, rice hulls, peanut hulls, pectin

4.Lubricant Purgatives
•Provides lubrication to the feces
•Ex: Liquid paraffin, mineral oil

5.FecalSofteners (Surfactants)
•Dioctylsodium sulfosuccinate

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Antihistaminic
•Drug that are used for the relief of allergic reactions like allergic rhinitis,
utricaria, itching, etc

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Analgesics
•Drugs that provides relief from pain.
•Analgesic drugs include:
•Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID): Phenylbutazone, Aspirin,
FlunixinMeglumine(Banamine), Dimethyl Sulfoxide (DMSO), Carprofen,
Ibuprofen, Meloxicam, Paracetamol
•Opioids: Morphine sufate, Oxymorphone, Meperidine, Codeine, Tramadol,
Fentanyl, Butorphanol, Buprenorphine
•Antihistamines: Diphenhydramine, Cimetidine, Chlorphenaraminemaleate,
Dimenhydrinate
•Muscle relaxers: Methocarbamol
•Steroids: Prednisone, prednisolone, dexamethasone

Cautious use of analgesics
•NSAIDs may cause vomiting, diarrhoea, gastritis, liver damage, etc.
•Drugs like phenylbutazone, paracetamol are contraindicated in cats and
ibuprofen is contraindicated in both dogs and cats.
•Aspirin and is not recommended in dogs and cats as it has more risks than
benefits.
•Meloxicam should be use with caution in correct dose for not more than 3
days.
•Opioids may cause respiratory depression, sedation, excitement.
•Cats are more sensitive to excitatory effect of opioids.
•Corticosteroids are dose dependent.
•Corticosteroids causes immunodeficiency, so contraindicated in
immunocompromised patients.

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Anaesthetics
•Any drug used to induce loss of sensation with or without loss of
consciousness.
Can be classified into:
Local Anaesthetics: Drugs that cause loss of sensation in certain part without
loss of consciousness. Ex: Lignocaine, Lidocaine, Bupicavaine, Benzocaine,
etc.
General anaesthetics: Drugs that cause loss of sensation of whole body along
with loss of consciousness. They are further classified as:
•Inhalant: Ether, Halothane, Isoflurane, Sevoflurane, etc.
•Intravenous: Diazepam, Ketamine, Propofol, Thiopentone, etc.

Dose calculation
1. Xylazine: 1ml =20 mg
Dog weight: 20 kg
Dose rate of xylazine: 2mg/ kg bwt
Now,
1kg dog =2mg/ kg bwt
20kg dog= 2*20=40 mg
Here, 1 ml=20 mg (should be written in bottle)
1 mg =1/20
40mg=1/20*40= 2 ml
So we should given 2 ml of xylazine in 20 kg dog

2. Ketamine 1ml=50mg/kg bwt (written in bottle)
Dose rate: 5 mg/ kg bwt
Weight of dog: 20 kg

131. Dr. Manoj karki

How many ml should be given ketamine in 20 kg dog?
Ans: ………….

3. We decided to gave zanide bolus for cattle for deworming, here in zanide
1 bolus =100kg body weight, cattle weight =300kg so that how many
bolus we should gave to infected cattle?

Ans: cattle weight: 300kg
1 bolus = 100kg body weight
Now,
100kg body weight= 1 bolus
1 kg body weight = 1/100
300kg body weight=1/100*300=3 bolus
So we should give 3 bolus for 300 kg cattle

But sometimes medicine may be mg/kg, like another question is
Cattle weight: 400 kg
Zanide bolus = 10mg per kg body weight oxyclozanide
Here, zanide = 1000mg oxyclozanide ( written in lable)
Ans: animal weight: 400 kg
Doe rate: 10 mg / kg body weight
Concentration of drug: 1 bolus zanide= 1000 mg oxyclozanide (written
in label)
Now,
1 kg body weight =10 mg
400kg body weight =10*400= 4000 mg oxyclozanide
Again,
1000mg oxyclozanide= 1 bolus

132. Dr. Manoj karki

1 mg oxyclozanide=1/1000 zanide
4000 mg oxyclozanide=1/1000*4000= 4 bolus
So, 400 kg body weight cattle need 4 bolus of zanide tab.



Precipitation writing
1. Date:
The date on which prescription is written
2. The identity, age, sex, breed of an animal and address of owner also be
mentioned.
3. Superscription:
It consists of the symbol Rx, an abbreviation of the Latin word recipe which
means “take thou of”. It is also the Roman symbol for Jupiter and is
presumably intended to invoke his help in making the prescription effective in
the cure of disease
4. Inscription:
The inscription is the body of the prescription which lists the names and the
amount of drugs to be incorporated in the prescription. The names of the drugs
should be in English and total amounts required should be written in the metric
system Abbreviations and chemical formulae of drug should be avoided.
If prescriber desires the patient to have a particular proprietary preparation this
should be stated in the prescription. In practice, prescription orders seldom
contain more than one drug name. Traditionally when more than one
ingredients are prescribed then their order should be – (a) basis, (b) adjuvant,
(c) corrective and (d) vehicle
5. Subscription:
The subscription directs pharmacist, dispenser what to make from ingredients
i.e. mixture, liniment, ointment etc. and the quantity of the formulation to
dispense. These instructions may be entirely in English or with Latin
abbreviations.

133. Dr. Manoj karki

6. The Sigma (Sig. or S.) or Signature:
The signature does not refer to the prescriber’s signature but it is derived from
the Latin word ‘Signature’ which means ‘let it be labeled’. It is the part of the
prescription where the prescriber instructs the pharmacist what he wishes to be
written on the label of the dispended product.
Occasionally, this part of the prescription order is called the transcription. It is
good prescription practice to include, under this part of any prescription the
words for ‘animal treatment only’, the dose, and any particular directions or
precautions relating to the use of the product.
7. Prescriber’s Signature:
The signature of the practitioner must appear on the prescription to make it a
legal document. Physician’s full name his/her address and his/her registration
number may also be mentioned. The essential parts of a classical prescription
are presented in the following example.

134. Dr. Manoj karki


Prepare tincture iodine and Lugol’s solution

Objective of the experiment
 To know the application of tincture iodine and Lugol’s solution
 To prepare the above solution.

Materials required
Lugol’s iodine solution ingredient
1. Potassium iodide: 10gm
2. Distilled water: 100ml
3. Iodine crystals: 5gm

Theory
Tincture of iodine, iodine tincture, or weak iodine solution is an antiseptic. It
is usually 2–7% elemental iodine, along with potassium iodide or sodium
iodide, dissolved in a mixture of ethanol and water. Tincture solutions are
characterized by the presence of alcohol.

Iodine Tincture 2.0%
This treatment applies to the following species:
 Beef Cattle
 Dairy Cattle
 Dogs
 Horses
 Sheep
 Swine

Use
For use as a counter-irritant in chronic inflammatory conditions.

Lugol’s Iodine
Lugol's iodine, also known as aqueous iodine and strong iodine solution, is a
solution
of potassium iodide with iodine in water.It is used a medication and
disinfectant used for a

135. Dr. Manoj karki

number of purposes.

Procedure
1. Tincture of Iodine is defined in the U.S. National Formulary (NF) as
containing –
 In each 100 Ml, 1.8 to 2.2 grams of elemental iodine, and 2.1 to 2.6 grams
of sodium iodide
 Alcohol is 50 ml and the balance is purified water.
 This "2% free iodine" solution provides about one mg of free iodine per
drop.

2. Preparation of Lugol’s iodine
 Dissolve 10 g potassium iodide in 100 ml of distilled water.
 Slowly add 5 g iodine crystals, while shaking.
 Filter and store in a tightly stopper brown bottle

Precaution
Precaution to be maintained during weighing and preparation


Toxicology
•Toxicology is the science of poisons.
•Poison is a substance, natural or synthetic, that causes damage to living tissues
and has an injurious or fatal effect on the body, whether it is ingested, inhaled,
or absorbed or injected through the skin.
•EVERYTHING IS TOXIC
•EVERY TOXIN IS MEDICINE

136. Dr. Manoj karki

Cyanide Poisoning
Sources: Cyanide containing plants, especially young leaves










Treatment
•The contents of one 0.3-mL vial of amyl nitrite should be inhaled by the
animal as soon as possible after exposure, followed by an IV infusion of
sodium nitrite (10 g/100 mL of distilled water or isotonic saline; 20 mg/kg
body wt.) over 3–4 min. Nitrite treatment is then followed by a slow IV
injection ofsodium thiosulfate(20% w/w) at ≥500 mg/kg.The thiosulfate
injection can be repeated if necessary.
•Oral administration of thiosulfate can also be considered in an attempt to
convert any cyanide in the stomach/rumen into thiocyanate. Sodium nitrite
therapy may be carefully repeated at 10 mg/kg, every 2–4 hr or as needed.
•Hydroxocobalamin(vitamin B12a) is also used as a cyanide antidote.The
suggested dosage is 70 mg/kg, infused IV over 15 min, repeated as necessary.
•Sulfanegen(as the sodium or triethanolaminesalt) has been developed for
treatment of cyanide mass poisoning incidents.Sulfanegenis a prodrug that
generates 3-mercaptopyruvic acid (3-MP), an intermediate in cysteine
metabolism, which again acts as a decoy receptor for cyanide. The
Combination of Cobinamideand SulfanegenIs Highly Effective in Mouse
Models of Cyanide Poisoning.

137. Dr. Manoj karki

•4-dimethyl-aminophenol (DMAP; IM at 5 mg/kg) or hydroxylamine
hydrochlorine(IM at 50 mg/kg) have been suggested, because they produce
methemoglobinemiamore quickly than the nitrites currently in use.
•If in doubt of the diagnosis,methylene blue, IV, at 4–22 mg/kg, may be used
to induce methemoglobin.
•Garlic extract @ 500mg/kg may also be used.


Nitrate Poisoning






•Caused when intake of nitrate is in excess of the rumen’s ability to convert it
to ammonia
•Sources: Fertilizers; water from shallow wells; Common feeds: Stressed crops
(drought, frost, hail); Cool, overcast climate; Lower portion of stem/stalks of
certain plants like pigweed, sorghum, corn, sudan grass, barley and oats; High
N fertilizer; Immature forages

Signs of nitrate poisoning

138. Dr. Manoj karki

Treatment
•Slow IV injection of 1%methylene blue in distilled water or isotonic saline
should be given at 4–22 mg/kg or more, depending on severity of exposure.
Lower dosages may be repeated in 20–30 min if the initial response is not
satisfactory.
•Rumen lavage with cold water and antibiotics may stop the continuing
microbial production of nitrite.

Organophosphate poisoning
•Derivatives of phosphoric acid
•Mostly used as insecticides and pesticides as well as ectoparasiticidesfor dips,
sprays, pour-on, dusting
•Examples: Dichlorvos, trichlorfon, haloxon, naphthalophos, crufomate.
Malathion, parathion, bromophos, etc.
•Poisoning may take place by ingestion, inhalation or dermal absorption.

Signs of OP poisoning
•Excessive salivation
•Lacrimation
•Frequent urination
•Diarrhoea
•Vomiting
•Colic
•Difficult breathing

•Muscle tremors
•Weakness
•Depression
•Generalized tetany

139. Dr. Manoj karki

•Paresis
•Death due to respiratory depression
•Lesions like edemaand congestion of lungs, hemorrhagesand edemaof
stomach and other organs.










Treatment
•Atropine sulphate
•Dogs and cats @ 0.2 –2 mg/kg and repeat every 3 –6 hr until clinical signs are
under control
•Horses and pigs @ 0.1 –0.2 mg/kg IV and repeated every 10 mins as needid
•Cattle and Sheep @ 0.6 –1 mg/kg; one –third given IV, remaining IM or SC,
and repeated as needed.
•2 –PAM, Pralidoximechloride @ 20 –50 mg/kg, given as a 5% solution IM
or by slow IV (over 5 –10 min), repeated at half the dose as needed.
•If exposure is dermal, washthe animal with detergent and water without
scrubbing or irritating the skin.
•Activated charcoal orally @ 1 –2 g/kg as a water slurry
•Artificial respiration or administration of oxygen may be required

140. Dr. Manoj karki


Unit 7
Internal Medicine

Introduction
Health is normal condition of animal. Also in animal also concerned with
optimum level of productivity and work efficiency. Any deviation from normal
physical or physiological conditions will be considered as disease. For early
detection of disease animal or birds, regular observation is important. Diseases
can be classified on several bases. According to mode of origin, system
Involved, organ involved, clinical manifestation disease can be classified.


Sign of Health and Disease
The sign and symptoms shown by an animal will help to know whether it is
healthy or sick. Healthy and sick animal can be detected by observing the
animal. For early detection of sick animal or birds, regular observation is
important. Some of the important sign of diseased animals are described below:
Posture and gait: The general posture, gait of the animal, its movement and
behavior will change during disease condition. Animal standing with head
down or tendency to separate from the herd shows the sign of disease.

Appetite: Loss of appetite and stoppage of rumination in case of ruminants are
early signs of several diseases.

Muzzle and nostrils: Muzzle and nostrils of healthy animals is moist and free
from any discharges. The muzzle will be dry in animals having high
temperature.

Skin: A coarse, dry and even sometimes skin get covered with patches in
different disease.

Hair: Raised hair coat, falling or brittle and lusterless hair also seen in different
disease condition.

141. Dr. Manoj karki

Temperature: Rise or fall in temperature also seen in many diseases. Fall in
temperature is seen in milk fever. Rise in temperature associated with defense
mechanism of body to fight against many diseases.
The normal body temperatures of different livestock are given below.
Cattle- 101-102.5 ˚F, Buffalo-100-102˚F, Goat- 103.5˚F, Sheep- 104- 105.5˚F,
Pig-101.0-102.5˚F, Dog-100-101.5˚F, Cat-100.0-102.5˚F, Fowl – 106 -107˚F

Pulse Rate: Variation in pulse rate also indicates the disease condition of
animal. Pulse rate reflects the rate at which the heart pumps blood in the body.
Pulse rate is generally higher in young and pregnant animals. Pulse rates of
different species are given below.

Cattle- 42-60/minute, Buffalo-42-62/minutes, Goat-60-70/minute, Sheep-60-
70/minute Pig-60-90/minute, Dog-70-90/minute, Cat-100-130/minute, Fowl –
130-160/minute, Horse-33-41/minute

Respiration: Variation in rate and depth of breathing occurs in different
disease condition. The normal respiration rates of different species are as
follows.
Cattle- 16-22/minute, Buffalo-22-28/minute, Goat-18-30/minute, Sheep-18-
30/minute, Pig-16-18/minute, Dog-14-30/minute, Cat-20-30/minute, Fowl –
15-30/minute, Horse-8-14/minute
Eyes: Lacrimation is noticed during diseased condition. The eyes in healthy
animals are bright and alert. In sick animal, excessive lacrimation, large size
pupil could be observed.

Dung: Dung of healthy cows should be semi-solid in consistency, rich green
in colour and free from gas bubbles or blood clots. Presence of part of parasite,
liquid dung indicates the sick animals.

Urine: Urine is clear and straw coloured in healthy animal. Dark or bloody
coloured urine is indication of disease.

Vulva: Vulva and tail should not show any presence of discharge from genital
organs. Pus containing discharge may indicate septic condition of reproductive
organs.

142. Dr. Manoj karki


Milk Production: Change in volume and quality of milk yield is one of the
early symptoms in several diseases.

Classification of Disease

There is no any single worldwide accepted way of classification of diseases.
The disease can be classified on different ways that are discussed below.
According to the causative agents
A. Bacterial disease
Those disease caused by bacteria are called bacterial diseases
Example: Anthrax, Tuberculosis
B. Viral disease
Those diseases caused by virus are called viral diseases
Example: FMD

C. Fungal Disease
Those diseases caused by fungus are called Fungal diseases
Example : Aspergillosis

D. Protozoan Disease
Those diseases caused by protozoa are called Protozoan Diseases
Example: Babesiosis

E. Rickettsial Disease
Those diseases caused by rickettsia are called rickettsial diseases
Example: Anaplasmosis

According to mode of origin
a. Hereditary disease: It indicates those diseases which are transmitted
to the offspring through sire or dam. Diseases are transmitted to the
offspring through sperm or ovum of parents to the progeny.
Example: Haemophilia
b. Congenital disease: It indicates those diseases which are acquired
during intra-uterine life of an individual.
Example: Atresia anai

143. Dr. Manoj karki


According to changes in the organ
a. Primary Disease
Those diseases which originate independently and are not influenced
by another disease.
Example: Canine distemper

b. Secondary disease
Those diseases which supervene out of already prevailing primary
disease. Superimposed secondary bacterial diseases are very common
outcome of primary viral diseases. Secondary pheumonia is very
common after viral disease. Bordetella bronchoseptica causes secondary
infectious bronchitis after primary disease of canine distemper.


According to clinical Manifestations

a. Acute disease
Those diseases are characterized by a sudden onset and a comparatively
short course with severe manifestation.
Example: RP, FMD

b. Per-acute disease
These diseases have shorter duration then acute with a very severe
course. Illness lasts for few hours to 48 hours.
Example: Per-acute Mastitis

c. Chronic disease
Disease which has got a protracted course though the disease is not
severe in character but in the long run may terminate fatally. Illness over
4 weeks is considered as chronic disease.
Example: Tuberculosis

144. Dr. Manoj karki

According to the intensity and spread of disease
a. Sporadic disease
Those diseases, which affects a single animal and shows no tendency to
spread within the herd. This disease can be explained as separate disease
observed in a given area during a certain length of time.
Example: Sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis

b. Enzootic disease
It denotes an outbreak of disease among animals in a definite area or
particular district. The outbreak may be observed among certain species
or breeds of animals.
Example: Enzootic haematuria in cattle

c. Epizootic disease
It is applied to disease which affects a large population of animals in
large areas.
Example: RP, FMD

d. Panzootic disease
If the epidemic reaches an unusually large size in some country or
spreads over many countries or even continents it is called a panzootic
disease.
Example: Influenza

.

History taking and clinical examination
History taking
History taking or anamnesis is the process of obtaining information on the
animal patient about its illness, onset of illness, feeding practice etc through
careful questioning of the owner. In Veterinary practice, the disease is
presented indirectly in the form of a complaint by the owner or the attendant.
Thus it is very necessary to have all the information form the owner. Most of
the time, the owner or attendants fail to provide pertinent and adequate history
and inaccurate history may lead to misdiagnosis. The clinician must
substantiate these with rational question utilizing professional knowledge.

145. Dr. Manoj karki

History taking is important for the following reasons:
 To get complete information about the illness of the animal patient, as
the animal patient cannot talk as in the case of human patient. Owner is
the first person to notice the illness and he will have noted the clinical
symptoms, which will give us some important clues for the diagnosis.
 To rule out the diseases those are species specific and age specific. For
example FMD in bovine not in horses, milk fever in lactating cows not
in calf. For completeness and accuracy of history taking, the following
points should be well considered (Patient data, Immediate/present
history, past history, Management and Environment history).

Patient data
 This data is essential for accurate identification of the patient and
includes:
 Owner’s name
 Owner’s address: postal address, telephone
 Species, breed, sex, age, name, ID No., body weight, etc.
 Description including color, marking and other identification marks of
patient



Present history
This relates to the sequence of events associated with the period of time that
the animal has been ill. Points to be focus in present history are:
 Duration of the disease: whether it is peracute, acute, or chronic
 Clinical sign/symptoms: (appetite for food or drink, defecation,
urination, respiration, sweating, physical activity, milk production,
growth, gait, posture, voice, odour, etc.)
 The number of animals affected: (morbidity rate and mortality rate)
 Treatment given: determine whether any treatment has, in fact, been
given before calling for assistance

Past history
In this respect, information should be obtained relating to the nature and timing
of any previous illness which had affected the individual animal or group.

146. Dr. Manoj karki

 Details regarding clinical features, diagnosis, treatments, morbidity and
mortality rates, post mortem observations, laboratory test etc., should be
obtained .
 Ascertain the system of animal replacement on the farm or in the home.
 If animal introduced from outside sources, further enquiries should be
made concerning the health history and status of the source animals.

Management and environmental history

Management
 Nutrition,
 Livestock at pasture,
 Drinking water,
 Feeding methods/practice
 House space, satisfactory ventilation
 Proper management of milking cow and milking machine to avoid udder
injury
 Breeding and Reproductive history
 Stocking rate/population density

Examination of the environment
 Topography
 Soil type
 Ground surfaces
 Climatic conditions
 Environmental Hygiene
 An excessive buildup of feces and urine
 Quality of Floor

147. Dr. Manoj karki

The normal body temperatures of different livestock are given below.

Species Temperature Respiration
rate/min
Pulse rate/min
Cattle 101-102˚F 12-18 40-60
Buffalo 101-102˚F 12-18 40-60
Goat 101.5-103.5˚F 18-30 55-75
Sheep 101.5-103.5˚F 18-30 55-75
Pig 101-102˚F 16-18 60-90
Dog 99-101˚F 14-30 70-90
Cat 100-102˚F 20-30 100-130
Fowl 105-107˚F 15-30 130-160


Palpation:
Use fingers, palm, back of the hand, and fist, in order to get the information
about the variation in size, shape, consistency and temperature of body parts
and lesions, e.g., the superficial lymph nodes. The terms, which can be used to
describe the consistency of parts during palpation, are:
 Resilient, when a structure quickly resumes its normal shape after the
application of pressure has ceased (e.g., Normal rumen)
 Doughy, when pressure causes pitting as in edema
 Firm, when the resistance to pressure is similar to that of the normal liver
(e.g., neoplasia/tumor)
 Hard, when the structure possesses bone-like consistency (e.g.,
Actinomycotic lesion)
 Fluctuating, when a wave-like movement is produced in a structure by
the application of alternate pressure (e.g., hernia,
hemorrhage/hematoma)
 Emphysematous, when the structure is swollen and yields on pressure
with the production of a crepitating or crackling sound (e.g., Black leg).

148. Dr. Manoj karki

Inspection
•It is done some distance away from the animal; sometimes go round the
animal or herd/flock.
•Attention should be paid to the following items: (Behavior, Appetite,
Defecation, Urination, Pasture, Gait, Body condition, Body conformation)
•Lesions on outer surface of the body can be observed: (Skin and coat, Nose,
Mouth, Eyes, Legs and hoofs, Anus)


Percussion:
By means of striking a part of the body to be percussed. Immediate percussion:
Using fingers or hammer directly strike the parts being examined.
Mediate percussion: Finger-finger percussion; Pleximeter-hammer
percussion The quality of the sounds produced by percussion is classified as:
Resonant: which is characteristic of the sound emitted by air containing organs,
such as the lungs.
Tympanic: The sound produced by striking a hollow organ containing gas
under pressure, e.g.,
tympanitic rumen or caecum.
Dull: Sound emitted by a solid organ like the liver or heart

Auscultation
Indirect auscultation: Use stethoscope. Procedure: Fix the probe of the
stethoscope firmly on the part of the body to be examined and listen to the
sounds produced by the functional activities of the body carefully.

Rectal examination
Rectal examination is done for:
 For the diagnosis of rectal tumors and other forms of cancer;
 For the diagnosis of prostatic disorders, notably tumors and benign
prostatic hyperplasia.
 In females, for gynecological palpations of internal organs;
 For examination of the hardness and color of the feces (i.e. in cases of
constipation, and fecal impaction);
 Prior to a colonoscopy

149. Dr. Manoj karki


Tympany (bloat)
Ruminal tympany, also known as bloat, is a disease of ruminant animals,
characterized by an excessive volume of gas in the rumen. Ruminal tympany
may be primary, known as frothy bloat, or secondary, known as free-gas
bloat.
In the rumen, food eaten by the ruminant is fermented by microbes. This
fermentation process continually produces gas, the majority of which is
expelled from the rumen by eructation (burping). Ruminal tympany occurs
when this gas becomes trapped in the rumen.
In frothy bloat (primary ruminal tympany), the gas produced by fermentation
is trapped within the fermenting material in the rumen, causing a buildup of
foam which cannot be released by burping. In cattle, the disease may be
triggered after an animal eats a large amount of easily fermenting plants, such
as legumes, alfalfa, red clover, or white clover. The main signs of bloat in cattle
are distension of the left side of the abdomen, dyspnea (difficulty breathing)
and severe distress. If gas continues to accumulate, the right side of the
abdomen may also become distended, with death occurring in cattle within 3–
4 hours after symptoms begin.

150. Dr. Manoj karki

Fig:-Site of bloat in cattle.
The animal may be in distress for several hours but in bad cases of bloat the
animal will be found lying on its side and death can occur in a few hours.

Causes of bloat
Bloat can occur when the animal grazes on lush young pasture, particularly if
the pasture is wet. Some plants, e.g. clover, lucerne and alfalfa are especially
dangerous in causing bloat but any fast growing plants can cause it.
Sometimes ruminants kept by the household and fed only feed such as dry
bread can develop bloat.
Treatment
Massaging the distended rumen through the abdominal wall. Drench (drink) to
the animal . The drench used can be one of the following:
 Mineral oil or vegetative oil ½ to 2 liter orally.
 Mixture containing turpentine- 60ml,; Lysol-4ml, linseed oil ½ lit; liquid
paraffin-1lit.
 Cholinergic drugs (neostigmine) in low dose (2-4 mg/ 500 kg ) is
indicated to restore motility of gut.
In severe cases the animal may not belch and it will die. In such cases
puncturing the left flank with a sharp knife or trocar and cannula to release the
gas is necessary, it will be necessary for you to act quickly as any hesitation
could lead to the death of the animal.

151. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig:-Drenching the animal and trocar and canula.
Sometimes tympany occurs because large pieces of feed block the gullet
(oesophagus). If this happens try to massage the neck to remove the blockage.
Preventing bloat
 Avoid moving animals to wet pasture, especially first thing in the
morning.
 Do not allow very hungry animals to graze a pasture. Offer dry,
cut grass first before turning out to graze.
 Keep a watch on animals at pasture.
Note:-
 Bloat occurs when too much gas is produced in the rumen.
 The left flank becomes distended and breathing becomes difficult.
 This may happen suddenly, especially when the animal is grazing on wet
pasture in the morning. It may cause sudden death.
 Avoid moving animals to wet pasture, especially first thing in the
morning.
 Do not allow very hungry animals to graze a pasture. Offer dry, cut grass
first before turning out to graze first before turning out to graze..

152. Dr. Manoj karki

Impaction
Impaction simply means bowel obstruction that can occur in various kinds
of animals when they consume something that they cannot digest. Impaction
in dairy animals refers to the failure of digestion, slow passage and
accumulation of feed in one or more of the stomach compartments leading to
constipation or absence of dung. It is more common in pregnant or young cattle
of less than 8 yr of age.

Impaction is of two types.
1. Primary impaction – It refers of accumulation of poor quality
roughages in any of the fore stomach compartments. It is relatively rare
condition and involves nearly all animals of the herd. For example
feeding of hybrid napiee, bajra was associated with one of outbreak of
impaction in dairy animals. Sometimes ingestion of inanimate or
indigestible substance like ropes a polyethene is associated with such
impaction in sporadic cases in herd.

2. Secondary impaction – any inflammation of gut or associated organ
which decease gut motility lead to secondary impaction.


The major causes of impactions are discussed below:
Dietary factors:
The dietary factors leading to impaction are listed as below.
 Intake of low grade indigestible roughage for long period.
 Intake of more grains.
 Feeding at long intervals.
 Inadequate feeding of water.
 Inadequate feeding of green forages.



Symptoms
 Lack of appetite or lethargy.
 On many reptiles a large blue seemingly bruised spot will be visible in
the abdomen; however, this only shows through if the skin on the species
is clear enough to see the lower internal organs.

153. Dr. Manoj karki

 Symptom of passing of scant faces or absence of dung is seen usually by
the owner, some cases pass scant dung occasionally and with bigger size
feed particles.
 There is progressive abdominal distension or tympany.
 Presence of pain in the start of problem exhibited by kicking at abdomen,
restlessness and frequently getting up & lying down is observed
frequently.
 The animal later on turns stoic, show arching of back or looking to
abdomen on palpating it.
 Constipation
 Increased pulse rate.
 Constant effort to urinate.
 Slight sweating.
 Electrolyte imbalance and dehydration.


Treatment
 purgative can be administered in horse.
 Administration of enema with liquid paraffin or soft soap.
 Direct introduction of warm linseed or paraffin oil into caecum by use of
long syringe.
 A combination of antibiotics covering gram positive (G+ve), (G-ve) and
anaerobes are ideal for this. In our experience a combination of
ceftriofur, enrofloxacin, ampicillin and metronidazole give good result.
 The supportive therapy in form of salines to check dehydration or
metabolic acidosis vitamins supplements to boost immune system
strength are good options. .


Diarrhea and dysentery

Diarrhea is multifactorial diseases where intestinal disorder occurs and
characterized by abnormal frequency and fluidity of fecal evacuations. It has
been estimated that 75% of early calf mortality in dairy herds is caused by
acute diarrhea in the pre-weaning period.

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An acute or chronic inflammation of intestinal mucosa membrane is known as
enteritis. It is characterized by frequent passes of loose faeces, flatulence,
abdominal distension and borborygmus. Inflammation of colon is called
colonitis, caecam as typhlitis and rectum as proctitis.

Dysentery is a type of gastroenteritis that results in diarrhea with mucus and
blood.
Diarrhoea is a common complaint in cattle and young ruminants (particularly
in the first few months of life). Many of the pathogens and management
practices that cause diarrhoea in calves also affect lambs and goats.

Implications of Diarrhoea
When an animal passes watery droppings many times a day it has
diarrhoea. Animals with diarrhoea have certain symptoms like
 Lose water and salt from their bodies.
 Animals become weak and thin
 Loss of appetite
 Lose watery feaces contains mucous and sometimes blood comes along
with feaces
 Loss of milk production and animals can die if treatment gets delayed

Etiology of diarrhoea
On the basis of etiology diarrhoea can be classified as infectious and non-
infectious diarrhoea.
1. Infectious diarrhoea- Infectious diarrhoea can be caused by agents like
virus, bacteria, parasites, mycotoxins etc.
2. Non infectious diarrhoea- Non infectious diarrhoea can be caused due to
poor hygiene, stress, overfeeding, indigestion, faulty diet, intestinal injury
and inflammation and malabsorption.
3. Chemical cause : corrosive chemical, arsenic, copper, molybdenum,
fluorine, mercury, nitrate, microtoxin, carbontetrachloride, cathartics.
4. Deficiency: copper deficiency, disaccharide deficiency in young calf.

155. Dr. Manoj karki

Bovine virus diarrhoea (BVD)
a. Diarrhoea begins 2 to 3 days after exposure to the germ and may persist
for a long time.
b. Ulcers on the tongue, lips and in the mouth are the usual lesions found
in the live calf.
c. Bovine virus diarrhoea is controlled by vaccinating all replacement
heifers 1 to 2 months before breeding.
d. Pregnant heifers should not be vaccinated. Consult your state
veterinarian before starting a BVD vaccination programme.

Bacterial diarrhoea
Colibacillosis (Eschericia coli)
Eschericia coli is a major cause of diarrhoea in young calves. E. coli germs
attack the intestinal mucous membrane and other mucous membranes and
produce toxins (poisons).
The toxins cause severe inflammation of the intestinal lining (enteritis) and can
lead to death within hours. A less severe form of the disease is usually
characterised by diarrhoea accompanied by progressive dehydration.
Colibacillosis lasts 2 to 4 days and its severity depends on the age of the calf.
E. coli inhabits the intestine and is excreted in the faeces. It can contaminate
stables, floors, paddocks and even water supplies.

Johne's disease or paratuberculosis
Johne's disease (JD) is a chronic, progressive intestinal disease caused by
infection with Mycobacterium paratuberculosis (Map).
Johne's disease is an incurable wasting disease of adult cattle. It is of greater
concern in dairy herds than in beef operations.. The germ causes an infectious
inflammation of the intestines with severe weight loss and diarrhoea. It is
economically important because some animals may become so emaciated that
they are unfit for slaughter.

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Other causes of calf diarrhoea
Coccidiosis
 Coccidiosis occurs in calves of 3 weeks of age and older, usually
following stress, poor sanitation, overcrowding or sudden changes of
feed.
 A typical sign of coccidiosis in young calves is diarrhoea with faeces
smeared over the rump as far around as the tail will reach.
 The symptoms are diarrhoea, with slimy and bloody faeces, emaciation,
weakening and anaemia. The affected calves strain excessively when
they defecate.

Clinical findings
 Rise in temperature in almost in acute cases and gradually decreases in
long standing cases.
 Diarrhoea
 Dehydration
 Vomition may be accompanied.
 Partial or complete loss of appetite
 Faeces are fluid or semisolid in nature and partially digested food,
mucus, epithelial shreds, fibrin and blood.
 Faeces smells foul or fishy odour.
 Clour of faeces may turn dark green or tarry colour or black in colour.
 Tympany, gurgling sound or fluid rushing sound known as borboygmi
can be heared on auscultation.


Difference between diarrhea and dysentery are listed as below:
Diarrhoea Dysentery
1. Faeces : voluminous, fluidy. Scanty and sticky
2. presence of blood in faeces: yes Yes
3.presence of mucus and fibrin in
faeces : no
Yes
4.pus cell: very less Abundant amount of pus cells

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Diagnosis
 On basis of clinical sign and symptoms
 Viral diarrhoea cause leukopaenia followed by leukocytosis.
 In some viral diarrhoea like rinderpest, mucosal diseases, foot and mouth
diseases etc there is mouth lesion along with diarrhoea.
 Bacterial diarrhoea cause leucocytosis.
 Monitor on diet management.
 In poisoning the temperature may be subnormal and dehydrated.

Treatment of diarrhea and dysentery:
Treatments aim towards correction of primary causes, correction of
dehydration, acidosis and electrolyte balance, regulation of diet and
symptomatic therapy.
 Specific treatment is often not possible and symptomatic treatment of the
diarrhoea itself should be applied.
 It should be directed towards correcting the loss of fluids (dehydration),
acidosis (acidity) and loss of salts.
 Antibiotic and or sulpha treatment can be given simultaneously with the
treatment for dehydration.
 There are salt powders (also called electrolyte powders) available that
can be mixed with water for oral administration.
 To reduce motility and relief pain drugs like opium may be used.


Control
To control the diarrhoea in new born, farms must follow three broad principles
in all herds:
1. the degree of exposure of neonates should be reduced by isolating
diseased animals or by moving calving and calf rearing to a separate area,
and by practicing good general hygiene;
2. nonspecific resistance should be maximized by providing good nutrition
to the dam and neonate and assuring that newborn calves consume ≥5%
of their body wt of high-quality colostrum, preferably within 2 hr and
certainly within 6 hr of birth, followed by equivalent amounts at 12-hr
intervals for the next 48 hr;
3. The specific resistance of the newborn should be increased by
vaccinating the dam or the newborn.

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Epistaxis-
Epistaxis is defined as bleeding from the nose.
In cattle, this clinical sign is associated with a number of disease entities
including:













Clinical Signs:
•Bleeding from nostrils either unilateral or bilateral
•Profuse mucopurulent nasal discharge with blood
•Acute dyspnoea
•Snoring, sneezing, accompanied by yellow-orange nasal discharge.
•Animals may rub their nasal cavities by pushing sticks or twigs up the nostrils,
resulting in lacerations or foreign bodies in the nasal cavity.


Causes
•Toxicity or poisoning: rodenticide, ethylene glycol and bracken fern
toxicities
•Clotting Disorders: defect in platelets production, thrombocytopenia,
vitamin K deficiency, DLC (Differential leucocyte count), excess platelets
destruction, etc.

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•Local trauma
•Nasal Obstruction by Foreign body, tumours
•Nasal Granuloma associated with Schistosoma nasale
•Exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage
•Drug treatments (particularly penicillin), lymphosarcoma, and systemic
infections
•Congestive heart failure
•Bovine neonatal pancytopenia
•Snake bite (Radostitset al., 2006a)
•Atmospheric changes



Diagnosis
•History, signs and symptoms, physical examinations, Blood test, clotting test,
nasal swab culture, urinalysis, Radiography (X-ray, USG, etc.), Rhinoscopy

Treatment
•Complete rest of the animal & keep it quite
•Apply cold compresses on the head particularly on the frontal nasal bone &
nose.
•Apply astringent solution on the affected nostrils as:
•Alum solution 2% or tannic acid 2%.
•Piece of gauze soaked with adrenaline 2%.
•In case of bilateral bleeding apply tracheotomy & plug the two nostrils with a
piece of gauze soaked in adrenaline
•Inject vitamin K to accelerate coagulation -3 ml /20 lb. B.W.
•Inject calcium chloride 10% 100 cc s/c.
•Treat the cause if it is secondary epistaxis,egAntibiotics are often used in cases
of infection.
•Fluid therapy: Glucose sol. or normal physiological saline
•Surgical cauterization may be used if the condition is chronic.

160. Dr. Manoj karki


Pneumonia
Pneumonia is an inflammatory condition of the lung affecting primarily the
microscopic air sacs known as alveoli. Pneumonia is an acute or chronic
inflammation of the lungs and bronchi characterized by disturbance in
respiration and hypoxemia and complicated by the systemic effects of
associated toxins.
Some common pneumonia are:
Pneumococcal pneumonia: This is caused by bacteria (such as Streptococcus
spp.), viruses or fungi. Pneumococcal pneumonia infects the upper respiratory
tract and can spread to the nervous system, lungs, ears, or blood if not treated
immediately.
Bronchial pneumonia: A class of pneumonia that affects both the lungs and
the bronchi. The Streptococcus spp. bacteria strain is the usual origin of this
disease, but it can also be triggered by other strains such as Staphylococcus
aureus, Haemophilus influenza or Klebsiella pneumoniae.

Bilateral pneumonia: This is caused by a bacterial, viral or fungal infection
that affects both lungs. It’s also known as double pneumonia, and patients have
difficulty breathing and show traces of fluids in the lungs.


Types and causes of pneumonia
There are six major types of pneumonia. They are:

1.
Bacterial pneumonia: Commonly caused by bacteria strains such as
Streptococcus spp., staphylococci spp., pasteurella multocida,
haemophilus suis, salmonella cholera suis, corynbacterium equi etc.
Bacterial pneumonia cases can be mild or severe, depending on the
strength of the bacteria strain and how long until the disease is diagnosed
and treated.


2. Viral pneumonia: this type is triggered by viruses such as influenza,
adenoviruses ,canine distemper virus, ranikhet virus, corona viruses

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etc.Viral pneumonia is said to be responsible for one-third of all
pneumonia cases.
3. Parasitic pneumonia: This type is generated by Metastrongylus apri in
swine, Dictyocaulus viviparous in cattle, Protostrongylus rufescens and
Dictyocaulus filarial in sheep and goat, Ascaric lumbricoids in sheep.

4. Mycoplasma pneumonia: This type is generated by Mycoplasma
gallisepticum an “atypical bacterium” that’s considered to be one of the
smallest agents that affect poultry.

5. Aspiration pneumonia: Infections or inhalation of food, liquid, gases
or dust lead to this type of pneumonia.19 This illness goes by other
names, such as necrotizing pneumonia, anaerobic pneumonia, aspiration
pneumonitis, and aspiration of vomitus.

6.
Fungal pneumonia: Produced by various endemic or opportunistic
fungi. This causes fungal infections, such as histoplasmosis,
actinomycosis, aspergillosis, Cryptococcus, coccidioidomycosis, and
blastomycosis that occur after inhaling spores or conidia or reactivating
a latent infection. It has to be noted that fungal pneumonia cases are quite
difficult to diagnose.


Clinical signs
Acute clinical signs of bacterial pneumonia are often preceded by signs of viral
infection of the respiratory tract. With the onset of bacterial pneumonia,
clinical signs increase in severity and are characterized by
 Depression.
 Fever (104°–106°F [40°–41°C]).
 Anorexia, dull, increased pulse rate.
 Serous to mucopurulent nasal discharge; moist cough; and a rapid.
 Shallow respiratory rate may be noted.
 Lethargy and anorexia are common.
 Gradually loss of body condition.
 Reluctance to move and lie down.

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Diagnosis:
 Generally, serologic testing and direct bacterial detection are performed,
and diagnosis relies on gross necropsy findings and bacterial culture.
 Radiography examination.
 Examination of faeces to find the parasitic ova.
 Lung specimens can be collected for culture at necropsy.
 A multiplex PCR has been used to identify a number of bacterial agents
implicated with bovine respiratory disease, including M. hemolytica.

Treatment:
Following measures can be adopted to treat the pneumonia in livestock:
 Isolation of affected animal.
 Use of specific antibiotics is desirable.
 Penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, cotrimoxazole likes
antibiotics are desirable.
 In parasitic condition, drugs like Diethylcarbamazine citrate,
tetramizole, levamisole, fenbendazole etc. may be used. Ivermectin inj
administraton can be done.
 Along with antibiotics, antihistamines can be given.
 In some cases course of steroids can be useful.
Prevention
 Improved husbandry, ventilation and good nursing care can all reduce
risks of pneumonia.
 Ensuring that young animals receive appropriate amounts of colostrum
within first 24 hour.
 Ventilation: Often if ammonia can be smelled it is a sign of poor
ventilation.

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Anaemia
Anemia is defined as an absolute decrease in the red cell mass as measured by
red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin concentration, and Packed Cell
Volume (PCV).



Classification of Anemia

According to the etiology and pathogenesis there are two groups of
anemia:

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165. Dr. Manoj karki



















Clinical Findings:
Clinical signs in anemic animals depend on the degree of anemia, the duration
(acute or chronic), and the underlying cause. Acute anemia can result in shock
and even death if more than a third of the blood volume is lost rapidly and not
replaced.
 Pale in eye and mouth
 Loss of appetite, muscular weakness, dull and depress
 Increased heart rate
 Respiratory rate is elevated
 Laboured breath
 Blood, bleedings, hematoma
 Icterus

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Fig:-Pale mouth due to anaemia.


Diagnosis:
 A complete history is an important part of the evaluation of an anemic
animal.
 Clinical signs and clinical pathological examination
 A complete blood count (CBC), including a platelet and a reticulocyte
count.
 A blood smear should be evaluated for abnormalities in RBC
morphology or size and for RBC parasites.

Treatment
Following line of treatment can be proceeded for anaemic condition:
 Mild to moderate — no treatment necessary
 Severely anemic — blood transfusions
 Electrolyte imbalances resulting from vomiting, diarrhea, kidney injury,
or impending shock may be treated with IVs.
 In cases of severe anemia, methylene blue may be administered
intravenously to reduce the methemoglobin count.
 Treatment of specific treatment for the underlying cause.

167. Dr. Manoj karki

Nephritis
Nephritis literally refers to acute or chronic inflammation of the kidney
caused by infection, degenerative process, or vascular disease.

Glomerulonephritis
Glomerulonephritis means inflammation of glomeruli. It leads to chronic
renal failure.

Fig:- Glomerulonephritis.

Etiopathogenesis
This disease has been ascribed as autoimmune disease. There are two type
of immunological reaction which can produce this condition.
Infective agents like adenoviruses, infectious caninine hepatitis virus, E.
coli, Dirofilaria immitis etc act as antigen and sets inflammatory process
which damage glomerular basement membrane.
In another form, circulating antigen of non renal origin fixed up with
antibody. These on huge amount get fix on glomerular capillaries. This is
termed as autoimmune glomerular nephritis.

168. Dr. Manoj karki

Clinical findings
 Dull and depression
 Polydypsia
 Oedema
 Anuria
 Blood in urine
 Polyuria
 Proteinuria
 Vomiting
 Azotaemia
 Dry skin coat

Diagnosis
Proteinuria is the cardinal sign of glomerulonephritis.
1. Proper history
2. Physical examination
3. Laboratory data
 Haematology: hypo or hyperproteinuria, anaemia.
 Biochemistry:hypoalbuminaemia, hypercholesterolemia,
hyperphophataemia, azotaemia.
 Urine study: proteinuria, absence of pyuria, hyaline test,
absence of haematuria.
 Renal biopsy

169. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig:-Nephritis

Pyelonephritis
Pyelonephritis is an inflammation of the kidney tissue, calyces, and renal
pelvis. It is commonly caused by bacterial infection that spread up the urinary
tract or travelled through the bloodstream to the kidneys.
Crynebacterium renale is responsible for pyelonehritis in cattle.E coli infection
is also suggestive.
Signs and symptoms
acute pyelonephritis generally develop rapidly over a few hours or a day. It can
cause
 high fever
 abdominal pain that radiates along the flank towards the back.

170. Dr. Manoj karki

 vomiting
 Fever
 weight loss,
 Decreased appetite
 Lower urinary tract symptoms
 Blood in the urine.
 Stiff gait; tenderness of lumber region.
 Weak pulse rate.
 Rough hair coat.
 Frequient micturation and straining during micturation.

Diagnosis
 Microscopic examination of urine shows trasitional epithelial cells.
 Radiography to demonstrate renal structure by using contrast media.
 Urine: high specific gravity, pus cells, R.B.C., W.B.C., etc.
 Cystourethrography: to detect vesiculourethral reflux.
Line of treatment
 Antibiotic therapy
 Diuretics
 Urinary acidifiers or alkalizer to alter PH, for decreasing the microbial
load.
 For azotaemia: symptomatic treatment.
Drugs contraindicated are :
 Neomycin
 Gentamycin
 Kanamycin
 Cephaloridine.

171. Dr. Manoj karki


Interstitial nephritis
Interstitial nephritis (or tubulo-interstitial nephritis) is a form
of nephritis affecting the interstitium of the kidneys surrounding the tubules,
i.e., is inflammation of the spaces between renal tubules. This disease can be
either acute, meaning it occurs suddenly, or chronic, meaning it is ongoing and
eventually ends in kidney failure. This type of nephritis more common in dogs.
Etiology
A. Bacteria :E.coli, leptospira spp.
B. Viruses: adenovirus, infectious canine hepatitis virus.
C. Parasites: Dioctophyme renale.
D. Toxins: Nephrotoxic agents; lead, arsenate, sulphonamide, mercury,
paracetamol etc.
Clinical findings
 Lack of appetite.
 Dull and depressed.
 High temperature at initial stage.
 Progressive loss of body condition.
 Teeth gum, and tongue will be coated with reddish brown scum.
 Stiff gait and arching back.
 Sign of dehydration.
 Occasionally vomiting.
 Quick pulse.
 Emaciation.
 Uraemia.
 Comma and death.

172. Dr. Manoj karki

Diagnosis:
 History of polydypsia and polyuria.
 Urine: high specific gravity, albumin, renal epithelial cells, W.B.C.,
R.B.C., and cast. But in chronic stage there is low specific gravity with
less cellular deposition.
Line of treatment
 Keep in rest with little exercise.
 Feed with protein of higher biological value should be provided.
 Adequate provision of drinking water.
 Course of antibiotic therapy for 7 days.
 Dextrose 5% with sodium chloride may be administered intravenously.
 Parental B complex can be administered.
 Corticosteroids may be given to minimize the formation of immune
complex.
 Sodium bicarbonate may be given.






Unit-8
Surgical affecting
Introduction
First aid is typically described as "Emergency treatment administered to an
injured or sick animal before professional veterinary care is available. The
initial administration of care for an injured animal until more thorough
veterinary attention can be sought (Kahn and Line, 2007). Animals requiring
first aid may be encountered in a variety of situations, however the same
decisions or steps are required to assess the situation and determine the best
course of action. The key question is whether the injury/condition can be
ameliorated by on the spot or short term (<24 hrs) first aid treatment and is

173. Dr. Manoj karki

such that it is unlikely to cause significant ongoing pain and/or compromise
the animal’s ability to heal naturally and survive. In livestock different cases
and condition such as wound, dislocation, fracture, infertility, euthanasia,
infertility, dystokia, prolapsed with emergency care are as follows:

First aid of dog
Source:Merck Veterinary Manual
The immediate/emergency care
The immediate/emergency care includes primary survey, secondary survey,
transport, first aid kit with general direction are as follows:
Primary Survey and Resuscitation
The primary survey is the first impression the first aid provider has of the
situation, and the immediate action that is taken. A well-informed owner will
be able to make a quick assessment of the scene and a quick examination of
the victim. Immediate attention is given to the animal's level of consciousness,
airway patency, breathing, and circulatory functions (including pulse).
Resuscitation is the prompt treatment of life-threatening problems. The
primary survey is often referred to as the ABC's of first aid, indicating the
following areas of emphasis:
· "A"irway
· "B"reathing &"B"leeding
· "C"ardiovascular (which includes heart function, pulse, and capillary refill
time)
Secondary Survey and Definitive First Aid
The secondary survey consists of an examination and assessment of the
animals eyes,ears, nose, neck, chest, abdomen, back, extremities, and rectal
temperature and the procedures to stabilize and protect the animal from further
harm.

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Transport
Many emergencies will require professional help. Knowledge of the proper
way to transport the animal to a veterinary medical facility for professional
care can prevent further injury, protect the owner from dangerous situations,
and allow for timely care.

First Aid Kit
Emergency supplies are a necessity. The following list will help you assemble
the resources you need.
 1" and 2" adhesive tape
 2" roll gauze (for muzzle)
 Newspaper
 Rectal thermometer
 Chlorhexidine or povidone iodine (antiseptic)
 Elizabethan collar
 Eye wash (saline in a squirt bottle)
 Isopropyl alcohol 3% hydrogen peroxide (or syrup of ipecac)
 2" and 4" gauze
 3" x 3" or 4" x 4" gauze pads
 Scissors - cotton balls and pledgets
 Blanket with heat pack
 Flat transport surface
 Plastic food wrap (e.g., Saran- Wrap)
 petroleum or K-Y jelly
 Ice pack
 Activated charcoal
 Tweezers
 Bulb syringe
A complete first aid kit for your animal is a must.

Preparedness Phone Numbers
In a convenient location, make a list of important phone numbers that includes
the phone numbers of the following:
 Your veterinarian
 Your veterinarian's emergency (after-hours) number
 Your nearest 24-hour veterinary emergency facility

175. Dr. Manoj karki

 Your local poison control center
 National poison control centers
Emergency numbers should be kept near your phone for easy access. Update
numbers as necessary.

General Directions for First Aid
A wide variety of problems arise that require first aid skills. Decisions and
actions vary according to the circumstances, including:
 Scene of the accident
 Emergency equipment available
 Species, size, age, temperament, and condition of the animal requiring
first aid
 Your emotional condition
 Other emotionally stable people available to help you.

First aid begins with a quick but careful survey of the scene. Then quick
decisions need to be made, depending on the circumstances.
 Make sure the accident scene is safe before proceeding. Take steps to
prevent further injury to you or your pet.
 Enlist the help of others.
 Call, or have someone call, your veterinarian or the emergency
veterinary center. (Keep those phone numbers handy at all times!)
Describe the animal; give a short description of what happened and what
has been done. Give your name and telephone number. Don't hang up
until the professionals have told you what to do.
Administer essential first aid. Carefully transport the animal to the
veterinary facility for examination if there is any question as to the
seriousness of the injury or sudden illness. It is highly recommended to
telephone first in all but the most life threatening situations.

Wounds/injuries
Wound is defined as break in continuity of tissues in any part of body.

Causes
Surgical operation
Trauma by sharp, blunt object

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Maggots
Poison

Symptoms
Gaping of edges of the wound, haemorrhage, inflammation, pain, purulent
discharge

Classification
Based on continuity of tissues
1. Open: An open Wound is a break in the skin or mucous membrane
2. Closed: A closed wound involves injury to underlying tissue without a break
in the skin or mucous membrane.

Based on duration
1. Fresh wound
2. Maggoted wound
3. Ulcerated wound

Type of wound
Types of wounds can include abrasions, open wounds (e.g.cuts), and
penetrating wounds (e.g. animal bites or due to a foreign object). The biggest
problem with wounds is the possibility of infection. A summary of common
types of wounds and their management is contained in Table


.
Type of wound Description and management
Bruise A closed wound with bleeding
below the surface of the skin. If not
extensive, or not causing disability,
then it’s better to release as soon as
possible to avoid stress and
struggling resulting in further injury
and exacerbating bruising
Abrasion An open wound with the outer layer
of skin and underlying blood
vessels exposed. The wound should

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be cleaned with dilute antiseptic.
The animal can generally be
released
Cut An open wound caused by
something sharp, where the skin,
soft tissue or muscle is severed. The
wound needs to be cleaned
thoroughly and generally the
animal can be released. If the cut is
large or deep it will require
veterinary care or euthanasia
Laceration An open wound (e.g. caused by
wire, teeth or claws) where the skin
and underlying tissue are damaged.
The wound should be cleaned
thoroughly. If the laceration is
extensive it will require veterinary
care or euthanasia.
Puncture An open wound caused by blunt or
pointed objects in which the skin
and underlying tissue is damaged,
as well as possibly organ damage.
Wound should be cleaned
thoroughly. If the puncture severe it
will require veterinary care or
euthanasia.
Tear An open wound caused by
something sharp. The skin and
other soft tissue will be partially or
completely torn away. The skin
should be returned to its original
position and a pressure bandage
applied. The animal may require
veterinary care or euthanasia.
Embedded object An open wound in which an object
has embedded itself. Do not try and
remove the object. The animal will

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require veterinary care or
euthanasia.

Different body injuries
Abdominal injuries
Abdominal injuries usually result from heavy impacts (e.g. car strike, dog
attack). Signs of abdominal injury include shock, pain, vomiting and evidence
of injury such as swelling, bruising and protrusion of intestines. If abdominal
injuries are suspected then the animal is likely to have a poor prognosis even
with treatment. A decision to euthanase or seek veterinary attention will need
to be made.

Chest injuries
Chest injuries can range from mild to life threatening. Signs of chest injuries
include pain, increased breathing effort or short rapid breaths, swelling at the
site, pale gums. An animal in severe respiratory distress will have an extended
head and gasp for air. If chest injuries are suspected then the animal is likely
to have a poor prognosis even with treatment. A decision to euthanize or seek
veterinary attention will need to be made.

Head and spinal injuries
Head and spinal injuries can be serious. Signs include unconsciousness,
abnormal behavior, blood or clear fluid coming from the nose or ears and
unequal pupil size. If an animal is unconscious it must be placed on its side and
the airways kept clear. The head should be slightly lower than the neck and
chest to allow any fluid to drain from the mouth. The most common cause of
spinal injuries is through collision with a motor vehicle. If spinal injuries are
suspected (e.g. weakness in hindquarters, pain, partial or total paralysis)
handling must be done very carefully. Euthanasia may be the only option for
an animal with spinal injuries. If head or spinal injuries are suspected then the
animal is likely to have a poor prognosis if left untreated. A decision to
euthanize or seek veterinary attention will need to be made.

Eye injuries
The eyes are very sensitive and can react negatively to any injury. Foreign
objects, smoke and wounds are the common causes of eye injuries and may
result in infections to complete blindness. A foreign object in the eye can cause

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discharge and redness, with the animal rubbing or pawing at the eye. The eye
can be opened to examine it, and the foreign material can be washed out with
clean water. If this doesn’t work attempts can be made to remove the object if
possible, however never try and remove if the object is penetrating the globe.
Any attempt to remove any foreign material by means other than flushing
(using sterile saline or fresh water) in a conscious animal is likely to risk
additional injury to the eye. Eye injuries resulting from smoke should be
treated by flushing the eyes with water or saline.
Wounds to the eyes are more serious than irritation from foreign objects or
smoke and can cause bloody discharge or blood in the eye itself. The severity
of the injury will determine the most appropriate course of action. In all cases,
basic treatment and release as soon as possible is the preferred option however
seeking veterinary care or euthanasia should be considered if prognosis with
basic treatment is poor.

Treatment
Not all wounds will require veterinary treatment. Deciding whether the wound
is superficial or deep will determine the appropriate treatment for the wound.
Superficial wounds can be cleaned with dilute antiseptic (e.g. Betadine ®) but
veterinary care should be sought for deep wounds. Some wounds, although
they may be considered in a pet to warrant veterinary care, may in a given
wildlife situation need to be weighed against the relative inaccessibility of
veterinary care and time frame involved. The severity of the injury will
determine the most appropriate course of action. In all cases basic treatment
and release as soon as possible is the preferred option however seeking
veterinary care or euthanasia should be considered if prognosis with basic
treatment is poor.

Dislocation and fracture
Dislocation
Dislocation is the displacement of bone from its normal position in relation to
joint. Fracture-dislocation describes joint fractures that produce joint
instability sufficient to result in simultaneous subluxation or luxation of the
affected joint. This classification is incomplete, since fracture-dislocation of
the shoulder indicates dislocation of the shoulder but does not indicate which
bone, the scapula or the humerus, is fractured. Therefore, a more descriptive
classification of the fracture must be given. Fracture-dislocations can be

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difficult to treat because they represent intra-articular fracture plus supporting
tissue laxity. When fracture and dislocation are found together, the prognosis
is poorer than if each problem occurred separately.


Fig. Normal Hip Joint Hip Dysplasia Joint
(Source : Kelsey Tinsman ppt)

Fracture
A fracture is dissolution of bony continuity with or without displacement of
the fragments. It is always accompanied by soft tissue damage of varying
degrees; there are torn vessels, bruised muscles, lacerated periosteum, and
contused nerves. Sometimes there are injured internal organs and lacerated
skin. The trauma to soft tissue must always be taken into consideration and is
often vitally more important than the fracture itself.
Fractures are broken bones and they can be open, where the bone is exposed
through skin, or closed, where the skin is unbroken. An initial assessment
needs to be made to determine if a fracture or dislocation has occurred by
feeling for abnormalities and checking for normal range of movement in
limbs/pain response etc. Signs that an animal may have a fracture include not
using the limb, pain at or near the fracture site; the limb may be deformed or
twisted, swelling around the fracture and shock. The prognosis is also
dependent on the number of bones involved, if the bone is in one or more
pieces, the location of the fracture and the time the fracture spends broken.
Open fractures carry a poor prognosis due to the increased chances of infection.
Pressure or splints must never be applied to an open fracture; however they
should be covered to prevent dirt entering the wound and loss of body fluid.
Symptoms of sprains and strains are similar to fractures and if in doubt should
be treated as closed fractures. A temporary splint and/or bandaging may be

181. Dr. Manoj karki

applied in the field to stabilize the injury prior to veterinary attention being
thought, if the animal will tolerate it with minimal additional stress. If a
fracture is suspected then the animal is likely to have a poor prognosis if left
untreated. A decision to euthanase or seek veterinary attention will need to be
made. It must be kept in mind that healing time for fractures is a minimum of
6 weeks with no guarantee of a full return to the wild.

Causes of fracture
External causes:
 Direct Violence
 Indirect Violence
 Bending Forces
 Torsional Forces
 Compression Forces
 Shearing Forces
Internal Causes
 Pathologic Fractures
 Fractures Due To Muscular Action

Classification of Fracture
Fractures are classified into many types based on the severity of the fracture,
whether it communicates through the skin, the shape of the fracture line, or the
anatomical location of the fracture within an individual bone. All systems are
compatible and of necessity overlap

Based on type
 Incomplete Fractures

 Greenstick Fracture
 Fissure Fracture
 Depression Fracture
 Complete Fractures

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 Transverse Fracture

 Oblique Fracture

 Spiral Fracture

 Comminuted Fracture

 Multiple Fracture

 Impaction Fracture
 Compression Fraction

 Closed Fracture

 Open Fracture

Source http://cal.vet.upenn.edu

Based on location
 Diaphyseal Fracture
 Metaphyseal Fracture

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 Fracture Of The Epiphyseal Plate
 Epiphyseal Fracture
 Condylar Fracture
 Articular Fracture
 Avulsion Fracture
Diagnosis
In most instances the clinical signs associated with fracture make diagnosis
uncomplicated. Although the owner of an animal often will have observed the
fractured bone, locating a fracture can at times be difficult. In these instances,
the practitioner needs a systematic, logical approach to diagnose the fracture.



Unit 9 Dr. Manoj karki
Reproductive problem
Terms used in reproduction
Fertility: ability of an animal to reproduce maximum within the stipulated time
as per the norms of the species.
Infertility: temporary inability of the animals to reproduce
Sterility: permanent inability of the animals to reproduce
Anestrus: absence of estrus cycle and reproductive utility
Repeat breeding: condition in which females with normal estrus cycle fails to
conceive within 3-4 consecutive services
Silent heat: condition characteristics by normal cyclical activity without well
marked behavour signs of heat or estrus
Anovulation: absence of ovulation
Mummification: condition characteristics by fetal death by wound and fetus
is emphysemised

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Uterine torsion: twisting of uterus on long axis
Endometritis: inflammation of endometrium
Pyometra: accumulation of pus in uterus
Vaginitis: inflammation of vagina
Cervicitis: inflammation of cervix
Abortion: premature expulsion of dead fetus of recognized size
Orchitis: inflammation of testes

Infertility / anoestrous
Fertility is the ability of male and female animals to produce viable germ cells,
mate, conceive and deliver normal living young. Infertility is the diminished
or absent capacity to produce viable offspring. There are many other causes
of infertility in cattle. There are both infectious and non-infectious causes of
infertility
Etiology:
Infertility may result due to many factors:
1. Nutritional deficiency:
 Mineral deficiency: e,g, phosphorous, iron, copper, cobalt etc..
 Vitamin deficiency: e.g, vitamn A,E,B …
2. Parasitic infestiation: due to heavy ectoparasite or endoparsite infection
may lead to deficient in nutrition
3. Silent heat: silent heat is seen in some cattle and buffaloes mostly buffaloes
so that owner cannot detect heat in time as a consequence heat period is
missed which may lead to infertility
4. Defect of bull: the bull may be unable to fertilize ova due to the disease
condition in breeding bull
5. Congenital defect in the reproductive organs: ovary, oviduct, uterus,
vagina may lead to infertility. E,g. white heifer disease
6. Infectious disease:

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 Brucellosis
 Trichomoniasis
 Leptospirosis
 Vibirosis
 Bovine viral diarrhea
 Compylobacteriosis
 Infection bovine rhinotracheitis
7. Hormonal imbalance: the hormone like estrogen, progesterone, FSH, LH,
prostaglandin are necessary for the efficient functioning of reproductive
system. Imbalance in this hormone may lead to infertility.
8. Wrong Artificial insemination (AI) technique
9. Cystic ovary disease: luteal cyst, follicular cyst

Management of infertility:
 Grain supplement to the animals for 2 weeks
 Minerals supplements to the aimals
 In case of luteal cyst PGF @2.5 mg inj I/M
 In case of follicular cyst chorulon inj @3000 unit I/V
 Estrogen hormone inj in estrogen deficiency
 In case of uterine infection douching of the uterus using 2% povidine
iodine or potass solution
 Uterine wash with metronidazole is found to be effective against
anaerobic organism

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Dystocia
Dystocia: difficult birth, atypical or pathological labor
Eutocia: safe, easy, natural or physiological parturition
When the first or especially the second stage of parturaton is markedly
prolonged becomes difficult or impossible for the dam without artificial aid the
condition is termed as dystocia.




Fig. Normal and Abnormal presentation, posture and position

Classification: it is of two types
a) Maternal dystocia : due to abnormal condition of the genital passage of
dam.
b) Foetal dystocia: due to abnormal presentation or conditions of the foetus.

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Causes
Maternal dystocia
 Narrow birth canal-deformity of pelvis
 Failure of cervix to dilate
 Due to fracture of pelvic bone, small pelvis
 Twisting of uterus(uterine torsion)
 Weak or absence of uterine contraction (uterine inertia)
 Uterine hernia
 Tumor of genital tract
Foetal dystocia
 Large size of the foetus
 Due to abnormal presentation, position and posture
 Twins – two fetuses
 Diseases of foetus-like ,anasarca, hydrocephalus, emphysema
 Overweight fetus
Symptoms
Restlessness
Continuous straining
Labour pains
Appearance of foetal parts through vagina

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Treatment
 Manual correction of position, posture and presentation of foetus as
follows
 Retropulsion means pushing the foetus into the uterus from the maternal
birth canal. This action is essential to find out defects in presentation,
position and posture. It can be done by applying pressure with the hand
or using the crutch repeller, on the presenting part of the foetal body.
 Extension Means the extension of the flexed joints when there are
postural defects. The flexed joints can be extended with hand or using
snare (rope).
 Traction Is the application of force to the presenting parts of the foetal
body, to help the dam in expulsion of foetus. This can be done using
snare or hooks.
 Rotation is the technique of alteration of the position of a foetus by
moving it around its longitudinal axis so as to bring into the normal
position.
 Withdrawal of foetus by force traction
 Injection of epidosin if cervical dilatation is incomplete
 Injection of oxytocin if uterine contractions are weak oe absent.
 Rolling of dam and rotation of foetus,if there e is twisting of uterus.
 Foetotomya i.e. cutting of foetus if foetus is death or abnormal
 Caesarean section is the last choice to relieve dystokia
 After reliving dystokia, give parenteral and intrauterine antibiotics
therapy.
Prophylaxis
 Give adequate exercise during pregnancy
 Avoid long distance transportation,specially during advanced pregnancy
 Breed at proper age
 Provide adequate nutrition to pregnant animals
 Avoid rolling, struggling, falling and jumping in pregnant animals.
 Culling of animals with known pelvic deformities or kinked cervix.
 Care and attention of parturient animals till normal expulsion of foetus.

189. Dr. Manoj karki

Prolapse
Prolapse is the eversion of genital organs (vagina and uterus). It is seen either
before or after parturition.

Fig : Vaginal Prolapse uterine prolapse

Vaginal prolapse
A vaginal prolapse occurs before calving due to the increased pressure in the
abdominal cavity during the latter stages of pregnancy. This type of prolapse
is more common than the uterine prolapse, and it typically looks like a pink
mass of tissue about the size of a large grapefruit or volleyball. Once this tissue
becomes prolapsed, it is exposed to environmental elements (wind, dust, sun,
injury) and to potential infectious organisms.
Vaginal prolapses are recurring problems. If the vaginal prolapse occurs and is
repaired, the cow is highly likely to prolapse again next year. Cows that are
limited to grazing clover pastures could also be at a higher risk of vaginal
prolapse due to phytoestrogens that may be produced by that forage type.

190. Dr. Manoj karki


Fig A vaginal prolapse extending for 10-12 cm.







Uterine prolapse
A uterine prolapse is typically seen immediately following or within a few
hours of calving. Compared to the vaginal prolapse, the uterine prolapse is
larger, longer (usually hanging down to the hocks when standing), more deep
red in color and covered with the “buttons” where the placenta was attached.
A uterine prolapse is considered a medical emergency; therefore, this condition
is life threatening. If the affected cow is not treated quickly, she could go into
shock or die from blood loss. Contact your veterinarian for assistance with this
procedure. If the uterus is pushed back improperly, it could result in internal
bleeding and death of the cow.
Causes
 Inheritance tendency
 Low levels of progesterone.
 Urogenital infections like cervicities and vaginitis.
 Dystokia
 Breeding injuries
 Retentation of placenta
 Straining due to diarrhea or constipation.
 Consumption of estrogen rich plant or feeds.

191. Dr. Manoj karki

Symptoms
 Protrusion of uterus cervix and or vagina beyond vulva
 Continuous straining
 Wound or injuries on the prolapsed mass.
 Restlessness
 Increases body temperature
 Loss of appetite and death in severe cases
Treatment
 Washing of prolapsed mass with antiseptic solution or sugar to reduce
size edema
 Use epidural anesthesia 2-4 ml of 2% lidocaine
 Application of antiseptic ointment on prolapsed part.
 Reduction of protruded part of colds fomentation.
 Apply rope truss to provide support and for retention.
 Keep the animals in slanting position with hind legs at higher level and
head at lower level.
 Give broad-spectrum antibiotics parentally.
 If antepartum .prolapse, give injection of progesterone on every 10
th
day.
 If postpartum prolapsed, give intrauterine antibiotics therapy.

Prophylaxis
 Eliminate causes irritant or straining
 Avoid injuries or unnecessary traction at delivery.
 Early treatment of retention of placenta cases.
 Don’t apply weight to hanging placenta to remove.

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1. Epidural anesthesia





















Inject 2% lidocaine @0.5-1 ml/220kg for caudal epidural
anesthesia

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2. Reduction of prolapsed mass

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3. Applying Buhner’s suture

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Metritis
Metritis, an inflammation of the uterus, is caused by bacterial infection. It
occurs most commonly after calvings complicated by dystocia, retained fetal
membranes, twins or stillbirths.
Metritisis characterized by an enlarged uterus and a watery red-brown fluid to
viscous off-white purulent uterine discharge.













Clinical metritis is characterized by fever, a foul-fetid vulvar discharge, a
uterus with excess fluid and lacking tone, and a cow that appears depressed
and off-feed. Clinical metritis is most commonly seen in the first 10 days post-
calving. Cows that have clinical metritis exhibit poor reproductive
performance with irregular estrous cycles, lower conception rates and greater
intervals from calving to pregnancy.


Etiology
Infection of the uterus with E. coli appears to the way for subsequent infection
with other bacteria.

196. Dr. Manoj karki

Symptoms
The primary symptoms of metritis are fever, a foul-fetid vulvar discharge, a
uterus that lacks tone when palpated per rectum, an abnormal uterine
discharge, and a depressed attitude with a decreased appetite.























Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based upon the prescience of clinical signs and a foul-fetid vulvar
discharge in particular.

197. Dr. Manoj karki














Treatment
The treatment of choice is a 5-day regimen of an antibiotic labeled for the
treatment of metritis and appropriate supportive therapy. CST (culture
sensitivity test)



Prevention
The primary measures for prevention are:
 Appropriate supplementation of trace minerals and vitamins.
 Feeding a diet to with appropriate levels of calcium
 Minimization of negative energy balance around calving time by
managing pen moves and preventing over-crowding and feeding
appropriate transition rations.
 A clean, dry maternity environment.
 Well managed assistance when a calving difficulty occurs.

Retention of placenta
Retention of fetal membranes, or retained placenta, usually is defined as failure
to expel fetal membranes within 24 hr after parturition. Normally, expulsion
occurs within 3–8 hr after calf delivery. If placenta is not expelled for 12 hours
or more than this condition is known as retention of placenta.

198. Dr. Manoj karki

Cows with retained fetal membranes are at increased risk of metritis, displaced
abomasum, and mastitis.
Causes-
 Pre mature delivery
 Calf death as birth
 Lack of exercise
 Defficiency of oxytocin
 Defficency of calcium
 Twins birth
 Defficiency of vitamin ‘A’D, E
 Infectious dises
 Brucellocis,R.P.
 Trichomoniosis vibriosois
 Failure of mecanism of separation of caruncles & cotyledons

After 8-12 hours of animal’s delivery, if placenta does not come out of the
animal then it is a big problem of concern. Retained placenta is a big problem
of weakness in the cattle. Due to improper feed, there are greater chances of
retained placenta problem in animals. Therefore, it is very important that the
placenta should come out before the uterus mouth get closed. Many times
retained placenta problem is tried to solve out manually, there is no problem in
doing it manually, but if we try to avoid doing it manually then it is much
better, because many times if we try to take out placenta forcefully, then there
are possibility of diseases.

199. Dr. Manoj karki

For retained placenta problem you can either try to take help of a veterinary
doctor or you can try this tested method by many progressive dairy farmers.














ExaparLiquid:
•Cows, Buffaloes and Mares 50 ml
•Ewes and Does 20 ml

Soon after calving, or in case of retained placenta, administer double dose (100
ml for large animals) twice on first day followed by single dose twice daily for
3-5 days .

ExaparBolus:
•Cows, Buffaloes and Mares 2 bolus
•Ewes and Does 1 bolus

200. Dr. Manoj karki

Soon after parturition, or in case of retained placenta, administer double dose
orally (4 bolus for large animals) twice on first day followed by single dose
twice daily for 3-5 days.








What is the home remedy?
In case of retained placenta problem or if you feel like some part of placenta is
still inside the cattle, then take dried seeds of 1 kg amla and grind it. Make five
doses of it and each dose should comprise of 200 grams, give this dose for five
days. Means give one dose every day. This method will cleanse out the cattle
uterus completely.