APUNTES DE GRAMMAR - I - LICENCIATURA .docx

PARTS OF SPEECH
UNIT 1

LEXICAL / CONTENT WORDS FUNCTION/ STRUCTURAL WORDS

LEXICAL VERBS: carry meaning AUXILIARY VERBS: lack meaning/ are added to the main
Can express: * actions/ physical activity verb to make questions & negative statements
*mental/ intellectual activity SUBDIVISION: Primary Auxiliary Verbs: BE, DO, HAVE (tenses & +)
*states / feelings Secondary/modal Auxiliary Verbs: will/would,
Can/could, may/might, must, need, dare)
NOUNS: animals, events, feelings, ideas, objects, *also called defective as they have only one form
people & states Semi-modals/modal idioms: ought/ have/ used/
 Can be * the subject or the object of the verb be going TO, HAD better, etc. (multiword
*modified by an adjective & take a determiner constructions that can function like modal verbs)
*divided into COUNTABLE nouns, UNCOUNTABLE
nouns, PROPER nouns & COLLECTIVE nouns NOUN DETERMINERS: restricts the meaning of a noun by
limiting its reference
ADJECTIVES: *modify nouns or pronouns * Articles: DEFINITE article - THE
*describe the qualities of people, things INDEFINITE article – A/ AN
& abstractions ZERO article
*do not take plural/ sing. form * Possessive Determiners: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
* Can be used: ATTRIBUTIVELY (before nouns), are used with nouns to show possession/ ownership
PREDICATEVELY (after be, become, look, seem & others) * Demonstrative Determiners: this, that, these, those show
POSTPOSITEVELY (after the noun they modify) whether the noun they refer to is pl. or sing. & if it is
near or far from the speaker or writer.
*Quantifiers: + express quantity
ADVERBS: * add information about the circumstances of an + can be a single word or a phrase & are used with nouns,
event or situation both countable or uncountable to express quantity or
*state HOW, WHEN, WHERE, HOW OFTEN sth happens amount
* can modify ADJECTIVES or ADVERBS often adding + if the quantity is definite, the quantifier may be referred
meaning related to degree or intensity to as a numeral
+ some, much, many, (a) few, (a) little, a lot, half, three,
second are some of the most used quantifiers

CONJUNCTIONS: + to combine 2 clauses in a sentence & to
indicate a relationship between them.
+ 2 types, they indicate the different kinds of relationship
between clauses in a sentence
*COORDINATING C.: link 2 or + clauses of equal
importance (AND, BUT, OR)
* SUBORDINATING C.: link 2 clauses, one of which
depends on the other (WHEN, IF, BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, etc.)

PREPOSITIONS: linking words that introduce prepositional
Phrases, i.e., prep. + noun/noun phrase
* it is always complemented by a noun/ noun equivalent,
for example, an –ing form (gerund)
*about, after, around, apart from, by, because of, down, due to,
despite, from, into, towards, without

PRONOUNS: fill the position of a noun or a whole noun
phrase
* can perform referential functions, i.e., they either refer to sth
that has already been mentioned or that is going to be mentioned. The
reference of a pronoun is usually made clear by its context.
*some determiners can work as pronouns –this, that, these,
those-. In this case, they are called demonstrative pronouns
*Classification: + subject pronouns: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
+ object pron.: me, you, him, her, its, us, them
+ possessive pron.: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs
+ reflexive pron.: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself,
ourselves, yourselves, themselves
+ indefinite pron.: nobody, anybody, somebody, no one,
everybody
+ reciprocal pron.: each other, one another
+ interrogative pron.: who, which

PASSIVE VOICE – UNIT 3

Grammatical category that allows us to see the action of a sentence PASSIVIZATION OF THE ACTIVE SENTENCE
in either 2 ways, without change in the facts reported.

Many actions involve two people/ things –one that performs the
action (doer) and 1 that is affected by the action (recipient/ beneficiary)

these actions are typically referred to using transitive verbs

in English the person/ thing we talk about is usually put 1
st
as the
subject of the clause, that would be the performer of the action (agent)

if we want to focus on the thing/person affected by the action, which
would be the object of an active form of a verb, we should make it he subject
of a passive form of the verb.

Passive senteces frequently occur in written discourse such as fiction,
newspaper articles and academic articles.

The PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS, the PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS,
the FUTURE CONTINUOUS and the FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS are not
normally used in the passive.

IMPORTANT: in keeping with subject-verb agreement, the passive sentence
verb agrees in number with the NP that has been moved into subject position.

VERBS WITH 2 OBJECTS
*with active to dative verbs which take 2 objects such as bring, tell, send, show,
buy, write, sell, etc., two passive sentences are possible:
- ACTIVE VOICE, PREPOSITIONAL PATTERN
- ACTIVE VOICE, DATIVE MOVEMENT PATTERN

I wrote two letters to the company.
1- The object NP in the active sentence moved into subject
position in the passive sentence;
2- The subject NP moved to the end of the sentence and by was
inserted before it – the sentence now has an agent by phrase
or agent complement.
3- The main verb was changed to its past participle form and the
appropriate form of the verb to be, was inserted before it.
PRESENT SIMPLE
PRESENT CONTINUOUS
PAST SIMPLE
PAST CONTINUOUS
PRESENT PERFECT
PAST PERFECT
BE GOING TO
FUTURE SIMPLE
FUTURE PERFECT
MODALS

Mary bought an expensive equipment to join the team.
 An expensive equipment was bought by Mary to join the team.
 To join the team, an expensive equipment was bought by
Mary.

*The company was written two letters by me.
* Two letters were written to the company by me.

VERBS WITH 2 OBJECTS
*when the verb is a for dative verb, English speakers judge as grammatical Ex. My brother sold his car to Judge Cortez.
only passives converted from active sentences in the prepositional pattern. * His car was sold to judge Cortez by brother.
 Thus, an attempt to convert the dative movement pattern sentence * Judge Cortez was sold his car by my brother. (ambiguity)
into a passive results in an ungrammatical sentence. +ungrammatical/ unacceptable

the use of “by” + agent (=”doer”) after a passive
 Not mentioning the agent: 1- when we do not know who or what the agent is or when the
As in most passive sentences we have no interest in who or what performs the agent is the natural doer of the action.
action, agentless or short passives are most common in both written and 2- when the action (or the result of the action) is far more
spoken English than are passives with an agent phrase, called long passives. Important than the doer of the action.
3- when the agent has already been mentioned or is understood
by the context.
4- when people in general are the agents
5- when we wish to conceal or hide the agent’s identity to avoid
blaming ir assigning responsibility for a mistake or to distance
ourselves from our own action.
6- when we want to avoid “you” orders and rules.

 Mentioning the agent 1- when we think the information is important, especially if we
The reason why speakers and writers choose to keep the agent by phrase in a want to say more about the agent, for example with a relative
passive sentence is that it represents new information that is important in clause.
some way. 1.a- when the writer decides to put information that is new and
long after the information that is old. It is usually placed at the
end of a sentence to facilitate processing.
2- when we need to say who or what is responsible for an event.
2.a- we often use “by” + AGENT with the passive of the verbs like
build, compose, damage, design, destroy, discover, invent,
make and write, to identify who or what is/was responsible
for the action.
3- when the agent’s identity is surprising or unexpected.

SPECIAL USES
A- Passive reporting structures IMPERSONAL it CONSTRUCTION
 We use reporting structures with reporting verbs such as said, it + be + past participle of reporting verb + (that) clause
thought, believed, claimed, reported, suggested. The speaker in passive
reporting structures is often unknown or unimportant. Passive reporting ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
are also used when someone wishes to remain anonymous.
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………………………………………….

PASSIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
He/ She/ They + be + past participle of reporting verb + infinitive
( to infinitive or perfect infinitive as appropriate)

B- “THE OBJECT COMPLEMENT”
Group of transitive verbs which can have a complement after their object. People elected him President in August.
. When these verbs are used in the passive, the complement is DO DO
put immediately after the verb. THEY CONSIDERED HIM A GOOD MAN.
In August, he was elected President.
S Cs

C- SPECIAL VERBS a- SEE + SOMEBODY + VERB + SOMETHING
………………………………………………………………………

b- MAKE + SOMEBODY + VERB + SOMETHING
……………………………………………………………………….

c- LET + SOMEBODY + VERB + SOMETHING
………………………………………………………………………..

d- STEAL
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

THE VERB PRHASE – UNIT 2
In English a number of different features are marked on the verb and serve to situate and contextualize its usage. TENSE, MOOD, ASPECT and VOICE are the most common of
these type of features.
TENSE MOOD ASPECT VOICE
 Linguistic
device or
category
varying from
L’ to L’.
 Is a purely
grammatical
idea.

BUT:
 Time –
present, past
and future- is
universal and
independent
of any
particular L’.
 Time is a
universal,
nonlinguistic
concept with
3
dimensions.
 Time is an
element of
our
experience
of reality.
1-has to do with the emotional attitude of the speaker towards the action.
2- it refers to the factual or non-factual status of events. Here, non-factual means
events which do not happen or are only desired.
3- 3 moods:
*INDICATIVE/ DECLARATIVE:
 Factual mood
 It is the most frequent mood in English
 Involves all the choices available concerning person, tense, mood, aspect,
modality & voice.

*IMPERATIVE:
 Non-factual
 Possible definition: construction whose primary characteristic is to issue
directives (commands, offers, requests, invitations, advice, instructions).
 It involves the base form of the verb, which means that verb is FINITE.
 Is a very direct way of telling people to do sth.
 It can sound politer by using do or please, before it.

*SUBJUNCTIVE:
 Non-factual
 Not so frequent in English. Generally, it is an optional and stylistically
variant of other constructions.
 Refers to wishes, desires and suggestions.
 Used after a very limited number of verbs (e.g. suggest, insist, recommend,
demand, wish, imagine, supposed).
 Occasionally, after conditional subordinators, expressions of necessity & a
limited number of set phrases.
 The subjunctive is rather formal, esp. in BrEng.

FORMS
They are realized by the base form of the verb. So, when the clause has a plural
subject, there is normally no difference between the indicative and the subjunctive
mood
 Grammatical
category that
expresses how an
action, event or
state, denoted by
the verb, relates to
the flow of time.
 It adds information
about the speaker’s
perspective on time,
i.e., the
completeness or
incompleteness of an
action.
 3 aspects:
*simple (or unmarked)
- refers to the whole of an
activity or an event, and not just
a part of it.

*progressive
- describes an event (or series of
events)at some point between
its beginning and its end.
- it is used with activity
(dynamic) verbs
- the activity is more important
than the result.
- formed with TO BE + ING form
of a lexical verb.
- it concerns the speaker’s
perception of events as
unfolding in time, with no

a- two voices:
active &
passive
b- it gives
information
about the
roles of
different
participants in
an event, i.e.
it shows
whether a
person is
doing or
receiving an
action.
c- The active
voice is used
most
commonly.
d- The passive
has an
additional
auxiliary: a
form of the
auxiliary be +
ED participle.
e- The passive is
a way of
phrasing the
sentence so
that the
subject does
not refer to

*PRESENT SUBJUNTIVE
- mandative subjuntive:
1- involves the base form of the verb with no inflections, with no apparent agreement
with its subject; however, the verb is finite.
2- used in that clauses after expressions denoting demands, recommendations,
proposal, intention contained in subordinate clauses.
3- IMPORTANT. Even when the verb is in the past tense, the present subj. is used.
Ex. They requested that he pay the bills.
4- it can also be used after adjectives such as advisable, essential, important, vital,
urgent, best, etc.
5- to form a negative with these expressions, we should place NOT before the simple
form of the verb.
6- to sound less formal, we can avoid them:
a- By using the indicative mood
Ex. I suggest that he takes the baby out.

b- By using should + bare infinitive
Ex. They ordered that she should not leave.

-formulaic subjunctive:
1- consists on the base form
2- only used in clauses in certain set of expressions which have to be learned as
wholes. They are usually used in exclamations to express wish or hope, very often
involving supernatural powers.
Ex. God save the Queen!
Heaven forbid that…
Damn you!
Peace be with you!

*SUBJUNCTIVE WERE or PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
1- called like this since it survives as a distinguishable form only in the past of the verb
to be.
2- hypothetical or unreal in meaning, it is used in adverbial clauses introduced by
conjunctions like if, as if, though, as though,
3- used in nominal clauses after verbs like wish, supposed & imagine.
4- the previous are called counterfactual because they always imply that the situation
described is actually not the case.

reference to starting or finishing
points.

*perfect
- formed with TO HAVE + ED
form a lexical verb.
- it gives information about the
duration of events and the
relationship of events to one
another in time.
- concerned with the speaker’s
perspective on the relationship
between one time frame and an
event that takes place in
another time frame.

Grammatical aspect & meaning
relationship
 Imperfective: the
action is considered
to be incomplete.
 Perfective: the
action is considered
to be complete.

the person or
thing
responsible
(directly or
indirectly) for
an action.
f- The passive
also differs
from the
active voice in
the position
of certain
noun phrases
(the subject,
the direct
object, and
the indirect
object).

Drink, Cry, Walk,
Remember, Love, etc.
Be, become, feel,
stay, remain, etc.
FINITE VERBS NON-FINITE VERBS

1-do not show tense or mood.
2- indicate aspect & voice.
3- in a non-finite verb phrase,
all the verbs are non-finite.

FORMS
 Infinitive f.
*to infinitive
*bare infinitive
*perfect infinitive
*progressive infinitive
 -ing
 Past participle

LEXICAL VERBS AUXILIARY VERBS

ACTION VERBS LINKING VERBS PRIMARY AUXILIARIES SECONDARY/ MODAL AUXILIARIES

BE, HAVE, DO CAN, COULD, MUST, ETC.

CORE
MODAL V.

SEMI-MODAL V.

MODAL
EXPRESSIONS

In a sentence, the verb is the word that typically expresses the action taken by the subject of the sentence,
or the state of affairs that concerns the subject. The verb is what makes a group of words into a sentence.
*biggest class, includes most verbs
*they denote action, state and event.
*they are an open class.
*carry the base meaning of verb forms
*may occur with or without auxiliaries

*add information to the lexical verb
*help the main verb to make up
verb phrases
*form negative, interrogative
(subject-operator invesion),
emphatic forms and question tags.

*closed class
* indicate clause type (? or -)
* indicate aspect
* indicate passive voice
* can also be used as lexical verbs

Can
Could
Shall
Will
Would
Must
Might
May

Dare
Need
Ought to
Used to

Be able to
Have (got) to

1-MODAL VERBS add information to
the lexical verb, mainly concerning
degrees of certainty or necessity.
2- modal & P.A. verbs precede lexical
verbs.
3- a modal & a P.A. verb can occur
together; in that case, the modal
verb comes first.
4- a typical verb phrase consists of a
main verb + a maximum of 4 auxiliary
verbs.

*verbs that make a group of
words into a sentence.
* it may be an action, linking or
an auxiliary verb.
* show tense, mood, aspect and
voice.
* they occur when there is
person & number agreement
between the subject & the finite
verb.
* in a finite verb phrase the 1
st

or only verb is finite, and the
others (if any) are non-finite.

FORMS
 Base form
 3
rd
sing person
 Past form

Present Progressive Past simple Present perfect tense Present perfect progressive
1-indicates an activity in
progress at the very moment of
speaking.
*- the action began in the
recent past, is continuing in the
present and will probably end at
some point of time in the
future.
*- here, we can see that the 3
main characteristics of the
progressive aspect:
(incompleteness, temporariness
and emphasis on duration) are
present.
*- time adverbs like right now,
currently, at present emphasize
the immediacy of the ongoing
action.

2-used to refer to an action that
is habitual or repeated, but for
or over a limited period of time.
*- they are temporary actions
that are going on around now,
but not at the actual moment of
speaking.
*- adverbs of time like these
days, this month, this academic
year, are essential to denote
this meaning.

A-expresses permanent actions, timeless actions or eternal truths.

#-here, the verb is completely timeless, the present is used without
reference to any specific time (past or future).
--- they are statements of what was true in the past, is true now and
is likely to be true in the future.
#- it is found in scientific, mathematical, geographical, proverbial,
and other statements made for all times.

B-expresses actions or events that are considered as permanent
(simple facts, abilities and continuous states).

C-expresses habitual actions, we refer to a series of individual events
which as a whole make up a state stretching back into a the past and
forward into the future.

#- so, the verb indicates an established habit, not just a single action.
#- the action does not necessarily happen at the moment of
speaking.
#- adverbs of frequency and adverb phrases such as always,
generally, often, every day, twice a week are often used ti specify
the frequency of the repetition.

D- indicates actual present or instantaneous present.

#- the verbs refers to a single action begun and completed near the
moment of speech.
#- many times, the event does not occur exactly at the instant when
it is mentioned; the “simultaneity” is subjective rather than
objective.
#- it implies that the event, which has limited or no duration, does
not occur outside some rather restricted situations like:
*report and commentaries, especially on the radio where the
commentator is reporting something that the listener cannot see
* in demonstrations and other self-commentaries.

 Relates the past and the
present in various ways:
a-activity or state which begins in
the past and continues up to the
moment of speaking.
--the activity has not finished yet
-- the adverbial phrases/ clauses
are obligatory because their
omission changes the meaning.
FOR = PERIOD OF TIME
SINCE= POINT OF TIME

b- a habit or repeated event,
usually shown by adverbs of
frequency, in a period of time
leading up to the present.

c-actions that begun and finished
in the past (before the moment of
speaking).
--the time is not specified at all
either because it is not important,
not known or imprecise.
-- using the present perfect instead
of the simple past, shows that the
past is irrelevant to a present
situation as we are interested in
the results of the action.

d- indicates an activity completed
in the immediate, recent –but also
indefinite- past time.
--the action happened a short time
ago.
-- the adverbials just, lately, and
recently emphasize recency.

(+) indicates an activity
which started in the past
and is still in progress at the
time of speaking.
+* the action may or may
not go into the future.
+* it puts emphasis on the
duration of the action and
on the imperfective
meaning.

(+) indicates a (temporary)
habit which started in the
past and has continued up
to the present.

(+) expresses a complete
action that has been in
progress during a present
incomplete period of time.

3-refers to an action that is
repeated frequently (more
often than expected).
*- there is usually (though not
necessarily) annoyance,
irritation, disapproval on the
part of the speaker.
*- here, the progressive loses its
semantic component of
temporariness.
*- adverbs of frequency are
used to reinforce the idea of
repetition and to describe and
emphasize a never ending
series of events.

4- used to express changing
situations or states developing
into other states.
*- the verbs indicates “increase”
or “decrease” in an activity.
*- usually used with
comparative adverbials,
adjectives or quantifiers as
more and more, faster and
faster, little by little, fewer and
fewer, etc.

5- indicates and activity which
has been arranged for the near
future, before hand.
*- this future meaning has to be
contextualized by adverbs and
other time expressions (later,
tomorrow, etc).

E- expresses future time reference

1- when the action is very certain to happen.
#- it is called future as a fact, as the possibility of changing this action
is out of the question.
#- many times, it is used to refer to timetables or programmes.
#- these sentences usually contain future time words unless the
future time reference is given by the context.
2- refers to the future in subordinate clauses when the verb in the
main clause is in the future tense or the imperative.

F- historical present
#- characteristic of popular narrative style.
#- describes the past as if is happening now.
#- conveys some of the dramatic immediacy of an eye-witness
account.

1)conversational & narrative historical present
++ can be considered a metaphorical use of the present tense, a
device used to make the narrative appear more vividly by
assimilating it to the here-and-now of the speech act.

2) a different kind is found with “verbs of communication” (say, tell,
inform, learn, suggest, hear, gather, understand, write) to refer to a
past communication.
++ here, the communication is still in force for those who have
receive it, and so the present tense is allowed.
++ the present tense serves to background the communication
occurrences themselves and to foreground their content, expressed
in the subordinate clause.

3) newspaper headlines reporting recent events often use the
simple present, as the essence of news coverage is its immediacy.
++ framing the bold headline statements in the present tense gives
them a sense of urgency and excitement, increasing its news value
to the reader.
e- refers to an action that
happened (or never happened)
before now, at an indefinite,
unspecified time in the past.
--we can use “already” in questions
to express our surprise at the fact
that sth happened sooner than
expected.
-- we use “already” in affirmative
sentences to emphasize the fact
that an action has happened
before the present moment in
time.
YET= UP UNTIL NOW, BY A PARTICULAR
TIME, NOT IN A PERIOD OF TIME
BETWEEN BWFORE NOW AND NOW

f-an action that was completed
during a present incomplete period
of time
--that period is not over at the
moment of speaking
-- we generally use adverbs or
adverbial phrases like today, this
week, this year, etc. as these
expressions denote a period of
time that refers partly to the past
and partly to the present.

g-to describe or talk about a
specific number of times we have
completed or done sth in the past.

h-to convey future time reference,
especially in adverbial clauses of
time or condition.
(+) if there is no adverbial of
duration, it often implies
that the effects of what
happened are still visible.
+* the action started in the
past and lasted for some
time.
+* the action may have
finished or may still be going
on.

(+) used to express anger,
annoyance, irritation, or to
demand an explanation,
especially in questions with
“what” and “who”.

STATIVE
VERBS
 Describe states (i.e. conditions that exist, they have not beginning and no end) or situations that we do not expect to change.
 They do not describe actions.
 The problem is a fundamental semantic conflict between a grammatical aspect that expresses a stable state.
 However, the progressive can occur with stative verbs to achieve certain effects. The progressive turns states into events.

Verbs of
existing
BE, EXIST, CONSIST, CONTAIN, HOLD  The verb to be is the most central and characteristic of stative verbs
 Can frequently be used in the paraphrasing of other stative verbs.
 Vey few adjectives are used with BE in the progressive (foolish, nice, kind, lazy, patient, rude, silly,
careful, polite, impolite)
Ex. You’re being very polite these days. What do you need?
Mary is holding her breathing as part of her training for diving.
Verbs of senses TASTE, SMELL, HEAR, FEEL, SEE  The verbs hear and see refer to involuntary reactions which correspond to the deliberate acts of
“listening” and “looking” (voluntary activities)
 When the verbs feel and look are used to refer to physical condition or state, they can occur freely
in the simple present tense or in the progressive form with no change of meaning :
Ex. You look good/ you’re looking good.
Non conclusive
verbs
APPRECIATE ADORE BELIEVE
CARE DOUBT DISLIKE
EXPECT FEEL FORGET
HATE IMAGINE INTEND
KNOW LOVE LIKE
MIND MEAN PREFER
REALISE REMEMBER SUPPOSE
THINK UNDERSTAND WANT
 Verbs that denote various mental perceptions, states of mind or feelings (emotional states)
 These verbs may denote a feeling such as liking or knowledge or understanding.
 These activities cannot be started or stopped at will.
 However, some of these verbs are also commonly used as progressive verbs, with a difference in
meaning.
Ex. I consider Italy a great touristic destiny. = stative verb (think)
I’m considering moving to Italy. = dynamic verb (analyzing)
Verbs showing
possession
HAVE BELONG POSSES
LACK OWN INCLUDE
Ex. I’ve got a lovely bath. (own) stative verb
I’m having a lovely bath. (I’m washing myself) dynamic verb

Some idioms with “have” behaving as action or dynamic verbs include:
HAVE breakfast/ lunch/ dinner/ etc
a bath/ a shower/ a party/ etc
an accident/ a dream/ an experience/ a baby/ etc.
difficulty with/ trouble with/ fun/ a good time/ problems/ etc.
Verbs of
appearance
APPEAR RESEMBLE SEEM
Other existing
verbs
CONCERN COST DEPEND WEIGH
DESERVE FIT
 The verbs hurt and ache can be used in either the continuous or simple tenses with no difference in
meaning.

Simple past

Past progressive

Past perfect simple

Past perfect progressive

There are 2 elements of meaning:

a-“the happening takes place
before the present moment”, i.e.
the present moment is excluded as
the action is already finished.

b-“the speaker has a definite time
in mind”. This is named by an
adverbial expression accompanying
the past verb.

USES
1-refers to an action or state that
begun and finished in the past.
1.1- We are interested in when the
action place, so we usually use
adverbial expressions that
indicate the specific point in
time when the action occurred.

2-to indicate a definite period of
past time.

3- to express past habits or states
that are now finished.

A-we use it when we are interested mainly
in the past activity and its duration.
A.1-it expresses a single activity in progress
in the past.
A.2- the 3 main characteristics are:
*it has duration (in progress)
* it has limited duration (temporariness)
* it is not complete (incompleteness)

B-indicates that an action was repeated
(but not permanent) over a limited period
of time.

C-indicates repeated and sporadic past
actions that show (though not necessarily)
annoyance, irritation, disapproval,
exasperation on the part of the speaker.
C.1- adverbs of frequency are usually used
to reinforce the idea of repetition.

D-to give a descriptive background to a
narrative (a story in the past tense).
1- refers to a past action previous to another past
action or stated time in the past.

(#)- it expresses “past in the past” or “earlier
past”
(#)- the use of adverbial clauses of time,
especially when introduced by the subordinating
conjunctions after and before make the use of
the Past Perfect tense optional, since these
subordinators themselves establish the sequence
of events.

EXCEPTION
(#) when we use the subordinating conjunctions
“before”, the verb in the Simple Past can refer to
sth that takes place before the verb in the Past
Perfect. The 1
st
action may prevent the 2
nd
one
from happening.

Ex. The waiter took my plate away before I had
finished eating.

2-denotes an incomplete past action that had
started before another past action and had lasted
for some time.

3-used to express an action which has started
and finished in the past and whose results were
visible in the past. This is the “Resultative Past in
the Past”.

A-used to put emphasis on the
duration of an action which started
in the past and finished in the past
before another past action or stated
time in the past, usually with “for”
or “since” or with an adverbial
clause of time.

B-Resultative past in the past: it
expresses lengthy past actions
which visible consequences in the
past.
Ex. Tommy had been playing in the
mud all the afternoon, so he dirtied
all his clothes.

SEQUENCES OF PAST TENSES

(*)The Simple Past tense is used to
refer to 2 completely past actions
which took place in sequence.

Ex. Alison wrote a letter and sent it
to me.

Here, if the order of the actions
changes, the sentences will mean sth
different or even will have no sense.

Ex. Mr. Smith called the police when he
found the dead body.

Here, there are 2 complete past actions
took place in sequence.
The subordinating conjunction “when”
introduces the action that happened first.
The Past Simple is used in both clauses.

Ex. Alison enjoyed and admired the sonnets
of Petrarch when she was a teenager.

Here, the Simple Past is used to refer to two
completely past actions which took place
simultaneously; thus, if the order of the
actions is reversed, the meaning does not
change.

Ex. While Alison was reading the paper,
her husband was watching TV.

The Past Progressive tense is used to
refer to two actions that were taking
place simultaneously in the past.
The subordinating conjunction “while”
introduces an action in progress (it
means “during that time”).

Ex. He was racing down the
motorway when a tyre burst.

In this case, there is an action that
was in progress in the past
(expressed in the Past Progressive)
when another past action (expressed
In the Past Simple) took place and
interrupted it.

Ex. Phil was having dinner when he
heard the news about the accident.

In this case, we combine the Past
Progressive and the Past Simple tenses to
show that the 1
st
action began and was
still in progress when the 2
nd
one took
place. It is possible that the 1
st
action
continued after the 2
nd
one finished.

Ex. He begun working in his father’s office
when he had completed his University
studies.

Here, there are two past actions, but one
occurred after the other.
We use the Past Perfect tense to show which
one took place before.

Ex. I got to work after Simon arrived/
had arrived.

If the time sequence is clear (e.g.
because we use after), both the Simple
Past and the Past Perfect are possible.

DIFFERENT WAYS OF EXPRESSING FUTURE TIME REFERENCE IN ENGLISH
In reference to tense, the threefold opposition present, past and future time is reduced to two, since morphologically English has no further form of the verb in addition to
present and past forms. Thus, following Quirk et al (1985:176) the course says that certain grammatical constructions are capable of expressing the semantic category of
FUTURE TIME.

Simple Future Future Progressive Future Perfect Future Perfect Progressive Be Going to form
a)to talk about sth that has been planned.
Ex. Tomorrow, we will have a test.

In informal style, “will” is used to talk about
future events that have been previously
arranged in some detail.
Ex. We will start now until 9.30 when will have
a 15 minutes break.

b)to tell about an action, event or state that
definitely going to happen in the future.
Ex. Next year, I will be fourty-one.

c)to express general predictions about the
future based on opinion or experience.
Ex. Look at the ants! It will surely rain.

d) used to express “on-the-spot decisions”. It
actually represents the process of decision-
making.
Ex. Look at those strawberries! I’ll buy some.

e) “WILL” is also used to express fears, hopes,
invitations, promises, refusal, threats,
warnings, willingness.
Ex. Stop getting late or you will get a
suspension.

f) It expresses requests and offers.
Ex. Will you help me taking out the garbage,
please? The bags are too heavy.
A-used to indicate an action that
will be taking place, in progress
(imperfective aspect), at a certain,
stated time in the future.
Ex. We’ll be having a test
tomorrow this time. It’s our last
opportunity to pass the subject.

B) can express Pure Future or
Future as a matter of course.
B.1. This is called Pure Future
because it is not contaminated by
any modal attitude.
B.2. In this case, we use it to refer
to an action that will definitely
happen in the future as a result of
a routine or arrangement.
Ex. The priest will be holding the
same service at 8 and 9.30 sharp,
as usual.

IMPORTANT
In certain contexts, there is no
difference in meaning between this
use of the Future Progressive and
the Present Progressive to refer to
future actions that are pre-
arranged.
Ex. I am moving/ will be moving
home tomorrow morning.

(*) Refers to an action that
will have been completed
prior to or by (not later
that) a certain time in the
future.

(**) When we use this
structure, we think of a
future time and look back
from that future time to
say that sth will be
complete.

(***) The aspect of this
tense is perfective and
therefore, it puts emphasis
on the completion of the
activity and on its
consequences.
Ex. I will have paid all my
debts by Christmas.

 Refers to an
action that
began before a
certain future
time, but will
not have been
completed by
then.
 It is used to
emphasize the
duration of an
action up to a
certain time in
the future
(imperfective
aspect).
 The action may
continue
further.

Ex. By December, I will
have saved $57.000.

1-Future fulfillment of a
present intention/ plan /
ambition:
+ chiefly used with
personal subjects as the
speaker has the firm
intention of performing
or fulfilling an action.
Ex. I’m going to take
more hours next year.

2- Future fulfillment of a
present cause:
++ used to show the
future culmination of a
present cause. It is used
in predictions where
there is evidence that sth
will happen in the near
future.
Ex. It is going to rain.
(There are dark clouds
and thunders).

M
O
D
A
L
S

ABILITY
PRESENT/ FUTURE CAN * to describe ability or lack of it. * to describe what is allowed or not.
CAN’T * with a future meaning * with verbs of perception (hear, see, taste, smell, feel)
CANNOT is the formal and written form of CAN’T.
BE ABLE TO is used instead of CAN (means the same) to express other tenses (can has only present & past
forms) and the infinitive form.
PAST COULD * to describe past ability
COULDN’T * to describe what was allowed or not allowed
*could not is used in formal speech and writing
WAS/WERE ABLE TO used instead of could/ couldn’t to describe past ability in general
*used to express that we could do sth and we actually did it

OBLIGATION
PRESENT/ FUTURE HAVE TO/ HAS TO describe what is necessary, a rule, or sth we do because other people tell us to.
DON’T HAVE TO means “lack of necessity”
MUST/ MUSTN’T describe sth we personally think is necessary and important to do.
WILL* in formal language and writing we can use will to describe a rule.
PAST HAD TO * both are past forms of have to & must
DIDN’T HAVE TO * to describe past obligation, for both must and have to

NECESSITY
PRESENT/ FUTURE NEED TO has the same meaning as HAVE TO, more formal in use.

PAST NEEDED TO (regular verb) use it to describe what was necessary
DIDN’T NEED TO to describe what was not necessary
NEEDN’T HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE (a form of a modal verb need) to say that what so did was not necessary
Uncertainty &
POSSIBILITY
PRESENT/ FUTURE MAY * use MAY/ MIGHT NOT + bare infinitive to describe things that will possibly not happen
MIGHT * (+ bare infinitive) to describe things that will possibly happen
COULD *
CAN + bare infinitive to describe a possibility in general, but not with a future time reference
PAST COULD * to describe things that possibly happened in the past
MAY + HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE * use COULD/ MIGHT to criticize someone’s actions / to make a
MIGHT contrast between what was possible in the past and what
actually happened.

CRITICISM
PAST SHOULD HAVE
SHOULDN’T HAVE
OUGHT TO HAVEV
OUGHT NOT TO HAVE

CERTAINTY
PRESENT WILL + BARE INFINITIVE when we are certain sth will happen in the future
MUST + BASE INFINITIVE when we are certain sth is true (usually with be), or when we suppose what a
situation is like
CAN’T + BARE INFINITIVE when we are certain sth is not true (usually with be) or impossible
Use to criticize a past action

M
O
D
A
L
S

PAST CAN’T HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE when we are certain sth was not true
MUST HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE when we are certain sth was true

UNCERTAINTY
PRESENT CAN + BASE INFINITIVE (negative uncertainty)
PAST COULD * to describe things that will possibly happen
MAY + bare infinitive * use MAY/ MIGHT NOT + bare infinitive to describe things that will
MIGHT possibly not happen in the future
COULD, MAY, MIGHT
( HAVE)

 In conditional sentences, when the results are not certain
REQUESTS:

POLITE CAN
MORE POLITE COULD …?
WOULD …?
DO YOU THINK YOU COULD…?
COULD YOU POSSIBLY…?
DO/ WOULD YOU MIND… ? RESPONSES: SURE./ OF COURSE./ NO PROBLEM.
Ask for
PERMISSION
when we want to be
allowed to do sth.
POLITE CAN I/ YOU….? YES, YOU CAN. / NO, YOU CAN’T.

MORE POLITE
COULD I…? THAT’S ALL RIGHT. / SORRY, NO.
MAY I …?
DO YOU MIND IF I…? IS IT ALL RIGHT IF I…? DO YOU THINK I COULD… ?
ADVICE: it involves
telling another
person what they
should do.

PRESENT
SHOULD * to say what we think is right or correct, or is a good idea in your opinion, not as strong as must
OUGHT TO * to give advice
HAD BETTER to say that what we think someone should do
The negative is HAD BETTER NOT
I THINK/ I DON’T THINK
I’D MAKE A DECISION NOW, IF I WERE YOU.
PAST SHOULD/ SHOULDN’T HAVE
OUGHT TO HAVE/ OUGHT NOT TO HAVE
IF I WERE YOU, I WOULDN’T MAKE A DECISION NOW.
SUGGESTIONS: is an
idea about what we
or other people could
do.
LET’S… HOW ABOUT …? SHALL …?
WHY DON’T (WE) …? / WHY DON’T YOU…? / WHY DOESN’T SHE… ?
WE COULD ….
OFFERS When we ask if
someone wants us to
do sth, or say that
we will do it.
SHALL I…? YES, PLEASE.
I’LL OPEN THE WINDOWS. THANKS.
 It can also mean asking someone if they want something.
WOULD YOU LIKE …? YES, PLEASE. / NO, THANKS.
PROMISES I WILL … . I WON’T … .
Way of politely asking someone to do sth. The kind of request we use
depends on where we are, who we are talking to, and what we want
the person to do.

UNIT 4 - THE NOUN PHRASE syntactic unit with a structure that can range from very simple to very complex. It can have several functions in the sentence.

It contains both INDEPENDENT and DEPENDENT units MODIFIER: a unit dependent on the main word and can be omitted (Greenbaun & Nelson)
Pre-modifier –it comes before the head- & Post-modifier –it comes after the head-.

An indispensable element is the HEAD, without it there is no NPs.
Most of the time, the head is a NOUN, but

It can also be a NOUN EQUIVALENT: * PRONOUNS, are usually called noun equivalents and frequently constitute the heads of
a NP. They are much more common in informal registers.
*DETERMINATIVE: for a great number of NPs, they cannot be omitted either. One clear
example is the definite article the.

NOUNS make up for the largest category in terms of number of dictionary entries, and in texts we find more nouns than words of any other category.
We use nouns for the purpose of identification: nouns allow us to put names to people, things, places, concepts and ideas in the world around us.
CLASSIFICATION * countable nouns: they have both singular and plural forms.
Those nouns that are preceded by “a/ an” are countable and are always singular.
A singular countable noun is usually preceded by a, an, the or some other determiner (my, some, three, etc.).
They answer the question how many (How many pens have you got?)
We can use a numeral as a determiner (one tree, two trees, etc.)

*uncountable nouns Mass nouns: they cannot be easily counted or divided
Abstract nouns: they refer to general concepts or ideas
We do not normally use a/an as determiners ( Love is important in life.)
They do not normally have a plural form; they can be used in the question how much (How much tea…?)
We cannot normally use a numeral as a determiner.

MASS NOUNS Miscellaneous items Luggage, money, vocabulary, equipment, furniture, blood, rubbish, transport, underwear, china, dirt, machinery,
Languages French, Italian
Liquids Water, wine, tea
Food Flour, butter, bread, meat,
Natural elements Rain, snow, heat, sunlight, thunder, weather, lightning, moonlight,
Material Wood, paper, gold, metal
Games/ Sports Tennis, basketball, football
Diseases Mumps, measles, arthritis, flu
Subjects of study Physics, mathematics, medicine, history, poetry, photography

ABSTRACT NOUNS Advice, information, happiness, news, freedom, anger, violence, behavior, courage, education, fun, harm, progress, knowledge, leisure, luck,
permission, length, housework, laughter,

NOUNS WITH DUAL CLASS MEMBERSHIP

Some nouns are uncountable when we talk about the abstract concept, but they are countable when we talk about one specific or individual instance of any state, quality
or concept.
Hair/ a hair
Iron/ an iron
Education/ an education
Your hair looks really nice! / There’s a hair in my taco!
Iron cost had an impressive increase. / We need an iron. We cannot continue wearing wrinkled clothes.
Education and health are the most important inversions in life. / An education of quality has always been priceless.
Light/ truth/ crime/ sound/
understanding/ strength
A light/ a truth/ a crime/ a sound/ an understanding/ a strength

Some nouns which are uncountable when we talk about the material become countable when we refer to a specific thing that has a particular meaning.
Ex. WOOD, PAPER, IRON, CLOTH, ROCK.

Many substances, drinks and food stuffs are uncountable when they are thought of as a mass, but can be countable when they refer to a unit, a piece of specimen or a
particular variety.
Wine
Cheese
Fruit
Beer
An excellent wine
A strong cheese
A very sweet fruit
a beer

In informal English, drinks and some types of food which are normally uncountable can be counted, especially when we are making an order in a café or restaurant.
Ex., tea – a tea/ coffee – three coffees/ soup – two soups/ chicken- a chicken.

Some mass nouns cannot be used to refer to a single item, so a different word must be used: bread a loaf
Clothing a garment
Laughter a laugh
Luggage a bag, a case
Poetry a poem
Money a coin, a note
Work a job

Nouns for animals are count nouns; nouns for meat are mass nouns: a cow / beef
A pig/ pork
A deer/ venison
A sheep/ mutton

PARTITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS

Express both quality partition (which is expressed by a partitive count noun like kind, sort, or type followed by an of-phrase) and quantity partition (a piece of; a bit of; an
item of; etc.)
partitives can be used with mass or count nouns

they are useful when we want to refer to specific pieces of mass nouns (uncountable substance):

They also allow us to make noncount nouns countable: two bottles of water/ two scoops of ice cream / six pounds of coffee

SPECIFIC PARTITIVES “CONTAINERS” USED AS PARTITIVES A GAME OF
A bar/ a slab of chocolate
A cake of soap
A lump of sugar
A sheet of paper
A slice of meat
A tube of toothpaste
A block of wood
A roll of film
A slice of ham
A bit/ a blade of grass
A page of a book
A section of a newspaper
A stroke of good luck
A piece of evidence
A piece of jewelry
A verse of a poem
A gust of wind
A pool of water
A handful of occasions
A pile of laundry/ books
A stick of dynamite
A cube of ice
A rasher of bacon/ ham
A flash/ a bolt of lightning
An item of news/ clothing
A roll/ piece/ sheet of paper
A piece/ a lump of coal
A piece/ a stick of chalk
A branch of tree
A word of information
A suite of furniture
A piece of music
A flake of snow
A shower of rain
A ball of string
A heap of earth
A piece/ a bit of news
A round/ a thunder of applause
A clap/ a peal/ a crash/ a roll of
thunder
A roomful of antiques/ furniture
A cloud/ a speck of dust
A bag of flour A cup of coffee
A jar of jam/ honey A glass of water
A box of cereal A carton of eggs
A bottle of milk A can of beer
A flask of tea A pot of yoghurt
A carton of milk/ orange juice A can of tuna fish
Bridge chess tennis
football
ABSTRACT CONCEPTS
A period of calm A branch of knowledge
A piece of research An atom/ A grain of truth
A bit/ a piece/ a word of advice A fit of anger/ passion
A segment of society An act of courage

SMALL QUANTITIES
A blade of glass A crust of bread
A dash of soda A pinch of salt
A pat of butter A grain of rice
A lock of hair A bit of chalk
A drop of water/ blood A teaspoon of salt

WORDS USED TO TALK ABOUT THE SHAPE OR
APPEARANCE OF THE FOOD ITEM
An ear of corn
A bunch of grapes
A clove / A head of garlic
A head of lettuce
MEASURES
A kilo of sugar A gallon of petrol
A pint of milk A cup of rice
A metre/ a length of cloth A litre of oil
A pound of coffee A tablespoon of sugar
A sack of potatoes/ coal

chalk
a piece cloth
pieces of info
a bit meat
bits plastic
paper

PROPER NOUNS – categories

COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Refer to groups of single entities (people, animals, objects)
They behave like ordinary countable nouns committee, team, club, family, staff, forest, army
They vary in number and definiteness

Quirk et al (1985) divide collective nouns into three categories:
 Specific collective nouns (crew, committee, family, etc.)
 Generic collective nouns (the aristocracy, the clergy, the public, etc.)
 Unique collective nouns (the Arab League, Parliament, the United Nations, the Vatican, etc.)

One special class of collective nouns often comes before an of-phrase describing the members of a group. These are called
 Of-collectives

a set of characteristics a herd of cows a pack of lies a series of accidents a swarm of bees
a group of people a bunch of roses a crowd of fans a flock of sheep a troupe of actors
a pile of books a horde of tourists/ savages a pack of cards a party of cyclists a gang of art thieves
a board of directors a family of mice a team of researchers a pride of lions a troop of monkeys
a pack of wolves a litter of kittens a school of dolphins a chain of events a set of dishes
a list of names a range of numbers a bunch of keys a stack of chairs a clutch of eggs
a row of houses a pile of newspapers a suite of rooms a nest of tables a cluster/ a clump of trees
a fleet of ships/ boats/ ambulances a heap of stones a flight of steps

PERSONAL NAMES NAMES of ANIMALS (pets) GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES PUBLIC BUILDINGS &
INSTITUTIONS
HOLIDAYS, FESTIVALS of the
week
William, Ralph, Sandra, Paul,
Mr. Thompson
Fido, Polly, Felix the Pacific, the Andes, London
University
St. Paul’s Cathedral, The Eiffel
Tower, The Great Wall of China
Christmas, Independence Day,
Carnival, Easter
MONTHS & DAYS of the week NAMES of PEOPLE in FICTION TITLES of books, magazines,
newspapers and movies
LANGUAGES BELIEFS and their followers
Tuesday, Saturday, July, October Aladdin, Robin Hood, Santa
Claus, Harry Potter.
The New Scientists, The Times,
Over the Rainbow, Batman.
French, Spanish, Russian, Buddhism/ Buddhists
Judaism/ Jews
BUSINESS COMPANIES &
OTHER ORGANISATIONS
Longman, the British Council,
Real Madrid FC, the Red Cross
Proper nouns are not used with determiners (except for the definite article in some cases, i.e. the Eiffel Tower, etc.) and they do
not vary in number. Orthographically, they are marked by an initial capital letter.

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL

Most nouns form their plural by adding “s” to the base: chair- chairs / table- tables/ cup- cups

Nouns ending in –s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, -z, add “es”, forming another syllable:
BUT: with nouns ending in ch pronounced /k/, we should add only “s”

Nouns ending in a vowel + -y, take –s in the plural
Nouns ending in a consonant + y, drop the “y” and take –ies in the plural:
HOWEVER, the plural of proper nouns is formed by adding “s”, not “es”: Gary – Garys

Nouns ending in “o” take –es to form the plural form:
SOME NOUNS ENDING IN –O take either –s or –es, ex.: buffalos- buffaloes/ mosquitos- mosquitoes/ volcanos- volcanoes/ zeros- zeroes/ tornados-tornadoes, etc
HOWEVER, some nouns –mostly abbreviations, musical terms of Italian origin, and some words which were originally foreign- take only –s to form the plural:
Kilo- kilos/ memo- memos/ photo- photos/ piano- pianos/ concerto- concertos/ soprano- sopranos/ virtuoso- virtuoso/ libretto- librettos/ tempo- tempos

Nouns ending in f, ff, or ffe add –s to form the plural: roof- rooffs/ chief- chiefs/ cliff- cliffs/ giraffe- giraffes/ sheriff- sheriffs/ cuff- cuffs/ tariff- tariffs/ gaffe- gaffes
There is , however, another group of nouns ending in f that change into –ves to form the plural: calf- calves/ half- halves/ thief- thieves/ self- selves/ shelf- shelves/ etc.
IMPORTANT: with some nouns ending in f both plural endings are possible: scarf- scarfs/ scarves; hoof- hoofs/ hooves; dwarf- dwarfs/ dwarves

There are some nouns which are completely irregular and form the plural by changing the middle vowel: man- men/ tooth- teeth/ mouse- mice/ ox- oxen/ goose- geese

There are some nouns that do not change in the plural: series, deer, sheep, species, trout, spacecraft, aircraft, salmon, carp, reindeer.

There is a group of nouns that look singular but are in fact plural: cattle, people, police, clergy
Although some nouns look plural (they end in s), they are in fact singular: economics, ethics, phonetics, news, mumps, darts, measles, rabies, shingles, AIDS, hiccups, etc.

A number of nouns (in general, things made up or consisting of a set of 2 parts joined together) only occur with a plural suffix and are known as pluralia tantum. Such
nouns are followed by plural verb forms.

Beginnings Pants Glasses Riches Compasses Clothes
Outskirts Oats Wages Tights Auspices Bifocals
Proceedings Shorts Stairs Goods Pliers Earnings
Ashes Customs Annals tweezers Particulars Aerobatics
Condolences Surroundings Binoculars Lodgings Scissors Congratulations
Barracks Archives Munitions Greens Dues Remembrances
Abdominals Trousers Scales Premises Pyjamas Looks
Shears Minutes Bellows Troops Brains Alms

FOREIGN PLURALS
There are a number
of words of Latin or
Greek origin that
keep their foreign
plural forms

LATIN

Alumna- alumnae Alumnus- alumni Axis- axes Bacillus- bacilli Bacterium- bacteria
Erratum- errata Larva- larvae Medium- media Stratum- strata Datum- data
Vertebra- vertebrae Corpus- corpora Nucleous – nuclei Radius- radii

GREEK
Analysis- analyses Basis- bases Crisis- crises Criterion- criteria Hypothesis – hypotheses
Oasis- oases Parenthesis- parentheses Phenomenon – phenomena Synopsis – synopses Thesis – theses
Some words have kept two plural
forms: the original and the English
one
Appendix – appendixes- appendices Aquarium- aquaria – aquariums Cactus- cacti- cactuses
Fungus – fungi – funguses Syllabus- syllabi- syllabuses Curriculum – curricula – curriculums
Focus- foci- focuses Formula – formulae- formulas Maximum – maxima – maximums
Memorandum- memoranda- memorandums Minimum- minima – minimums Retina- retinae – retinas
Symposium- symposia- symposiums
Many foreign words have become
completely naturalised and always
take the English plural.
Album- albums Arena- arenas Asylum- asylums Bonus- bonuses
Campus- campuses Chorus- choruses Circus- circuses Demon- demons
Era- eras Panacea – panaceas Península- penínsulas Solo – solos
Sonata- sonatas Stadium- stadiums Villa- villas
Nouns from French that end in eau
in the singular and in eaux in the
French plural, usually have “s”
endings in English.
Bureau – bureaus
Plateau – plateaus
Tableau - tableaus

PLURAL OF PROPER NOUNS
When proper nouns are re-classiffied as common nouns, they may take the articles and form the plural.
Ex. They consider themselves Shakespeares. (= good writes)
There are two Martins in the class. (= two students called “Martin”)
The Browns are not coming tonight. (= the Brown family)

PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS
Compound nouns – nouns which consist of more than one base- form the plural in different ways:
1-Most compounds are written as one word, so their plural is formed in the regular way.
BUT, when the compound is written as two words, or as words joined by a hyphen, you add –s to
the 2
nd
word.
IMPORTANT: if the las element is a mass noun, the compound has no plural form.
Railways – bookcases – toothbrushes – classrooms
Information offices – fire engines – book clubs – walking sticks

Homework - moonlight
2- If the 1
st
element is a verb, the plural suffix goes at the end. Grown ups /push- ups / breakdowns / forget-me-nots /sit-ins
3- Compounds consisting of a count noun + a preposition or prepositional phrase, take the plural
on the 1
st
element (the noun)
Sisters-in-law / lookers-on / passers-by / runners-up / hangers-on
4- In compounds whose 1
st
element is “man” or “woman”, both elements become plural Manservant- menservants/ Man student- men students
5- Compounds ending in “ful” tend to take the plural in the 2
nd
element; however, they may also
take it in the 2
nd
one.
Mouthful- mouthfuls-mouthsful / spoonful – spoonfuls- spoonsful

GENDER
It refers to the division of nouns into masculine, feminine and neuter. In English, nouns have natural gender, i.e the natural sex distinction determines English gender.

MASCULINE gender for nouns referring to male beings (replaceable by “he”) Boy – man – uncle -
FEMENINE gender for nouns referring to female beings (replaceable by “she”) Girl –woman – aunt
NEUTER gender for nouns referring to inanimate beings (replaceable by “it”) Book – tree- zebra -
Some nouns have COMMON or DUAL gender; that is, they refer to either male or female beings:
 In some cases the feminine is formed by adding “ess” to the masculine
 In two cases the masculine derives from the feminine
 In other cases, the gender is distinguishable by different words
 In words of common gender, the distinction may be shown by a compound in which one element denotes the
sex
Doctor – teacher – student – cousin – friend
Host- hostess actor- actress god- goddess
Widow- widower bride- bridegroom
Ram- ewe lord- lady gander – goose

Manservant – maidservant boyfriend-girlfriend

THE GENITIVE CASE
Ways of making the
possessive form of nouns
1-we add ‘s to singular nouns. This is called the “inflected” genitive. Ex. The boy’s car
2- with some proper names (chiefly classical ones) ending in “s”, we generally use only the apostrophe; however the apostrophe ‘s can also be
used: Hercules’ labours/ Hercules’s labours
3- for plural nouns ending in “s” we add apostrophe only: the girls’ car
4-for plural nouns not ending in “s” we add “’s”: the men’s room the children’s voices
5-the apostrophe “s” forms an additional syllable when the noun ends in a sound to which ‘s cannot be added in the same syllable. This occurs
with proper nouns and monosyllabic words: fox’s horse’s James’s judge’s witch’s
6- when two or more nouns possess the same object, we add the ‘s to the last noun. In this case, the genitive is called the group genitive:
Caroline and Susan’s sister went away last night.
7-when two or more nouns possess an object of the same kind, we add ‘s to each. In this case, the genitive is called the coordinated genitive:
John’s and Arthur’s shoes want polishing.
8- with compounds and nouns consisting of several words, the last word takes the ‘s: My brother-in-law’s car has broken down
The Prince of Wales’s helicopter
Different uses of the
GENITIVE CASE
1-The genitive form with apostrophe “s” is used with personal nouns and personal indefinite pronouns to indicate possessions: John’s car
2-the genitive case can be used as an adjective to qualify or describe a noun. It denotes “connected with”. Ex. A master’s degree
3-the apostrophe form is also used in expressions of time, distance, weight, value, volume or capacity and other measurements:
a week’s tournament- a 3hours’ test / a kilo’s weight of potatoes / a hundred dollar’s coat / a 28km’s trip / a three litres’ Coke

3.1 There is a tendency to put “a” before such expressions and use them as adjectives: a three day job, a ten minute speech, a fifty minute
walk. In this case, such constructions are singular in form and take a singular verb.
The constructions “twenty minute”, “three year”, are adjectival, i.e: they are used as adjectives before a noun. As adjectives in English have no
plural form, the plural ending is not used. Ex. A five kilometre track.
4- the apostrophe form is used with dignified objects (objects which are unique): the sun’s rays / moon’s light / heaven’s door

5- the genitive with apostrophe is also used with some geographical or institutional names: La Rioja’s deputies / the world’s problems
6-the genitive is frequently used elliptically, i.e. without a headword, when referring to business, building, etc. This is called the “independent
genitive” Ex. We’ve been at Mary’s. (house)
7- we also use the possessive ‘s in some expressions of time: last week’s parties / a fortnight’s vacation
8- collective nouns may take the inflected genitive. Ex. Parliament’s power
9- English has a few set expressions consisting of apostrophe form + noun, in which the genitive form has become fixed and the resulting phrase
is an idiom. Ex. To have sth at one finger’s end to be a stone’s thrown away to be at death’s door
To keep someone at arm’s length for goodness’s sake at one’s wits’ ends
In my mind’s eye in/out of harm’s way for old times’ sake
10- if we want to describe sth unusual and different about a person, we can use the of form to indicate sth special:
Adele has the voice of an angel.
11-the double genitive: An “of” genitive can be combined with an apostrophe form. It combines the inflected genitive with the of construction.
Ex. She is an aunt of my mother’s. This is a play of Shakespeare’s.

Notice that the 1
st
noun has indefinite reference (a friend, a cousin…) and the 2
nd
noun must be definite and human (my mother’s,etc.)
This construction is important because it helps to make a difference between:
A portrait of Picasso (one portraying him) and A portrait of Picasso’s (one painted by him or belonging to him)

11.1 The double genitive is common in English when we want to emphasize the person who possesses rather than the thing which he/she
possesses.
Ex. It is one of Peter’s habits to iron the tablecloth.

11.2 the double genitive is also used to show contempt, arrogance, or a desire to ridicule on the part of the speaker. We should use words such
as this, that, these or those before the noun. Ex. That hair of Pamela.

11.3 when we want to say that someone owns more than one of something, we can use two possessives: of + ‘s
Ex. Carlos is wearing one of Laura’s t-shirts
12- the apostrophe form is not normally used with inanimate nouns, instead, we use a phrase with “of”. This is called the periphrastic genitive.
Ex. The leg of the table. The top of the roof.

12.1 there is an alternative form: the side of the road/ hill/ mountain= the roadside/ hillside/ mountainside
The walls of the town = the town walls

13- the apostrophe form is not used with a subject whose head is postmodified by a phrase or a relative clause.
This is the camera of the man by the road. The mother of the man who lives nextdoor is very tall

UNIT 5 – DETERMINERS
Are said to “mark” nouns, as they are words that are used before a noun which acts as head of the noun phrase.
Are used to identify things in further detail. They modify words that determine the kind of reference a noun or a noun group has.
They are used in front of nouns to indicate whether we are referring to something specific or something of a particular type.

SOME & ANY
They are the most frequently
used quantity words in the
language.

 We generally use
“some” and “any”
when it is not
important to
state exactly how
great or how
small the quantity
is.
 They often
function as if they
were the plural of
“a”/ “an”.

SOME

1-can be used in questions when we are not seeking information. The speaker usually expects a positive answer.
2- can be used to mean “certain” but “not all”. Phonologically speaking, in this case “some” is used as a strong form word, and thus
it must be stressed.
3- can also be used to refer to:
a- considerable quantity: I haven’t tried humita for some years.
b- approximately: There were some 20 cats in the abandoned house.
c- extraordinary: That’s some dress you’re wearing!
d- An unknown: There must be some tool we can use.
4- with abstract nouns “some” can be used to mean “an amount of”.
They’ve given some consideration to the situation before deciding what to do.

ANY
1- Is normally used in negative statements containing “not” or “ n’t”
1.1 – an alternative way of forming a negative is with “no”
There isn’t any milk in the fridge. / There is no milk in the fridge.
 “no” (= “not a” or “not any”) is slightly more formal and makes a negative idea more emphatic.
 We must always use “no” if we wish to begin a sentence with a negative. Ex. No students attended the workshop.
 “no” can also combine with countable singular nouns and uncountable nouns.
Ex. There is no letter for you. / There is no milk in the fridge.

IMPORTANT
*with countable nouns “no” indicates that not one member of the set under consideration has the predication property.
* with non-count nouns it indicates that there isn’t any subquantity of the quantity under consideration that has the predication
property.

2- Can be used in questions when we are not sure about the answer. Ex. Is there any bananas for a milkshake?
3- Can be used in sentences containing a negative word other than not such as “hardly”, “never”, “seldom”, “rarely” or
“without” or when there is any suggestion of doubt, eg. “with”, “if”, or “whether”. Ex. The plane landed without any
problem.
4- Is generally used with “at all” and (more formally) “whatever” for special emphasis. Ex. The people didn’t utter any word at
all when they confronted with the politicians.
5- Can also occur in affirmative statements to mean:
5.1- the minimum/ maximum: He’ll need any help he can get
5.2- I don’t care which: Any book will be helpful.

MUCH & MANY
 They are generally used in questions.
 In everyday speech, “much” and “many” are usually avoided in affirmative
statements.
 Other quantifiers are used, especially “a lot of”.
 Much and Many are used in the subject in formal affirmative statements.
However, when “many” is used in time expressions, it can occur in the affirmative or negative.
 “many” and “much” can be modified by “far too”.

MANY
1-“many” in combination with “a” to form two kinds of
complex determiners:
1.1 many + noun in the singular form + verb in the singular.
Ex. Many a man has moved to tears but this sight.

1.2 A good/ great many a + noun in the plural form + verb in
the plural.
Ex. A good/ great many complaints have been received.

A LOT OF – LOTS OF – PLENTY OF – SEVERAL
 Generally, “much” and “many” do not occur in
the affirmative in everyday speech, mainly as
objects.
 Instead, we use “ a lot of” or “lots of”.
 A lot of/ Lots of means “a great quantity or
number” and plenty means “more than
enough”.
A LOT OF – LOTS OF

- Also occur in the negative when we are emphasizing a negative or denying.
Ex. I haven’t got lots of patience with children.
- Are often considered informal, so in formal style, “much”/ “many” or other
quantifiers such as “a great deal of” or “a great amount of” are usually used.
A LOT OF

- (not “lots of” or “plenty of”) can be modified by quite/ rather.
Ex. This new law has affected rather a lot of people.
SEVERAL - Can be used with plural countable nouns in the affirmative.
Ex. We’ve already had several offers for our flat.
- It can also be combined with “dozen”, “hundred”, “thousand”, “million”, etc.

FEW - A FEW
# both are used with plural countable
nouns.

FEW

*is negative suggesting “hardly any at all”
* is often in formal Englis.
* in everyday speech, we prefer the expressions “not many” or “hardly any”, “only a few”.
Ex. There are only a few students present today.
A FEW  Is positive suggesting “some”, “a small number” or even “quite a lot”.
Ex. The police would like to ask you a few questions.
 Can also be combined with other words.
Ex. Give me just a few candies, please. (not many) / There are only a few seats left.
Give me quite a few sheets of paper, please. (quite a lot) / The few people who saw the film enjoyed it.
Her few friends were present when her father died.

LITTLE – A LITTLE
*both are used with
uncountable nouns
LITTLE

*is negative suggesting “hardly any at all”
* is rather formal
* in everyday speech, we prefer “not much”; “hardly any”; “only a little” Ex. He hasn’t much hope of winning this race.
* occurs in idiomatic negative phrases such as “little point”, “little sense”, “little use”.
A LITTLE * is positive suggesting “some”, “a small quantity”. / Ex. I’d like a little time to think about it, please.
Notice the difference between: I have little time free for enjoyment. Life is so dull. (negative connotation)
I have a little time free, so I’ll go for a walk. (positive connotation)

ENOUGH
BOTH –
ALL –
HALF

EITHER -
NEITHER
ENOUGH

 Means “adequate in quantity or number”.
 It can be used with countable or uncountable nouns.
 It expresses imprecise quantification being concerned with the lower bound required to satisfy some explicit
or implicit need or purpose. Ex. Is there enough pasta for all of us?
BOTH

-refers to two people, things, etc.
- it is followed by plural nouns. Ex. Both movies were boring.
- it has dual number.
ALL

* refers to the whole number of people, things, etc. Ex. All the books were quite expensive. “the” makes it specific.
“All books” is general.
*when we are referring to a specific thing we must use “the” or “of the”; however, “all” and “half” can be used directly
in front of many proper nouns. Ex. All London….. / The whole of Argentina …… / Half La Rioja…..
The Negative Forms of “both” and
“all”
To avoid ambiguity (ex. Not all the girls left early. / All the girls didn’t leave early), we should use the pronouns
 “none of” to make the negative of “all”, and
 “neither of” to make the negative of “both”.
Ex. All the girls left early. (positive connotation) None of the girls left early (negative connotation)
Both the girls left early. (positive connotation) Neither of the girls left early. (negative connotation)
HALF *+ plural countable nouns refers to “more than two”. Ex. She broke half the eggs in the basket.
# Both are used in sentences
concerning a possible choice
between two items.
# when used as determiners, they
are followed by a singular countable
noun.
“either” has two meanings:
1-in positive sentences, it means “one or the other, it doesn’t matter which”.
Ex. You can wear either coat.
2- it is used sometimes to mean “each or both of two”. Ex. Trees were planted along either side of the road.
“neither” means not this one nor the other of two people or things involved. Ex. Neither side of the brain is dominant.

EVERY – EACH - BOTH
*they refer to particular people or things.
* they can point to more than two.
* in some cases, they are used
interchangeably.
Ex. Every/ Each time I wash the car it
rains.

*they can be coordinated for emphatic
effect:
Ex. Each and every participant was
congratulated.
EACH

 Is more individual and suggests one by one or separately.
 Cannot be modified
 (BUT NOT EVERY) can refer to both the number of a pair.
Ex. As they had both worked so hard, they each received a bonus.
Vs. BOTH: ## “BOTH” usually means “two items considered together”; “EACH” considers “two things separately.
EVERY  Can be modify by “almost”, “nearly”, “practically” and “single”.
 We can use “not” in front of “every”. Ex. Not every house in La Rioja has potable water.
(BUT NOT EACH) permits modifications. Ex. Almost every student passed the subject.
Can occur as a modifier following a genitive determiner. Ex. They recorded his every single audio message.
Vs. ALL: ##”ALL” refers to a collection of things seen as one or to an amount.
##”EVERY” is always used with a noun. It is often found in time references: every time/ day/ week
## it can be followed by ordinal and cardinal numbers and by “other”: every third day/ every other day

ANOTHER – OTHER(S)
* “another” and “others” are indefinite / “the other” and “the others” are definite
* “another” as a determiner, always goes with a singular noun unless it is followed by a cardinal number or by “few”.
Ex. I need another three driving lessons. / I need another few days before I can make up my mind.

* “another” (“one more apart from those already mentioned”) is followed by a singular countable noun while “other” is followed by a plural noun.
Ex. There must be another way of solving the problem. / There must be other ways of solving the problem.

* “others” and “the others” can only work as pronouns.
* “others” mean “several more apart from the ones already mentioned”. It can only be used as a pronoun. Ex. Some students arrived in time, but others arrived quite late.

* “the other” can be followed by a singular or plural noun and means “the rest”.
Ex. This sit is free; the other seat is taken. / These seats are free; the other seats are taken.

*”the other one(s)” means “not this/ these but something else”. It refers to the remainder of a group, or the second of two.
Ex. I don’t like this sweater, but the other one.

*”every other” means “alternate”. Ex. I take piano lessons every other day. / He visits me every other week.

WHAT – WHICH – WHOSE
 They are interrogative determiners.
 They are used with both singular and plural nouns.
 They are used for people and things to be identified.
WHAT

 Asks for a choice from the whole range or class of things.
Ex. What time shall I come?
Which arrangements have been made for transporting the guests?
WHICH  Asks for a choice to be made from a known group of things.
Ex. I can make you an appointment for 9:15, 11:40 or 12:30. Which time suits you best?

THIS – THAT – THESE –
THOSE - SUCH
THIS/ THESE

# for people or things near us
# for present/ future situations
# when the speaker is in or near the place he/she is referring to
THAT/ THOSE

## for people or things not near us
## for past situations
SUCH

### may work as:
*a demonstrative determiner, can be combined with another determiner, as in
Ex. There is no such thing. / Any more such rudeness and you’ll be fired.
* or an intensifier: It’s such a beautiful picture! / We had such a good time.
WHOLE * It means “complete”; it goes between a determiner and a singular countable noun.
Ex. I’ve spent the whole night preparing the project.

ARTICLES
Functions
 To show
the
difference
between
definite
and
indefinite
reference.
*The indefinite
article is used with a
noun introduced for
the first time, and
therefore, unknown.
**The definite article
shows either that the
person or thing is the
only one of its kind
or that a special
known case is being
referred to.
 2
nd

function:
to
indicate
generic
reference,
that is, to
refer to
all
members
of a group
in
general.
A/AN

# used with singular countable nouns to talk about indefinite things
# can be used before singular countable nouns to refer to a group of people, animals or things.
# is never used before a noun in the plural when it represents a group.
# can be used meaning “per”
# can be used with: * money (a-one dollar )/ * fractions (a- one quarter) / *measures (a- one inch)
*weight (a- one kilo) / * whole numbers (a- one million)
* distance- speed (60 km an hour) / * illnesses (a cold, a toothache)
* frequency (a day, a month)
# to say what a person’s job is, was or will be.
THE

## sometimes, we use it with a countable singular noun to talk about something in general.
Ex. The dog is a lovable pet. / The rose is a beautiful flower.
## before some nationality words when we want to mean “the people of that country”.
Ex. The English love cricket.
## with the names of: 1- rivers, oceans, seas, canals: the River Nile; the Atlantic; the Black Sea; the Panama Canal
2- deserts, island groups, mountain ranges: the Sahara, The Isle of Man, The Andes
3- most geographical regions: the Far West, the Mideast
4- most hotels, cinemas, restaurants, pubs: the Ritz, the Hard Rock Café
5-museums: the Louvre Museum,
6-important/ famous buildings: the Eiffel tower, the Taj Mahal
## we used before:
musical instruments dances titles adjectives used as plural nouns historical references events
the words only, last, first when they are used as (semi-) determiner, or pronoun, or adjective
nouns which are unique
## we usually “the” with nouns before a phrase beginning with of…
## “the” is used to show, with the comparative degree, that two things increase or decrease in the same proportions
Ex. The more I think about it, the less I care.
## we use the definite article with plural nouns when we are referring to definite things, and people know which things we mean.
Ex. Let’s open all the windows. // We’d better wash the dishes. // I’ve just done the laundry.
## we use “the” when it has the meaning “enough” or “sufficient”. Ex. Mary has the brains to do any academic career.
OMISSION
OF THE
ARTICLE

1-with school, hospital, prison, university, church, bed when we think about the main purpose of the place.
When we think about other purposes different from their natural ones we use “the” before them.
Ex. I go to school by bus. // The school was opened for the elections.
2- with the names of meals: I have breakfast at 7.30 eveyday. //
However, we use “the” when we want to specify: The breakfast the hotel gave us was excellent.
3- we do not normally use “the” with the names of: CONTINENTS – COUNTRIES – CITIES – LAKES – INDIVIDUAL MOUNTAINS-
STREETS – MOST STATIONS & AIRPORTS

BUT we use “the” with these words when they include a countable noun (the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom) and,
with plural place-names (the Alps, the Netherlands)
4- with means of transport and communication when the nouns appear in a prepositional phrase introduced by preposition by.
go BY bus/ car/ plane – travel BY car/ air/ - contact BY radio/ telephone – send BY mail/ post/
5-in prepositional phrases containing the words for seasons (spring, winter, autumn, summer) the definite article can be omitted.
However, many speakers prefer to use the.
6-PARALLEL STRUCTURES: i.e in combinations of identical or semantically related nouns in structures containing two nouns linked by a
preposition or coordinator.
Ex. He travelled from country to country. // It has turned out all right for mother and baby.
7-BLOCK LANGUAGE: i.e, with noun phrases found in newspaper headlines, labels, notices, etc., where communicative needs require
that only the most newsworthy forms be used. Ex. Fire kills teenager after hoax.
8- BEFORE:
 Most proper names. Ex. Joseph is my boss.
 Names of sports, games, activities, days, months, colours, seasons and languages. Ex. I love football/ Mondays/ red/ etc.
 Two-word names whose first word is the name of a person or place. Ex. San Martín Square.
 Titles with proper names: Ex. President Fernandez
 Abstract nouns used in general sense. Ex. Life is hard.
 Names of materials used in general sense. Ex. Flour is a basic ingredient.
 Plural nouns used in general sense. Ex. Supermarkets can be pretty expensive.
Expressing Generic & : when we refer to a person, thing or idea in a general way, as a whole class.
** we can use : ## a countable noun in the plural form
## an uncountable noun

Specific reference: when we refer to one or more members of a limited, restricted group.
** we can use: ## a singular countable noun preceded by a (indefinite) or the (definite)
## a plural countable noun preceded by the (definite)
## un uncountable noun preceded by the (definite)

PREPOSITIONS of
PLACE, IN PHRASES,
PLACE ADVERBS

IN

AT
ON
 For things enclosed in something else.
 With towns and countries.
 With a place
 For things on the surface or side of something and with islands
 We generally use ON it for trains, buses, ships and planes, and IN for cars.
INTO
OUT OF
 Into describes movement in and out of is the opposite.
 In everyday speech, out is used instead of out of.
 Out of is also the opposite of in.
INSIDE – OUTSIDE
TO
FROM
 Inside is used to describe something in a room, etc, especially when the speaker is outside.
 Use to with verbs of movement, change, etc., though not with home.
 Use to and from to describe the two points of a movement.
BELOW

UNDER
BENEATH
 Below means “at a lower level” and occurs in phrases such as below zero; below average; see below for more
information
 Under can mean “covered by”, as in under the bed and under a pile of books.
 Beneath means “exactly under” and can be used in place of under.
ABOVE
OVER

PREPOSITION +
NOUN+ OF
 Above means at a higher level than something and not touching it.
 Over is the opposite of under, and can mean “touching or covering”.
 Above and Over can be used to mean the same thing, especially when something is at a higher level exactly
vertically.
At the end of At the front of At the side of At the back of At the beginning of
At the bottom of At the end of At the top of In front of In the middle of
TIME

AT

 Used with clock time and midday, midnight and night. NOTE: we cannot say at last light.
 Used with Christmas. Easter and New Year.
 Used with expressions showing definite times.
IN  Used with months, years, seasons, and morning, afternoon, evening.
 Used with units of time (week, hour, moment, etc.) to refer to future points.
 If we use time, we usually add an apostrophe.
WITHIN  Means inside or during a period of time.
ON  Used with dates, days of the week and expressions with day. NOTE: we don’t say “on next Friday”
NEXT  Used for the future
LAST  Used for the past with week, month, year, summer, etc.
SINCE  Used with a point in time
FOR  Used with a period of time
AGO  Used to measure time in the past
AGES

 “for ages” means for a long time. It follows present perfect simple at it describes a period of time up to the
present. Ex. I haven’t seen you for ages.

TIME

FROM – TO  We use “from” and “to” for the start and finish of a period of time.
TILL/ UNTIL  “until” means up to a point in time, and then stopping.
 “til” is an informal form of “until”.
 “not + until” to show when something finally happens.
BY
BY THE TIME
 Use “by” to mean at some point in the period of time before.
 Use “by the time” to describe events which will be, or were, too late.
DURING  Use “during” to mean “in a period of time”, either at one point, or for the whole period.
NOW  It means “at the present time”
 By now means “at some point before now”
 From now on means “from the present moment”
THEN

 It means “at a particular time in the past”
 We could also say at the time/ at that time.
 We can also use then with future reference.
 “until then”, “by then”, “before then” are also possible.
 Then also introduces the next thing that happens.
SOON  It means “in a short time from now”.
ONCE, AT ONCE,
IMMEDIATELY
 Once refers to a point in the past when something happened.
 Once also describes a situation in the past, usually before a change that has taken place.
ON TIME
IN TIME
 At once and immediately mean “without delay”.
 On time refers to a timetable event which happened as planned.
 In time refers to an event which happens early enough. We can also say just in time, and in plenty of time.
AT THE END
IN THE END
 At the end describes the final point of a period of time.
 In the end means the same as finally, or after a period of time.
LATER – AFTER –
AFTERWARDS –
BEFORE

 Later is an adverb and means “at a later time”. We can also say later on.
 After can be used as a preposition with an object, or as an adverb without.
 Afterwards is an adverb and can stand alone.
 Use before as an adverb or as a preposition.

PREPOSITIONS
AFTER VERBS,
ADJECTIVES AND
NOUNS

VERB +
PREPOSITION

 Verb + preposition + noun. Ex. Everyone laughed at me.
You can depend on Carlos.
 Verb + preposition + noun/ -ing. Ex. We apologize for the daily.
We went on walking until we found a gas station.
 Verb + noun + preposition + noun. Ex. I prefer tea to coffee.
 Verb + person + preposition + noun/ -ing. Ex. They accused her of cheating.
They took Mary to school.
 Adjective + preposition.
An adjective can be followed by different prepositions for different meaning.
Ex. You’re right/ wrong about something.
 Preposition + noun phrases.
Ex. Is this boat for sale? We found the anwers in the end.
CONJUNCTIONS,
ADVERBS AND
PREPOSITIONS AS
CONNECTORS

BECAUSE – SO – AS –
SINCE
 Use them to link an action with its purpose.
FOR EXAMPLE –
SUCH AS
 Use for example and such as to give examples.
 We usually put a comma after for examples.
INSTEAD (of)

ACCORDING TO
 Used when we say that one thing replaces another.
 We can put it at the end or beginning of a clause or sentences.
 Use it when we say where an idea or statement has come from.
HOWEVER – YET –
ALTHOUGH/
THOUGH/ EVEN
THOUGH – WHILE

 Used to make contrast
 However comments on what has come before. Use it to begin and end sentences, or put it inside a sentence to
separate parts of the sentences.
NOTE: however always has punctuation before and after it.
 Yet has a similar meaning to although, or but.
*It cannot come at the beginning of a sentence.
 Although is followed by two contrasting ideas. Use while in the same way. It does not have a time meaning in this
unit.
The “although” clause starts or finishes the sentences.
 Though is another form of although.
 We use even though to make a surprising contrast. It has the same positions as although.
AS WELL – TOO -
ALSO
 As well and too go at the end of a clause or sentence.
 Also goes in the middle of a clause, before a verb, or after an auxiliary or modal.

UNIT 7 – ADJECTIVES generally, they describe words which tell us about the quality of a noun or a pronoun.
An adjective is a describing word. They tell us about such things as the size, colour, age, material or quality of a person or thing.
They are invariable; they do not change their form whether the noun they quality is singular or plural.

USES ATTRIBUTIVELY – they usually come before a noun.
PREDICATIVELY – they are separated from a noun, usually following a verb like BE, SEEM, APPEAR, LOOK or after a direct object in the pattern V+VCT+Od+Co.
Ex. Carla is a nice person. (attributively)
Carla looks quite responsable. (predicatively)
Some adjectives –especially those beginning with the prefix “a” – alive, afraid, alone, alert, alike, asleep, awake- can only be used predicatively.

POSTPOSITIVELY – adjectives that can immediately follow the noun or pronoun they modify.

Compound indefinite pronouns and adverbs ending in “-body, -one, -thing, -where” can be modified only postpositively.
Ex. I need something hot; it’s very cold outside.

With several institutionalized expressions, the adjective is used pospositively. Ex. Court martial / mission accomplished / the Chancellor elect
Adjectives such as past and preceding can occur in attributive and postpositive position. Ex. In past years/ in years past
Some adjectives, such as concerned, involved, available, opposite, present, proper, responsible, have different meanings when they are used before a
noun (attributive position) or immediately after ir (postpositive position).
Ex. Attributive: They asked my present address. (= my address now)
Predicative: All the people present agreed to follow the plan. (the people who were there)
Other cases in which the adjective is used postpositively

When the word only precedes a singular noun, the adjective frequently follows the noun. Ex. The only person available/ the only place left
Some adjectives that describe size can come after a noun group consisting of a number or determiner and noun that indicates that unit or
measurement. Ex. He was about six feet tall.
The water was found several metres deep.

FORMATION many common adjectives do not have a distinctive “adjectival” ending at all. Ex. GOOD – KIND – SWEET – TALL - SMALL – FAST
Others have recognizable adjectival endings – suffixes -. This process is called derivation.

-able/ -ible: understandable – incredible -al: functional, critical
-ic: critic, artistic -ful: beautiful, harmful
-ive: creative, inventive -less: harmless, painless
-ous: nutricious, generous -id: rapid, humid
-ary: complementary
-ical: magical, logical -ant/ -ent: pleasant, excellent
-ish: foolish, childish -like: childlike, ladylike
-ly: friendly, costly -y: dirty, rainy
-some: handsome, awesome -ar: circular, popular

Adjective can be formed from different words:
 From nouns: accident – accidental, length – long, wind – windy
 From verbs: enjoy – enjoyable, help – helpful, talk – talkative
 From other adjectives: comic – comical, economics – economical, red-reddish

Compound adjectives can be formed with:
# present participles: a time- consuming task; a never-ending story
# past participles: worn-out shoes; a broken-down car
# cardinal numbers + nouns: a two- day workshop; a three- day holiday
# well, badly, ill, poorly + past participle: a well-paid job; a poorly-paid worker; an ill-chosen remark

Participles used as adjectives: when we put two nouns together, the first one works like an adjective. Ex.

SOME SPECIAL NOTES ON ADJECTIVES
The adjective as headword of a noun phrase
the structure the + adjective is used when we want to refer to the whole class of people describes by the adjective.
## When this structure is working as head of the subject, the verb goes in the plural form.
Ex. The young find it difficult to deal with frustration.

Nouns describing materials, substances, purpose and use can be used as adjectives
BUT they do not have comparative or superlative forms and cannot be modified by “very”. Ex. A cotton skirt.
## However, there are adjectives derived from the above nouns. These adjectives have a metaphorical meaning. Ex. Silky hair

There are certain adverbs such as above, upstairs, downstairs, inside, etc., which can be used as adjectives. Ex. An upstairs room.

ORDER

DETERMINERS ORDINALS QUANTIFIERS ADJECTIVES NOUN
Both
All
half
The
This
those
Next
Last
First, etc
Few Many
Little one, two
A lot of, etc..
Small
Italian
Red/ new, etc.
House
Man
place
VALUE/
OPINION
SIZE/
WEIGHT
AGE/
TEMPERATURE
SHAPE COLOUR ORIGIN MATERIAL
/TYPE
PURPOSE
/USE
Sad
Boring
Large
heavy
Old hot
Young new
Round
square
Black
white
Italian
rural
Cotton
medical
Shopping
writing
A birthday party A school uniform
History books Computer software
A radio station A garden chair
A musical festival A language school
A clothes shop An art gallery

When two or more adjectives of the same category are used, the more general adjective comes before the more specific one
Ex. A kind, gentle man

The more basic size adjectives usually come before those that combines size and shape. Ex. A tall thin people.

THE USE OF COMMAS BEFORE ADJECTIVES
When we use a string of adjectives of different kinds, we do not need to use commas between them. Ex. A high circular grey stone wall.

When we use a string of quality or opinion adjectives, we usually put commas between them. Ex. A violent, brutal attack.

When we use a simple or basic size adjective followed by an adjective that combines size and shape, we do not need a comma between them, but we can put
a comma if we want to emphasize each adjective separately. Ex. a tall thin man or a tall, thin man

If we use two or more class or type adjectives together, we do not need commas between them. Ex. my weekly piano lesson

Commas are never used to separate the final adjective from the noun it modifies. Ex. a long, distinguished career

CLASSIFICATION
A. Emphasizing, classifying and qualitative adjective.
Emphasizing or intensifying adjectives are used to emphasize our feelings about something. They are seldom used after a linking verb.
Ex. I felt a fool. I felt a complete fool. / I’ve wasted a day. I’ve wasted an entire day.

Classifying adjectives: they are used to say that something is of a particular type. They include democratic, atomic, chemical, cubic, digital,
environmental, medical, annual, general, occasional, northern, maximum, minimum.
Ex. “democratic decisions” to differentiate these decisions from others.

## classifying adjectives are seldom used after a linking verb. Ex. There was a nuclear explosion. BUT NOT The explosion was nuclear.

Qualitative adjectives: they are used to give the quality that a thing or a person has. We use them either directly before a noun or after a linking
verb. Ex. a beautiful day. or The day is beautiful.

## some classifying adjectives can also be used with different meanings as qualitative ones and placed after a linking verb.
Ex. The country’s economic reforms of the city. (=relating to bussiness)/ The process isn’t economic. (=not profitable)

B. Gradable and nongradable adjectives gradable adjectives can be seen as existing along a scale. They tend to be an antonym, ex. hot-cold
They can occur in a comparative or superlative form. Gradable adjectives are the prototype.
They can be used with intensifiers such as very, extremely, dreadfully, hugely, rather, quite, intensely,
slightly to say that a thing or person has more or less of a particular quality.

Nongradable adjectives cannot be modified on a scale. A person is either married or not; dead or not; one cannot be very married or rather dead.
They describe absolute qualities such as left, right, single, correct, equal, absent, universal, scientific, round, square, excellent, impossible. They
imply “to a large degree”.
We can use adverbs which emphasize their extreme or absolute nature, such as absolutely, completely, purely, totally, utterly, quite, etc.
The adverbs fairly, really, and pretty are commonly used with both gradable as well as nongradable adjectives.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES adjectives have three forms or “degrees”: the positive, the comparative and the superlative.
The positive is the normal form of the adjectives
The comparative is used to compare two things, people or groups, and to express the idea of one deserving the adjective to a
greater extent than the other.
## we can use the before the comparative when we compare only two things of the same kind.
The superlative form is used when comparing three or more things, people, groups and so on, to express the idea of one
deserving the adjective to a greater extent than all the other.
## we often use of or in after a superlative. We use in with places.
## it is possible to use the superlative instead of the comparative when we compare two people or things.

RULES FORMS
Positive Comparative Superlative
One syllable adjectives add –er and –est Short shorter The shortest
Two syllable adjectives
1-We use –er and –est if they end in –ple or –ble
2-If the adjective ends in consonant + y, change the y into I and add –er or –est
3-We use either –er/–est or more/ most if the adjective ends in –ly, -ow, -er, or -some
4- Some words without suffixes can use –er and –est or more and most
5-For other two-syllable adjectives we use more and most.
Simple

Busy
Friendly
Polite
Grateful
Simpler

Busier
Friendlier/more friendly
Politer/ more polite
More grateful
The simplest

The busiest
The friendliest/ the most…
The politest/ the most…
The most grateful
Adjective of 3 or more syllables take more (comparative) and most (superlative) interesting More interesting The most interesting
Irregular forms – adjectives and quantifiers whose comparative & superlative forms
change completely
Good/ bad-ill
Much-may/ little
Better/ worse
More/ less
The best/ the worst
The most/ the least
Some adjectives have both gradable and nongradable uses or senses (often the latter representing the primary meaning of the adjective).
Ex. John is a very common name. (= frequently found or used,; gradable)
We have a lot of common interests. (=shared; nongradable)

Comparative adjectives typically express the idea of one thing, person, and so on having more of a quality than another. This is usually called comparison of
superiority.
There are two other forms of comparison:
Comparison of equality: as good as
Comparison of inferiority: not as- so sweet as/ less interesting than

NOTICE THAT: ## if a singular countable noun is placed between an adjective and the second as, we use a/an in front of the noun.
Ex. Despite his disability, he tried to lead as normal a life as possible.
## degree adverbs can precede comparative and superlative forms.
Whereas much, a lot, a bit, a little, rather and slightly are used with comparatives, by far is typically used with superlatives.
Ex. He used to be a bit more arrogant and aggressive before collage.

COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE FORMS OFTEN CONFUSED
1- Further/ furthest/ and farther/ farthest refer to distance: Ex. New York is ten miles further/ farther.
BUT further/ furthest (not farther/ farthest) mean “in addition”, “extra”.

2- We can use elder/ eldest before a noun only with reference to people in a family; “elder” is only used attributively, that is, before a noun.
Ex. My elder (or older) brother lives with me. BUT NOT He is elder than me.
## We use older/ elder for people and things.

3- We use the latest to refer to “the most recent or newest”. Ex. I’ve read the latest edition.
## We use the last to refer to “the final”. Ex. I’ve read the last edition.

SOME SPECIAL USES AND MEANINGS OF COMPARATIVE FORMS
Gradual increase we use comparative + and + comparative to show that sth increases or decreases; there is a successive comparison, indicating a continual
process of change. Ex. The ozone layer is becoming thinner and thinner.

Parallel or proportional increase we use the + comparative … the + comparative to show that two things changed together or that one thing depends on
another thing.
In this case, we say that there is a successive comparison, meaning that the second depends on the first.
This structure allows us to explain how one thing changes in relation to another.
Ex. The noisier the children (are), the angrier the neighbours become.

PRESENT AND PAST PARTICIPLE AS ADJECTIVES one familiar way to change a verb into an adjective is to use the present participle or the past participle.
Verb + ing usually has an active meaning. Ex. a boring person is someone who bores you. Present participles describe the quality of a noun.

Verb + ed has a passive meaning. Ex. a bored person is someone who is bored by someone or something. Past participles describe how the person feels.

ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITIONS because their meaning would be otherwise unclear or incomplete, some adjectives are usually followed by a preposition, as in:

ADVERBS AND ADVERBIALS
TO allergic
OF Aware, capable, ashamed, jealous, proud, typical,
WITH Compatible, satisfied
FROM Descended, different, safe,
FOR Famous, responsible, suitable, ready
ON Dependent, keen
AT Better, clever
2 prepositions Connected with/ to; honest with/ about; good with/at; angry with/ at
An adverbial
can be
 an adverb: a single word, such as well; happily; soon; certainly; probably
 An adverb phrase: very happily; really well; quite soon
 A prepositional phrase: a group of words beginning with a preposition such as: on the table; last night; tomorrow morning; yesterday.
Classification
(Biber et al.)
a) Circumstance adverbials (also called adjuncts)
## They provide information about the how, when, where, how often, why, how much, to what extent an action is done.
b) Linking adverbials (also called conjunctions)
## They help to hold a text together or, linguistically speaking, “giving it cohesion”. Some of them are: moreover, nevertheless, therefore, to sum up,
etc.
c) Stance adverbials
## They provide comments towards the content or style of what is said. Ex. logically, biologically, actually, sadly, fortunately, personally.
## They can also convey the speaker/ writer’s assessment of the proposition in the clause in relation to the probability of certainty of it.
## These adverbials express how sure we are about something. Among such adverbials we can mention: certainly, definitely- obviously- probably-
possibly.
## These adverbials normally go before a full verb, but after be or an auxiliary verb.
## In negative sentences, these adverbials normally go before the negative.
## “perhaps” and “maybe# (quite informal) normally go at the beginning of a clause.
Semantic
categories of
circumstance
adverbs/
adverbials
1. Manner: they express how an action is or was done. Ex. the kids slept soundly. // she angrily shouted at him.
2. Time: they express the time, the moment when an action is or was done. Ex. the day will break soon.
3. Frequency: they answer the question “how often”. Ex. she travels abroad from time to time.
4. Place: they express where an action is or was done. Ex. they looked everywhere for the keys but found them nowhere.
5. Degree (intensifying and moderating adverbials): they express “to what extent” or “ to what degree” an action is or was done.
## Intensifying adverbials: severly, badly, really, very, terribly, extremely, so, highly, unusually, exceedingly, particularly.
## moderating adverbials: a bit, slightly, pretty, rather, quite, fairly, moderately.

 These adverbs can also intensify or moderate the force of an adjective or an adverb. In this case, they function as modifiers. This is the case in
phrases such as “almost impossible”, “hardly noticeable”, “relatively small”, “rather dangerously”, “too far”. They normally go before the
words they modify.
6. Quantity: they express amount and number.
## twice, the most, the least, very much, very little.
7. Affirmatiion and negation: “yes”, “certainly”, “surely”, “evidently”, naturally”, “obviously” and “not”, “n’t”, “no”, “never”, etc. are
are the adverbs used. They may replace a whole sentence with the exception of “not”.
Other examples of negative adverbials: not, “n’t”, never, hardly, barely, scarcely, seldom.
8. Instrument: with, from
9. Cause: of (cancer), out of (desperation), due to (weather conditions)
10. Accompaniment: with, without
11. Focusing: they are called like that because we can change their position in a sentence depending on where we want to focus our attention. Ex. only,
even, just, simply
POSITION OF
Circumstance
ADVERBIALS
in a sentence

The usual order of adverbials is MANNER PLACE TIME
She sang beautifully in the concert last night. T M P
However, adverbials of time can come at the beginning of the sentence. Ex. Yesterday, Caroline was waiting for me impatiently at home.

Sometimes, we place adverbials of manner before the main verb for the sake of emphasis. Ex. He enthusiastically wrote a poem at school last class.
M P T

If the verb denotes movement, the adverbial of place acts as a kind of object notionally, so the order is changed to place, manner, time.
Ex. She went to Mexico by plane last month. // The children ran towards the house very quickly last night.
P M T P M T

Some one-syllable adverbs of time, such as soon, now and then can go before the main verb, but after the auxiliary verb or the verb to be.
She then told me what had happened. // She is now at home.

When there are two or more adverbials of time or place, the shorter, the smaller, more exact unit comes first.
Ex. Sheila was born at 2.30, on May 14
th
1975.

Adverbials of frequency that consist of just one word are placed before the main verb, and after the verb “to be”.
Ex. I normally go to work on foot. // Jonas is always early for school.

Adverbials of frequency of two or more words are usually placed at the end of the sentence and before adverbs denoting position in time.
Ex. He comes here twice a week.

Adverbials of probability and degree usually precede the main verb. (considerably)
Ex. He will probably do it. // Any vegetable pie greatly improves with some cheese.

COMPARATIVE FORMS of ADVERBS FORMS
RULES POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
One-syllable adverbs: there are a few; they need –er and –est. HARD - SOON HARDER – SOONER0 THE HARDEST – THE SOONEST

Other adverbs: more and most are used to form comparative and
superlative forms of two or more syllable adverbs.
QUICKLY
SMARTLY
BEAUTIFULLY
MORE QUICKLY
MORE SMARTLY
MORE BEAUTIFULLY
THE MOST QUICKLY
THE MOST SMARTLY
THE MOST BEAUTIFULLY
Irregular forms: there are a few adverbs whose comparative and
superlative forms are completely different.
WELL
BADLY
BETTER
WORSE
THE BEST
THE WORST

ADVERBS AND ADJECTIVES COMPARED AND CONTRASTED
Adjectives that can be used as adverbs without change of form: early,
wrong, low, clean, dead, bright, cheap, direct, far, high, near, pretty,
short, sound, fair, clear, firm, tight, wide, only.
Ex. There is an early train to London. (adjective) // I will leave very early tomorrow. (adverb)
He spoke in a low voice. (adjective) // He spoke low but clearly. (adverb)
It was a fair fight. (adjective) // You must play fair. (adverb)
There is a small group of adjectives formed by adding “ly” to nouns to
denote a period of time such as hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly,
etc. These words can also be used as adverbs.
Ex. This is a weekly magazine. (adjective) // This magazine is published weekly. (adverb)
He has a very active daily routine. (adjective) // She visits us daily. (adverb)
Adjectives ending in “ly” such as “cowardly, fatherly, lively, friendly,
orderly, womanly, likely, silly, lovely, ugly, costly, lonely” can be used in
an adverbial phrase through the expression “in a … way/ manner/
fashion/ mode”.
Ex. He is a cowardly person. (adjective) // He behaved is a cowardly way. (adverbial phrase)
She is a friendly woman. (adjective) // She spoke to me in a friendly manner. (adverbial phrase)

ADVERBS WITH TWO FORMS OF AND DIFFERENCES IN MEANING
Some words such as “hard, near, high, late, free, easy, last, short,
wrong” that have two forms and differences in meaning.

Hard/ hardly. Ex. She works hard. (with effort, diligently)// She hardly works. (scarcely, almost not)
Near/ nearly. Ex. My house is near the school. (close) // It’s nearly two o’clock. (almost)
Late/ lately High/ highly Free/freely Deep/ deeply Fine/ finely Last/ lastly
Short/ shortly Wrong/ wrongly Just/ justly Direct/ directly Most/ mostly Late/ lately
There are some adverbs (such as cheap, clean & loud) that can be
found with “ly” without a difference in meaning (more formal)
Ex. I bought it cheap. // I bought it cheaply.
I can see it quite clear. // I can see it quite clearly.
Variation in
the MPT
order
1- Fixed expressions such as go home, be at work, spend (time) are not usually separated.
2- When we want to emphasize or draw attention to a particular adverbial, we put it either at the beginning or at the end of the sentence.
3- Due to the principle of end-weight (longer, heavier elements tend to occur at the end after short, smaller objects), we should put the longest
element at the end of the sentence.
4- For reasons of style, we try to avoid putting too many adverbials in the position MPT. We usually do this by transferring time or place expressions to
the beginning of the sentence.
Ex. Yesterday, I worked very hard at school.

DETERMINERS accompany nouns. They are used to narrow down the reference of a noun. The most important ones are:

&

PRONOUNS replace nouns in two situations: ## When the entities referred to are identifiable through the speech situation or the surrounding text, and
## When the reference is unknown or general.

 They serve as pointers, requiring the listener or reader to find the exact meaning in the surrounding (usually preceding) text or in the speech situation.
 They can be divided into three groups:
## 1
st
person (the speaker or the group to which the speaker belongs)
## 2
nd
person (referring to the person or persons spoken to or addressed)
## 3
rd
person (referring to all other persons or things spoken about)
 Pronouns may show number, person, gender and case.
 Some of them refer only to male beings, some only to female beings and some only to inanimate things.
 The case of nouns is shown not by inflection but by word order (function). Some pronouns are inflected to show case.

Personal Pronouns
Subject pronoun Object pronoun Subject pronoun Object pronoun Possessive pronoun
1
st
person I me we us mine Ours
2
nd
person you you you you your Yours
3
rd
person He – she - it Him – her- its they Them His – her - its Theirs

 In formal English when the pronoun comes after the verb TO BE, the nominative form of the pronoun is used: Who is it? It is I.
 Instead, in informal conversations, the objective pronoun is often used: It is me.

OBJECT PRONOUNS

 Accusative

A pronoun that receives the action of a transitive verb, or when it
serves as the object of a preposition
 Direct object
 Object of a preposition
 Dative Pronouns that occur immediately after a verb whose subject and
pronoun are coreferential of them; they refer to the same person.
 Indirect object
Ex. They got them a new car.

who Whom
## the definite article: it specifies that the referent is assumed to be known to the speaker and the addresser.
## the indefinite article: it narrows down the reference to a single member of a class
## demonstrative determiners: they establish the reference by proximity to the speaker and the addresser
## possessive determiners: they establish a connection with the participants in the speech situation or some other entity and thereby limit
the reference of the noun.
## quantifiers: they specify the number or amount of the entities referred to.
## In addition, there are determiner uses of wh- words and numerals.

are defined
on the basis
of their
relationship
to nouns

UNIT 8

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: they are closely connected in meaning with the personal pronouns. There are three:
FIRST PERSON Mine Ours That bag isn’t mine.
SECOND PERSON Yours I thought it was yours.
THIRD PERSON His – hers – its (rarely used) theirs Mary took it. Maybe its hers.
POST- GENITIVE, used to emphasize the person who
possesses rather than to the thing which he possesses
OF + POSSESSIVE PRONOUN ** a friend of mine
** a brother of his

GENERIC
PRONOUNS
They are
you, we,
one and
they.

 We use you for “people in general, including the speaker”.
 We use we (rather than I) “to make a statement of opinion
more general and to include the reader/ listener”
 The use of one for people in general is very formal and
rarely used in modern English.
 In informal situations, we can use they “to talk about other
people in general or people in authority”, instead of using
a passive construction
## If you are self-absorved, it means that you are only concerned about yourself.
## When we think of cheese, we don’t usually think of sheep,…

## If one wishes to be a good parent, one should never lose one’s temper with a
young child.
## They say that an apple a day keeps the doctor away.

UNIVERSAL PERSONAL PRONOUNS (us/ you/ them all)

These are said to be compound pronouns.
Ex. They’ve invited us all. // It’s an insult to us both. // She likes you all.

RELATIVE
PRONOUNS
1_They refer to an antecedent and join the clause it introduces to some other other clause.
2-Then, we can say that a relative pronoun performs the function of a pronoun and a
conjunction.
3-The most common relative pronouns are: who, whom, which, that, and what.
4-They have the same forms for singular or plural, masculine or feminine.
WHO – WHOM: are used for personal antecedents.
THAT: may be used to refer to persons, animals and things.
WHICH: is used when the antecedent is a thing, an idea or
an animal.
REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS

EMPHATIC
REFLEXIVE
PRONOUNS
1-They indicate that the action expressed by the verb passes from the subject back to the
subject and not to any other person or thing.
2-In other words, the subject and the object of the sentence stand for the same person.
3-These pronouns are formed by adding self or selves to possessive adjectives or objective
pronouns. MYSELF- YOURSELF- HIMSELF – HERSELF – ITSELF – OURSELVES – YOURSELVES – THEMSELVES
4-When a reflexive pronoun is preceded by the preposition by, it means “alone” or “without
help”.
5-An alternative to by + reflexive pronoun is on + possessive determiner + own.
They can work as:
** direct object: Bob is enjoying himself at the party.
** indirect object: Bob made himself a cup of tea.
** object of a preposition: She thought little of herself.
** subject complement: She doesn’t seem to be herself.
4-Ex. This is a machine that works for itself.
5-Ex. Helen was standing on her own in the corner.
## They have exactly the same form as reflexive pronouns but their function is different.
## They are used for the sake of emphasis to mean “that person, nobody else”.
## They can be omitted and the sense of the sentence does not change.
## The teacher himself gave her the prize.
## She made it herself.

## They are usually placed at the end of the sentence or after the word they emphasize.
INTERROGATIVE
PRONOUNS
 Are used in questions and they always precede the verb.
 These pronouns are invariable in gender and number.
 Whom is the “literary” accusative form and is used in formal written and spoken
English. In conversation it is generally replaced by who unless it immediately
follows a preposition. In informal spoken English it is more common to move the
preposition to the end of the question and change the whom into who.
 Which is selective; it can be used for people or things when one or more out of a
number is referred to. It presents a choice from a limited number.
## for people: who (nominative) // Whom (objective)
Whose (possessive)
## for things: what (nominative/ accusative)
## both when the choice is restricted: which (nom/ accus)

Ex. With whom did you go to the party? Who did you go
to the party with?
Ex. Which do you like the best: the red or the blue one?
DEMONSTRATIVE
PRONOUNS
 Besides taking the place of a noun, demonstrative pronouns give the idea of
position with regard to the speaker.
THIS - THESE: being nearer in space or time
THAT – THOSE: being more distant
 The former and the latter may also be considered as demonstrative pronouns.
Latter means “the second of two people or things” and is contrasted with former,
which means “the first of two people or things just mentioned”.

 Such and same are also demonstrative pronouns.
 Same as a pronoun is used with “the”.
Ex. He said the same as he said before. (the noun is
not present)
DISTRIBUTIVE
PRONOUNS
 Show that the persons or things are taken singly or in separate lots. They are:
EACH – EITHER – NEITHER – BOTH
 EACH implies a number of persons or things considered individually. Each can be
used for two or more persons or things, and it is followed by a singular verb.
 EVERY can only be a determiner; its pronominal forms are everyone, everybody,
everything. All of them take a singular verb.
 EITHER means “one or the other of two”.
 NEITHER means “not this and not the other, none of the two”
 BOTH means “ the two of them”

## Each has been asked to do his best.

## Either will do; it doesn’t matter which.
## Neither of my friends has come yet.
## Both of the students insulted the teacher.
RECIPROCAL
PRONOUNS
 Each other and one another are used after transitive verbs to express reciprocal
action or feeling, which means they are mutual.
 They describe actions in which two or more people or things do the same things
to the other(s).
 Some grammarians consider that with each other there are two persons
concerned and with one another more than two.
 Like the universal personal pronouns, reciprocal ones are written as two
orthographic words but are single grammatical words.
 They bear some resemblance to the reflexive forms of personal pronouns in that
they are anaphorically linked to an antecedent that must be relatively close.
 Reciprocal pronouns differ from the reflexive ones in that the former can have
genitive forms.
## Do Cathy and Steve see each other every day?

## Little children play with one another without problem.

## Kim and Pat met each other’s parents only four years
later.

INDEFINTE
PRONOUNS

COMPOUND
INDEFINTE
PRONOUNS
 They indicate people or things in a vague or general way. They are: ANY – ALL – A
LOT – ANOTHER – ENOUGH – FEW – LITTLE – MUCH – NONE – OTHER – ONE –
SOME
 They are compounds of one, body or thing with the determiners every, any,
some, no. (anyone, anybody, anything, everyone, everybody, everything,
anyone, anybody, anything, someone, somebody, something, no one, nobody,
nothing).
 They are written as single words except for no one.
 They don’t refer to a specific person or thing.
 They are singular in agreement although many are followed by the plural forms
they and their in casual speech.
## I gave up my job and I am looking for another.

## Everyone learns how to say their first words by the
time they are eighteen months old.

ANAPHORIC AND CATAPHORIC REFERENCE

A pronoun may refer to an antecedent (anaphoric reference). Ex. I met George’s brother on my way home last night. He was waiting for a taxi on the street.

It can also refer to a noun or idea that comes after it (cataphoric reference). Ex. It is difficult to study English grammar.

UNIT 6 – SUBJECT AND VERB CONCORD

1- The rule that a verb matches its subject in NUMBER has been called the principle of “grammatical concord”. Thus, we can conclude in general terms that:
 Singular subjects take singular verbs. Ex. Alice lives in London.
 Plural subjects take plural verbs. Ex. They live in France.
2- The number of the subject is not changed by a phrase following or modifying the head of the subjects.
Ex. The performance was very funny. // The performance of the first three clowns was very funny.
3- Compound indefinite pronouns as subjects: everybody, everything, anybody, anything, nothing
 These indefinite pronouns take singular verb when they are working as head of the subject. Ex. Everybody was paying attention.// Nobody was there.
4- The case of “either”, “neither”, and “none”.
 When any of these words is the head of the subject, we can use both forms: SINGULAR or PLURAL. Ex. Neither was/ were to blame.
5- SEVERAL – FEW – BOTH – MANY are plural. Ex. Several of the member were absent in the meeting.
6- The words SOME – ANY – ALL – ENOUGH and MOST can be singular or plural according to the meaning of the sentences.
Ex. Some of the money was missing.
7- A collective noun takes a plural verb when the speaker is thinking of the individual members of the group; it takes a singular verb when the speaker is thinking of the
group as a unit.
Ex. The crowd were fighting for their lives. // The crowd was very impatient.
 When a collective noun has a singular word such as a/ an / this/ that in front of it, a singular verb is usually required.
Ex. An orchestra needs a good conductor.
 When the collective noun follows a word such as each, every, either or neither, the verb is always singular.
Ex. Each class was given a different task to do.
8- The title of a book, a film or the name of an organization or country, even when plural in form, usually takes a singular verb.
Ex. Gulliver’s Travels is a satire.
9- There are some words (abstract or mas nouns) that are used only in the singular with a singular verb: advice – health – progress- information – luggage –etc.
Ex. Your advice has been quite useful.
10- Some nouns singular in form are used only in the plural sense with the verb in the plural form: people – police – cattle – clergy
Ex. The police are investigating the case.
11- NOUNS ENDING IN ICS
 Some nouns plural in form are used only in singular sense with the verb in the singular form: news – aeronautics – acoustics – billiards.
Ex. The news about the accident has shocked her.
 The names of many sciences and diseases ending in “ics” take a singular verb: mathematics – phonetics – physics – politics – economics – measles – mumps –
arthritis
Ex. Mathematics was my favourite subject at high school.
 However, some of these nouns have other meaning that are used with plural verbs.
## The word “economics” is used with a plural verb when it means “economic or financial aspects”. Ex. The economics of the operation have to be considered.
## The noun “politics” is used with a plural verb when it refers to somebody’s political beliefs. Ex. Her politics are less extreme than those of her husband.
## The noun “gymnastics” is used with a plural verb in phrases such as “mental gymnastics”. Ex. The mental gymnastics required to solve this problem are exhausting.

12- In the case of the correlatives “either … or”, “neither … not” and “not only …. but also… “, we apply the rule of proximity, that is, the verb agrees with the head
noun after “or”, “nor” or “but also”.
Ex. Either Mary or I am going to do it.
13- If the head of the subject is singular and it is followed by a modifier with one of the following expressions, “along with”, “accompanied by”, “together with”,
“including”, “in addition to”, “as well as”, the verb remains singular because even if they have the same meaning as “and”, these expressions and the nouns that
follow them do not form part of the subject.
Ex. Mary, accompanied by her mother on the piano, was very well received.
14- When two subjects are connected by both… and, we use a plural verb.
Ex. Both Sarah and Doris were thought to be dead.
15- When the verb refers to the same object, it remains singular.
Ex. The author and lecturer is arriving tonight. (rule of proximity or coherence????? – the subject can be replaced by “they”)
16- Although the phrases “a number of” and “ the number of” are followed by plural nouns, they have different rules of agreement:
## A number of students are complaining about the results of the exam. (verb in the plural)
## The number of jobless people has increased in the last two months. (verb in the singular)
 When “ a number” is followed by us or them, or when it stands alone with this meaning, it is followed by plural verb.
Ex. A number of us/ them are going to the cinema on Saturday.
17- When an “of phrase” follows a percentage or fraction, the verb agrees with the noun closest to the verb; i.e, the verb is plural when the fraction or percentage is
used with or in place of a plural noun; the verb is singular when the fraction or percentage is used with or in place of a singular countable noun.
 If the noun is not followed by an “of phrase”, and the context does not help to decide whether it is referring to a singular/ uncountable or a plural countable
noun singular verb follows.
Ex. Twenty per cent is working hard. // Twenty per cent of the students are working hard.
 If a fraction or percentage is used with or in place of a collective noun, the verb may be singular or plural.
Ex. Two thirds of the population lives/ live in the fertile south.
18- Plural unit words of distance, time and money are followed by singular verbs.
Ex. Four hundred miles is too far to go on foot. // Two weeks goes fast when you are on holiday. // Twenty dollars is a good price for this picture.
 On the other hand, words for numbers that are singular in form are always used with a plural verb.
Ex. There are many species, but only about a dozen are dangerous.
19- When the subject of a sentence is a clause, the verb goes in the singular even when the nouns referred to are plural.
Ex. What we need is better employees.
20- When the infinitive and gerund are heads of the subject, the verb goes in the singular.
Ex. To succeed in all my exams is my main objective.
BUT: To succeed in the exams and to become a lawyer are my main objectives.
21- Compound nouns (collocations or phrases which are considered single units or represents a singular idea) joined by and are followed by singular verb.
Ex. Peaches and cream is my favourite dessert.
22- a) the case of “one of” and “not one of” plus a plural noun are always followed by a singular verb.
Ex. One of the proposals in this memo is absolutely insane.
b) the case of “one or two”. This phrase means the same as a few and thus it is used with a plural verb.

c) the case of “one or more”. This phrase is usually followed by a plural verb because the verb agrees with the part that is closest to it.
Ex. If one or more of the books are damaged, the whole consignment will be returned.
## However, if a singular noun comes between one and or, a singular verb is the best option.
Ex. If one person or more votes against the proposal, it will be rejected.
d) The case of “one in three/ four/ etc.” After any of these expressions, the verb can go in the singular or plural.
Ex. One in three of the woman works/ work full time
23- When such nouns of nationality are preceded by the definite article “the”, the words refer to the people who speak the language, so a plural verb follows.
Ex. The Vietnamese are no longer living in a divided nation.
24- Certain adjectives preceded by “the” can be used as nouns that refer to groups of people; in such cases, a plural verb follows.
Ex. The rich are getting richer and the poor have been forgotten.
25- Some proper nouns standing for geographical names ending in –s take singular verb.
## In such cases, if the noun is changed to a pronoun, the singular pronoun “it” is used because the noun is singular.
Ex. The United States has its headquarters in New York city.
26- “every” and “each” are always followed immediately by singular nouns.
 In this case, even when there are two or more nouns connected by “and”, the verb is singular.
Ex. Every man, woman, and child needs love.
27- The case of the phrases “ the majority of” and “ the minority of”. The former is followed by a plural noun and used with a plural verb.
Ex. The majority of the students are from Spain.
 Without a following of-phrase, the word “majority” is used with a plural verb if it refers to a previously mentioned plural noun.
 The word “majority” can also be treated as a collective noun, referring to more than half of a group of people. In this case, it follows the rules for collective nouns.
Ex. The vociferous majority has/ have the power to change the law.
 Similar rules apply to the word “minority”. When it is used with or in place of a plural noun, the verb is plural.
Ex. A minority of those questioned were in favour of capital punishment.
 The word “minority” can also be used as a collective noun.
Ex. A small minority still speaks/ speak this ancient dialect.
28- The case of the object and the complement.
 There are some situations in which a singular subject has a plural complement or vice versa.
Ex. Our main problem is noisy neighbours. // Noisy neighbours are our main problem.
29- When two gerunds are linked by and, the verb is usually plural.
Ex. Swimming and jogging are good forms of exercise.
 However, if the two gerunds are used before a single noun, the verb is singular.
Ex. Buying and selling houses is not a foolproof of making money.
30- When the subject consists of two or more nouns or pronouns linked by or, there are two rules of agreement.
a) If the verb comes before the subject, as in most questions, it agrees with the first noun or pronoun.
Ex. Was Mary, Tom, Anna or the twins there?
b) If the verb comes after the subject, as in most statements, it agrees with the part of the subject that follows “or”.
Ex. One large bag or two small ones are required.

31- A singular verb is used when “all” means “everything”.
Ex. All is not lost.
32- The phrase “more than one” is a bit of an oddity.
 When it is followed by a singular noun, it is used with a singular verb, even though it refers to at least two people or things.
Ex. More than one window was broken.
 However, when “more than one” is followed by an of-phrase with a plural noun, the verb is plural.
Ex. More windows than one were broken.
33- The cases of “range” and “variety”
 When these phrases are followed by an of-phrase containing a plural noun, the verb may be singular or plural.
Ex. A wide range of goods is / are sold in the supermarket.
 If the phrase governs more than one verb in the sentence, both must be singular or both must be plural.
Ex. A variety of suggestions has been made and is currently under consideration.
 When “a range” and “ a variety” are followed by an of-phrase containing an uncountable noun, the verb must be singular.
Ex. A range of software is available.
34- Prepositional phrases and adverbs functioning as subject count as singular.
Ex. In the evening is best for me.
35- If a singular noun phrase is followed by etc and similar abbreviatory expressions such as and so forth, a plural verb is commonly used.
Ex. The colour, etc are less important for our purposes.
36- The mixed expressions one or two and between one or two follow the principle of proximity in having plural concord.
Ex. One or two reasons were given.

UNIT 9 – REPORTED SPEECH

CHANGING FROM DIRECT INTO INDIRECT SPEECH
 Reported elements
1) The tenses change as follows:

2) Time words

3) Pronouns and Possessive determiners
## 1
st
person pronouns and possessive determiners normally change to 3
rd
person.
Ex. “I don’t know where I put my bag”, Susan said.
Susan said she didn’t know where she had put her bag.

## 2
nd
person pronouns and possessive determiners normally change to 1
st
or 3
rd
depending on the singular or plural use of “you”.
Ex. The Director said, “You’re right”.
The Director said (that) we were right. /// The Director told me I was right. (singular) // The Director told them they were right. (plural)
 It is used when written or spoken words are repeated to somebody else. It is normally used in conversation, although reports of
speeches appear in newspaper as well.
 We can report people’s words by using DIRECT SPEECH or REPORTED SPEECH. The former implies repeating the exact words
someone says; the latter, also called INDIRECT SPEECH, reports the same meaning of what someone said, without using the exact
words.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Simple present Simple Past
Present Progressive Past Progressive
Simple past Simple Past/ Past Perfect
Present Perfect Past Perfect
Present Perfect Progressive Past Perfect Progressive
Simple Future Conditional
Is/ Are going to Was/ Were going to
Can Could
May Might
Must Had to/ Must

NOTE
## The Simple Past changes into Past Perfect or can
remain the same.
## The Past Perfect and the Past Continuous
usually remain the same in Reported Speech.
## If the reported sentence deals with unreal past,
conditionals type 2/ type 3 or wishes, the tenses
remain the same.
Ex. “She was reading the newspaper”, he said.
He said (that) she was reading the newspaper.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH
Tonight, today that night, that day
This week/month/year that week/month/ year
Now then
Yesterday the day before
Last night/week/month/year the previous night/week/ month/ year
Tomorrow the following day/ the day after
Next week/ month/ year the following/ next week/ month/ year
Two days/weeks/ months/ years ago two days/ weeks/ months/ years before

 Reported questions
## In reported questions we use the affirmative word order and the question mark becomes a full stop.
## To report a question we use:
a- Ask + wh- word (who, when, what, where, etc.) when the direct question begins with a wh- word.
b- Ask + if/ whether when the direct question begins with an auxiliary verb (do, have, can, may, etc.)

VERB TENSES AND TIME EXPRESSIONS CHANGE AS IN STATEMENTS
Ex. He said, “ What are you doing tomorrow?”
He asked what I was doing the following day.

Ex. “Did you enjoy your holidays?”, Sam wanted to know.
Sam wanted to know whether I had enjoyed/ enjoyed my holidays.

## Although the most usual verb for reporting questions is “to ask”, other verbs can be used: WONDER – INQUIRE – DEMAND – WANT TO KNOW – ETC.

 Reported commands/ instructions/ requests/ suggestions
## to report commands, requests, suggestions, etc., we use an introductory verb (advise, beg, suggest, tell, ask, etc.) followed by a to- infinitive, and –ing form or a
that clause, according to the introductory verb.
Ex. “Stay here and keep quiet”, he said to us.
He told us to stay there and keep quiet.
Ex. “Don’t touch your toes”, my father told me.
My father told me not to touch my toes.
## If the speaker is making a personal request, then the Indirect Speech form becomes: SUBJECT + REPORTING verb + if + subject + request
Ex. “Can I borrow your pen?”
She asked if she could borrow my pen.

VARIATIONS AND SPECIAL USES the common reporting verbs are frequently varied to avoid repetition. Some changes are necessary in specific situations
SIMPLE STATEMENTS Introductory verbs: SAY, STATE, TELL, ANNOUNCE, DECLARE, INFORM, ASSERT, etc.
QUESTIONS ASK, ENQUIRE, WONDER, WANT TO KNOW
ORDERS, REQUESTS, COMMANDS TELL, ORDER, COMMAND, DIRECT
SUGGESTIONS “HOW ABOUT..?”, “WHY DON’T WE…?”, “LET’S…”, ETC. Reporting verbs: SUGGEST, PROPOSE, RECOMMEND, ADVISE, ETC.
ENCOURAGEMENT “COME ON!”, “KEEP GOING”, ETC. // Reporting verbs: ENCOURAGEMENT, URGE, ETC.
GREETINGS and POLITE PHRASES &
RESPONSES
These expressions can usually be omitted in Indirect speech, but if necessary they can be used like this: “good morning”/ he
greeted me, “how are you?”/ he asked after me, “please”/ he asked politely, “thank you”/ he thanked me, “that’s very kind of
you”/ he thanked me for my kindness, etc.
REFUSALS/ DENIALS “ I didn’t”, “I won’t”. Reporting v.: REFUSE, DENY, REPUDIATE, ETC.
EXCLAMATIONS, EXPRESSIONS OF
EMOTION: ANGER, REGRET, SURPRISE
Reporting v.: EXCLAIM, SIGH, REGRET, SCREAM, LAUGH, CRY, APOLOGIZE, THREATEN, ETC.

Introductory verb + “to infinitive” AGREE – D.S: “Yes, I’ll lend you the book”. R.S: He agreed to lend me the book.
CLAIM* - D.S: “I saw the kidnappers”. R.S: He claimed to have seen the kidnappers.
DEMAND- D.S: “Give me your purse”. R.S: He demanded to be given the purse.
OFFER – D.S: “Would you like me to help you?” R.S: He offered to help me.
PROMISE* - D.S: “I’ll return the money to you soon”. R.S: He promised to return the money to me soon.
REFUSE – D.S: “No, I won’t do it”. R.S: He refused to do it.
THREATEN* - D.S: “Stop talking or I’ll punish you”. R.S: He threatened to punish her if she didn’t stop talking.
Introductory verb + somebody + “to
infinitive”
ADVISE – D.S: “You should do some exercise”. R.S: He advised me to do some exercise.
ALLOW – D.S: “You can smoke in here”. R.S: He allowed me to smoke in there.
ASK – D.S: “Could you do me a favour?” R.S: He asked me to do him a favour.
BEG – D.S: “Please, please don’t punish me”. R.S: He begged me not to punish him.
COMMAND – D.S: “Put your hands up”. R.S: He commanded them to put my hands up.
FORBID – D.S: “You mustn’t smoke in here”. R.S: He forbade me to smoke in there.
INVITE – D.S: “Will you go to the cinema with us?” R.S: They invited me to go to the cinema.
ORDER – D.S: “Keep quiet!” R.S: He ordered me to keep quiet.
REMIND* - D.S:” Don’t forget to phone George”. R.S: He reminded me to phone George.
WARN – D.S: “Don’t enter that room without permission”. R.S: He warned me not to enter that room without permission.
Introductory verb + -ing form ACCUSE SB OF – D.S: “You stole my bag!” R.S: He accused me of stealing/ having stolen her bag.
ADMIT* (TO) - D.S: “Yes, I ate the cake”. R.S: He admitted to having eaten/ eating the cake.
APOLOGISE FOR – D.S: “I’m sorry I’m late”. R.S: He apologized for being late.
BOAST* ABOUT/OF – D.S: “I’m the best doctor in town”. R.S: He boasted about / of being the best doctor in town
COMPLAIN* OF – D.S: “I have very little free time”. R.S: He complaint of having very little free time.
DENY* - D.S: ”No, I didn’t take your money”. R.S: He denied taking/ having taken the money.
INSIST* ON – D.S: “You must go and talk to her”. R.S: He insisted on me/ my going and talking to her.
SUGGEST* - D.S: “Let’s go to the cinema”. R.S: He suggested going to the cimema.
EXPLAIN TO SB + HOW – D.S: “That’s how I make this cake”. R.S: He explained to them how he made that cake.
Introductory verb + that - clause EXPLAIN – D.S: “I don’t like him because he is very proud.” R.S: He explained that she didn’t like him because he was very
proud.
INFORM SOMEBODY – D.S:” The results will be ready tomorrow”. R.S: He informed us that the results would be ready the
following day.
EXCLAIM/ REMARK – D.S: ”What a marvellous city!” R.S: She exclaimed/ remarked that it was a marvellous city.

NOTE
The verbs marked with an asterisk can also be followed by a that –clause in reported speech.
Ex. He claimed that… He threatened that … He promised that ….
He reminded me that … He boasted that ….. He admitted that …….
He complained that …. He denied that … He insisted that …, etc.

CONDITIONALS
ZERO CONDITIONAL
 Used with situation which are
always true

 These sentences describe what always happens in certain circumstances, eg. Scientific facts.
STRUCTURE If X happens, Y happens
Present S. Present S.
When/ If you press the switch, the light comes on.
CONDITIONAL TYPE 1
 Used to talk about real conditions

**UNLESS
-It means only if not.
-We use it when we say that if sth does not
happen, sth else will do.

**PROVIDED, AS LONG AS + PRESENT SIMPLE
-Both mean only if

**IN CASE + PRESENT SIMPLE
-This describes a possible situation we want to
be prepared for.
 These sentences describe what the speaker thinks will possibly happen as a consequence of a real situation.
STRUCTURE If X happens, Y will happen
Present S. Future S.
If we do not deal with the global warming problem, temperature will rise.

 In informal speech, we often use going to instead of will.
 We also use might, or can/ could in place of will.
Ex. If you don’t take an umbrella, you’re going to/ might/ can/ could get wet.

 We can also use the imperatives in real conditions. Ex. If you don’t know a word, look it up in the dictionary.
 Sentences beginning If you will… are only used when will means insist, or is used as a polite form.
Ex. If you will stay up so late, then of course you’ll feel tired. (insist)
If you will wait here, I’ll see if the manager is ready. (polite)
CONDITONAL TYPE 2
 It is used for unreal conditions

** A situation is real or unreal depending on
the context and what the speaker is thinking.
 These sentences describe what speaker thinks would happen in an imaginary situation.
STRUCTURE If X happened, Y would happen
Past S. would + verb
If I were on Venus, you would see the Sun rise in the west.

 The Past Simple tense we use in an if- sentence does not describe past time, but unreal time.
 We also use might or could in place of would.
If I were you: * we give advice with this phrase. Ex. I wouldn’t do that, if I were you.
CONDITIONAL TYPE 3
 It is used for impossible or past
conditions
 These sentences describe what the speaker thinks would have happened as a consequence of a past situation,
so it is impossible to change.
STRUCTURE If X had happened, Y would had happened
Past perfect would have + past participle
If I had seen you, I would have told Peter you were there.
 We also use might have/ could have in place of would have.
 Past condition with a result in the present. (expressing regret)
WISHES *** about the present: we use the unreal past simple. We can also use could/ was able to
*** about the past: we use the past perfect, as in an impossible past conditional sentence.
*** with WOULD: when we want someone to do sth or not to do sth as we think it is a bad habit.
*** if only: to make a stronger kind of wish about the present or the past.

UNIT 10 - PHRASES
Typically, a grammatical unit consists of one or more elements on the level below. For example, a sentence consists of one or more clauses; a clause consists of
one or more phrases: a phrase consists of one or more words; a word consists of one or more morphemes.

A phrase is a
sequence of
words that
serve a
particular
function in a
clause.

CHARACTERISTICS

 A phrase may consist of a single word or a group of words.
[Alex] [bought] [a bottle of wine.]
NP VP NP

 Phrases can be identified by substitution and movement tests, i.e. a phrase can be moved as a unit to a different position.
[Alex] [bought ] [a bottle of wine.]
He did something
[A bottle of wine] [was bought] [by Alex.]

 Differences in phrase structure show up differences of meaning.
[1] (They) (passed) (the table (with (the two men).
[2] They passed (the table) (with the two men).

** While in [1+] the meaning is “They passed the table where the two men were sitting”, in [2] the meaning is “with (i.e accompanied
by) the two men, they passed the table.”

 Phrase types differ both in their internal structure and in their syntactic roles. Thus, recognizing syntactic roles, like subject
and object, can be crucial for the interpretation of phrases.
CLASSIFICATION of
PHRASES according
to their
STRUCTURE
NOUN PHRASES [NP]
** It’s structural unit comprised of a noun (the head element) either alone or accompanied by any additional elements modifying the
noun’s meaning in some way. These elements may be determiners (they specify the reference of a noun) or modifiers (they describe
or classify the entity denoted by the head noun).

[My mother] made [a delicious cake] [for my sister] [last night]
Subject Direct object Indirect object Adverbial
NP NP NP NP

[Most of my classmates] consider [our school] [a prestigious institution]
Subject Direct object Object complement
NP NP NP

[Walter] is [my best friend.] // [The children] are playing in [the garden.]
Subject Subject complement Subject Object of the preposition “IN” (C. prep)
NP NP NP NP

ADJECTIVE PHRASES (AdjP)
They generally contains an adjective as head, optionally accompanied by modifiers, e.g. rather poor, very intelligent, of English.

Your composition is [rather poor.] // This boy is [very intelligent.] // The students consider the topic [rather difficult.]
Subject complement Subject complement Object complement
AdjP AdjP AdjP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
ADVERB PHRASES (AdvP)
It is a group of words that may or may not contain an adverb, but which functions as a modifier of a verb, an adjective or an adverb.

Alexander went [out of the room] [very quietly.] // [Yesterday] I visited my grandmother because she is ill.
Adverbial P. of place Adverbial P. of manner Adverbial P. of time
AdvP AdvP AdvP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
VERB PHRASES (VP)
It contains a head or main verb, either alone or accompanied by one or more auxiliaries. This phrase is a structure unit containing a
lexical verb and any auxiliaries or particles associated with it.

Charles went to the theatre last weekend. // You should have told me about it.
VP VP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE (Prep.P)
It consists of a preposition or a prepositional group followed by an NP that functions as the object of a preposition or prepositional
complement.
He cut himself [with a knife.] // The little girl was crying [in her bedroom.]
Adverbial Adverbial
PrepP PrepP

The idea [of the General Committee] is to close the company. // My mother is a teacher [of English.]
Postmodifier Post modifier
PrepP PrepP

We have been living [in this house] [for seven years.] // The girl [in red] is the best student in this group.
Adverbial (place) Adverbial (time) Postmodifier
PrepP PrepP PrepP

 There are a number of prepositional phrases that are introduced by complex prepositions. These prepositions generally
introduce prepositional phrases that function as adverbials.

-We stayed indoors because of the rain. - According to the weather forecast, it will rain tomorrow.
- In spite of the great depth of the ocean, many shipwrecks are found.
- On account of so much competition, the crowd behaved quite well.
- Due to your egotism, quite a few people don’t like you.
- Except for a couple of friends, nobody was present in the wedding ceremony.

Some common complex prepositions are:
ACCORDING TO BECAUSE OF DUE TO IN ACCORDANCE WITH IN FAVOUR OF
APART FROM BY MEANS OF EXCEPT FOR IN ADDITION TO IN REFERENCE TO
AS A RESULT OF BY WAY OF FOR THE PURPOSE OF IN CASE OF IN TERMS OF
AS FAR AS CONTRARY TO FOR THE SAKE OF IN CONNECTION WITH IN SPITE OF
ON ACCOUNT OF OWING TO REGARDLESS OF WITH REGARD TO
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
INFINITIVE PHRASES (InfP)
They contain an infinitive as head, optionally accompanied by complements.

I love [to go shopping.] [To stay at home] was a great idea. I’m glad [to be here.]
Direct object Subject Complement of the Adjective
InfP InfP InfP
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
GERUNDIAL PHRASES (Ger.P)
It contains a gerund as head, optionally accompanied by complements. It fulfils the functions of a noun.

[Working in these conditions] is unfair. I hate [living in such a cold place.]
Subject Direct object
Ger.P Ger.P
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES (Part. P)
It contains a participle as head, optionally accompanied by complements.
The man [painting that beautiful picture] is a very famous artist. // The reasons [mentioned above] are the most important ones.
Postmodifier Postmodifier
PartP PartP

[Practising daily], she could pass the exam. // [Dissapointed by his best friend], Roger refused to speak to him.
Adverbial Adverbial
PartP PartP

THE CLAUSE
It is the key unit
of syntax, capable
of occurring
independently
(i.e. without
being part of any
other unit).
It is a unit that
can stand alone
as an expression
of a “complete
thought” – that
is, a whole
description of an
event or state of
affairs-.
ELEMENTS
They are
phrases that
serve
syntactic
roles in the
clause
THE VERB PHRASE
It is the central or pivotal element of the clause because it expresses the action or state to which other elements relate, and it controls
the other kinds of elements and meanings that can be in the clause.
THE SUBJECT
It is the second most important element in a clause as it denotes the most important participant in the action or state denoted by the
verb. The subject generally represents the topic, that is, the entity the clause is about.
Syntactically speaking, it can be defined by the following criteria:
- The subject is a noun phrase
- It occurs with all types of verbs
- It precedes the verb phrase (except in clauses with “inversion”)
- It determines the number of the verb phrase (singular or plural)
- The subject noun phrase of a transitive verb can be moved after the verb, and preceded by the preposition “by” to make a
clause with a passive verb.

1. Forms of the subject
The subject is always a noun phrase. The head of a noun phrase may be a noun or a noun equivalent or nominal. Thus, the subject may
take different forms.
1-common noun 2-proper noun 3-personal pronoun 4-indefinite pronoun
Birds fly. Peter is a teacher. They have been playing cards. Nobody liked the film.
Paper is made from wood. The Everest has been polluted. You should see a doctor. Much has been said about it.

5-demonstrative pronoun 6-possessive pronoun 7-interrogative pronoun
This is my last word. Mike’s is an old car, but mine is even older. Who is talking at the back?
Such is not his usual behavior. My daughter studies Medicine, but hers studies Law. Whose is this sweater?

8-indefinite 9-gerund 10-(premodifier) + a noun + (postmodifier)
To see is to believe. Boxing should be banned. Everything in this basket is for my mother.
To err is human. Swimming is good exercise. The man in blue was behind me.

11-independent genitive 12-understood 13-pronominal group
Martin’s was a clear example. Listen to me, please. (You) We all speak English.
Let’s go to the cinema. (we) One of the students left the classroom.
14-adjective (used as a nominal) 15-temporal
The retired suffered a lot. Tomorrow will be a great day.
The unknown usually calls her attention Tuesday is OK for me.

2. Grammatical subjects
2.1 The existential THERE and the NOTIONAL subject
Different uses of the existential there as anticipatory subject.
 We use there is, there was, etc. when we are talking about the existence of people, things, etc.
Ex. It is more “natural” to say: there is a man at the door. than to say: A man is at the door.
 We use there is, there was, etc. when we want:
** to announce or report events. Ex. Mr. Black, there’s a message for you.
** to set a scene for story- telling Ex. Once upon a time there were three bears:…
** to introduce facts Ex. There are 365 days in the year.
** to describe places Ex. In my flat, there are two large windows in the living room.

Important: “there” can also combine with “seem to be”, “appear to be”, “used to be”, “tend to be”, “follow”, “come”, “arise”, “remain”.
Ex. There seemed to be a mistake in our bill. There followed a period of peace.

2.2 the uses if IT as Anticipatory subject
2.3 the uses of IT as dummy/ non-referential or semantically empty subject
We can use “it” to refer to
** weather/ atmospheric conditions Ex. It’s too windy in Chicago.
** environmental Ex. It’s so noisy in this restaurant that you can´t speak.
** time Ex. It’s getting late.
** distance Ex. It seems far from here to the mountains.

In such cases, “it” carries no information (1
st
name). it is also named like the 2
nd
one because it appears to have no clear antecedent.
THE OBJECT
- It is a noun phrase
- It usually follows the verb and it only occurs with transitive verbs.
- It can occur with two patterns: ** the monotransitive pattern, in which the direct object generally denotes people receiving
something or benefiting from the action of the verb, and
** the ditransitive pattern, in which the indirect object denotes the entity affected by the action
or process of the verb.
THE PREDICATIVE
- It can be an adjectival phrase or a noun phrase.
- It follows the verb phrase and (if one is present) the direct object.
- It has the same semantic role of characterizing a preceding noun phrase.
- There are two major types of predicative: the subject complement & the object complement.
ADVERBIALS
A. Obligatory adverbials

- Some verbs take an adverbial to complete their meaning. This is known as an obligatory adverbial. This can occur with two
patterns: ** the copular pattern and,
** the complex transitive pattern
- Obligatory adverbials usually express place or direction although they can also express time or manner meanings, as in:
Ex. Your toast in on the table. Classes start in April. She treated her baby very badly.

B. Optional adverbials
- This case is more common.
- They can be added to clauses with any type of verb.
- they are usually adverbial phrases, prepositional phrases or noun phrases.
- They can be placed in different positions within the clause –in final, initial, or media position-.
- More than one optional adverbial can occur in a simple clause.
- They add extra, further information to the clause, covering a wide variety of meanings, such as place, time, manner, extent, and
attitude, as in: Personally, I don’t like it. or in Miguel went to the cinema with his friends last weekend.
BASIC
CLAUSE
PATTERNS
PATTERN 1
Subject + Intransitive verb + Optional adverbial
S + Vi + Aopt

1)Typically, a verb pattern includes only those words that are significant for that particular verb. Thus, when information about manner,
place or time is not essential, the adverb group or prepositional phrase is not considered to be part of the pattern; in such case, we call
it optional adverbial (Aopt)
Remember!!! A verb is intransitive (Vi) when the action denoted by the verb does not pass over from the subject to anything else. The
action is confined to the subject; only the subject suffers the action. The verb does not take any objects.

Ex. All mortals die. Andrea has is studying in her bedroom right now.
S. Vi. S. Vi. Aopt Aopt

PATTERN 2
Subject + Monotransitive verb + Direct object
S + VMT + Od

1) If the verb requires a direct object to complete the sentence, it is a transitive verb. The term “transitive” comes from the notion
that a person (represented by the subject) performs an action that affects some person or thing: there is a transition of the
action from the one to the other. A verb is called monotransitive (VMY) when it takes only one object (the direct object).

Paul bought a new car last month. My mother is watering the plants in the garden.
S VMT Od Aopt S VMT Od Aopt

2) Often, the people we are talking to know what the object is because of the situation, or because the object has already been
mentioned. In this case, we can omit the object, even though the verb is transitive.
Ex. I don’t own a car, it’s Mary’s. // You don’t smoke, do you?

The cognate object
- It allows us to make an intransitive verb, transitive.
- It is an object alike to the verb; it is formed from the same root as the verb.
- When we use a cognate object, we normally add more information about the object, for example by using and adjective in front
of the noun or a post-modifier after it.
- A cognate object is one where the head noun is a nominalization of the verb, as death is of die, and so on.
Ex. He smiled his thin, evil smile. // I can smell an appalling smell.

PATTERN 3
Subject + Ditransitive verb + Direct object + Indirect object
S + VDT + Od + Oi
S + VDT + Oi + Od

Remember!!! A verb is ditransitive when it takes both a direct and an indirect object. The indirect object is a second object used with a
transitive verb to indicate “who” or “what” benefits from an action, or gets something as a result of it. the indirect object refers to a
person indirectly affected by the action described in the sentence.

Group 1
I gave him a present.
S VDT Oi Od
Other verbs: bring, hand, lend, offer, owe, pay, pass, post,
read, show, sell, serve, take, tell, teach, write
Group 2
I asked Bob a difficult question.
S VDT Oi Od
Other verbs: allow, charge, refuse, tip, tax, take (with expressions of
time), wish
Group 3
My mother knitted a beautiful pullover for Susan.
S VDT Od Oi
Other verbs: buy, book, build, bake, cook, choose, cut, do,
draw, find, fetch, get, hire, keep, order, prescribe, reserve,
rent, save
Group 4
She described the pictures to her classmates.
S VDT Od Oi
Other verbs: admit, confess, deliver, declare, donate, demonstrate,
dedicate, dictate, explain, introduce, mention, narrate, propose,
prove, reveal, return, repeat, recommend, report, suggest, say,
speak, submit, transfer
Group 5
He designed a house for his friend.
S VDT Od Oi
Other verbs: arrange, answer, acquire, correct, collect, compose,
cash, close, fabricate, fix, open, obtain, prepare, pronounce,
recover, repair, translate

PATTERN 4
Subject + Linking verb + Subject complement
S + VL + Cs
1) If a verb requires a subject complement (Cs) to complete the sentence, the verb is a linking verb.
**The subject complement typically identifies or characterizes the person or thing denoted by the subject.
** It is usually a noun phrase or an adjectival phrase.
** It completes the predication after a copula or linking verb by specifying an attribute to the subject, its identity, or a
circumstance inherent to the predication.
** The subject complement is an obligatory constituent in the sense that it completes the meaning of the verb.

Remember!!! A copula or linking verb is a verb that links the subject and the complement of a clause. It sets up a kind of equation
between its subject and its complements. Other verbs are: be, seem, become, look, stay, keep, remain, get, make, taste, sound.

My husband became a lawyer last week. // The plants seem dead.
S VL Cs Aopt S VL Cs

PATTERN 5
Subject + Complex transitive verb + Direct object + Object complement
S + VCT + Od + Co

1)A complex Transitive Verb (VCT) is a transitive verb that not only takes a direct object but also an object complement that completes
the predication by giving same information about the object.

2) An object complement (Co) is a part of a clause that provides information about the object, i.e. what the object is, is called or is
thought to be.
** It is an obligatory constituent in the sense that it completes the predication when the verb chosen leads us to specify some
characteristic of the direct object.
** It may be a noun phrase or an adjectival phrase.
** It is usually introduced by verbs with the following types of meaning:

a- Verbs expressing “causing to remain in a certain state” such as leave, hold and keep.
She left me speechless.
S VCT Od Co

b- Verbs expressing “mental processes” such as believe, consider, think, find, imagine, judge and presume.
I find this book boring.
S VCT Od Co

c- Verbs expressing “affection processes” such as want, like and prefer.
We want our car blue.
S VCT Od Co

d- Verbs that represent “processes of doing” such as bake, drive, get, paint, rub, send, serve, wipe.
This girl is driving me crazy.
S VCT Od Co

e- Verbs of “declaring” which confer an official status such as name, appoint, declare, call, proclaim, report, certify.
We appointed Mark our leader.
S VCT Od Co

PATTERN 6
Subject + Complex transitive verb + direct object + obligatory adverbial
S + VCT + Od + Aobl

1) Other verbs that need an obligatory adverb to complete their sense: keep, place, put, set, stick.
I stuck the wallet in the drawer.
S VCT Od Aobl

PATTERN 7
Subject + Intransitive verb + Obligatory adverbial
S + Vi + Aobl.

1) There are number of intransitive verbs that express movement or position such as go, creep, lead, hang, live, stand, which
often require an obligatory adverbial (Aobl) that names the direction or destination of the action.
Daniel comes from a rich family.
S Vi Aobl.

Subject + intransitive verb + Obligatory adverb
S + Vi + Aobl.

2) Some verbs such as be, stay, remain, keep, etc. can be followed by an obligatory adverbial (Aobl.). In such cases the verb is
considered to be intransitive.
The children kept at home all day.
S Vi Aobl. Aopt.

UNIT 11
TYPES OF SENTENCES Sentences are made of CLAUSES; they are groups of words that contain, at least, a subject and a verb
TWO TYPES
independent:
**it contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete though.
**It can stand alone as a sentence by itself.
**It often includes a complement.
Dependent:
**It begins with a subordinating such as when, while, if, that, or who.
**It does not express a complete thought, so it is not a sentence by itself; it is also called a
sentence fragment.
**It is formed with a subordinator, a subject, and a verb.
Most common subordinators
After Although As, just as As if As soon as Because Before
Even though How If Since So that That Though
Unless Until What When Whenever Where Wherever
Whether Which While Who Whom Whose

SIMPLE S. it is an independent clause.

COMPOUND S. it is a sentence formed by two or more independent clauses joined together.
There are three ways to join them: ** with a coordinator: independent clause + coordinator + independent clause
There are seven coordinators: we can remember them by the phrase FAN BOYS
for, to add a reason and, to add a similar/ equal idea nor, to add a negative/ equal idea
but, to add an opposite idea or, to add an alternative possibility
yet, to add an unexpected or surprising continuation so, to add an expected result

But and yet have similar meanings. However, but is preferred when the two clauses are direct opposites.
When the 2
nd
clause is an unexpected or surprising continuation because of information given in the 1
st

clause, yet is preferred. (But is acceptable for both meanings; yet for only one meaning).
Punctuation note: there is a comma after the first independent clause
A sentence is a group of words that you use to
communicate your ideas.
Every sentence is formed from one or more clauses
and expresses a complete thought.

Freshwater boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level. // Freshwater boils at 100 degrees and freezes at 0 Celsius.
S V S V V

Freshwater and salt water do not boil and do not freeze at the same temperature.
S S V V

The three sentences are simple because they have only one clause.

INDEPENDENT ADJECTIVE CLAUSE
Ex. Men who are not married are called bachelors.

** with a conjunctive adverb: independent clause + conjunctive adverb + independent clause
 Several transition signals, such as on the other hand, as a result, and, for example, act like
conjunctive adverbs; they can also connect independent clauses with a semicolon and a comma.
Conjunctive adverbs
1) To add a similar, equal idea: ALSO, BESIDES, FURTHEMORE, IN ADDITION MOREOVER (at the
beginning of the 2
nd
clause); AS WELL & TOO (at the end of the 2
nd
clause).
2) To add and unexpected or surprising continuation: HOWEVER, NEVERTHELESS, NONETHELESS, STILL.
3) To add a complete contrast: ON THE OTHER HAND, IN CONTRAST.
4) To give an alternative possibility: OTHERWISE.
5) To add an expected result: ACCORDINGLY, AS A RESULT, CONSEQUENTLY, HENCE, THEREFORE, THUS
6) To add an example: FOR EXAMPLE, FOR INSTANCE.
Punctuation note: put a semicolon before and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

** with a semicolon: this type of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses are
closely related in meaning. If they are not closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences,
each ending with a period.

COMPLEX S. ** It contains one independent clause and one (or more) dependent clause(s).
** In a complex sentence, one idea is generally more important than the other. The most important one is placed in the independent clause.

TYPES Adverb: ## it refers to an adverb clause acting like an adverb; that is, it tells WHERE, WHEN, WHY, and HOW.
## an adverb clause begins with a subordinator, such as WHEN, WHILE, BECAUSE, ALTHOUGH, IF, SO, or , THAT.
## it can come before or after an independent clause.

DEPENDENT ADVERB CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
Ex. Although women in the United States could own property, they could not vote until 1920.

Adjective: ## it functions like an adjective; that is, it describes a noun or pronoun.
## an adjective clause begins with a relative pronoun, such as WHO, WHOM, WHICH, WHOSE, or THAT, or with a relative adverb, such as
WHERE, or WHEN.
## It follows the noun or pronoun it describes.

Noun: ## it begins with a wh- question word, THAT, WHETHER, and sometimes IF.
## a noun clause acts like a noun; it can be either the subject or an object of the independence clause.

INDEPENDENT NOUN CLAUSE
Ex. Scientists know what caused it.

COMPOUND COMPLEX S. ## it has at least three clauses, at least two of which are independent,
## you can use almost any combination of dependent and independent clauses. Just be sure there is at least one independent clause.

Ex. 1) I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to work immediately.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

2)After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to work immediately.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

3)I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to support my family.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE

4)I could not decide where I should work or what I should do, so at first I did nothing.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE DEPENDENT CLAUSE INDEPENDENT CLAUSE

Punctuation note: the sentences follow the same rules as before; that is:
** use a semicolon/ comma combination (1), or put a comma before a coordinator joining two independent clauses (2, 3, 4).
** with adverb clauses, put a comma after a dependent adverb clause (2) but not before it (3).
** with noun clauses, use no commas (4).

UNIT 1 – WORD FORMATION PROCESSES AND SPELLING

1) INTRODUCTION
MORPHOLOGY
is the part of
linguistics that
deals with word
formation
processes and
word structure.
MORPHEME 1) It “the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function”.
They can be of 2 types:
 Free: is one meaningful item that can stand alones (= can be used on its own).
Ex. Caw, trend, part, give
 Bound: is a word part with meaning and function but which cannot be used by itself. It always depends on some other word
part.
Ex. Unwise is made up of un- and wise; sensibility is made up of sense, able, ity; etc.
2) Words can be classified on the basis of the elements that make them up. If a word is itself a free morpheme, it is known as a
simple word, e.g. Cow.
If a word contains both a free and a bound morpheme, it is said to be a complex word, e.g childish.
Yet, a third category is recognized if a lexical item is itself made up of two or more already existent elements. E.g. headband,
write-up, short list.
English words
can be formed
by following a
number or
different
procedures,
including
affixation,
compounding,
internal change,
conversion,
acronym, and
blending,
among other.
2)Some
word
formation
process

AFFIXATION

There are
two
affixational
processes in
English:
inflection
and
derivation.

** This process refers to the addition of affixes (bound elements) to free elements.
There are two types of affixes: the prefixes (placed at the beginning of a base); suffixes (placed at the end of the base.)
** Another important distinction is between base and root. The former is “a word which an affix is attached to”, the latter is the smallest
word part, the one which cannot be further divided into morphemes.
Inflection
 Refers to the addition of suffixes that mark a grammatical contrast. Ex. Drinks/ Drinking
**Attaching –s at the end of drink signals the singular form of this verb in the present tense and the –ing form indicates
progressive aspect. Therefore, even when the form of the word changes, the meaning and the grammatical category remain unaltered.
 In the case of ACT- ACTIVE- ACTIVELY – INACTIVE, the addition of derivational affixes (prefixes and affixes), words change both
in terms of grammatical category and meaning.

DERIVATION INFLECTION
- Encodes lexical meaning - Encodes grammatical meaning
- Is not syntactically relevant - Is syntactically relevant
- Can occur inside derivation - Occurs outside all derivation
- Is often semantically opaque - Is rarely semantically opaque
- Is often restricted in its productivity - Is fully productive
- is not restricted to suffixation - always suffixational (in English)
- often changes the part of speech - Does not change part of speech

Compounding
Compounds are made up of two or more independent elements and belong mostly (though not exclusively) to the grammatical categories
of nouns, verbs and adjectives. Ex.
NOUN VERB ADJECTIVE
Fire engine Spoonfeed Nationwide
Oilwell Whitewash Read hot
Afterthought Overlook Homegrown
Scrub nurse Underestimate Sky blue

Internal change
 This refers to the substitution of a word bit for another bit to mark a difference in the grammar.
 It is important to state that these parts are not morphemes themselves.
Example: sing – sang // steal – stole // drive – drove // mouse – mice // foot – feet // goose – geese
Conversion
 This process involves no derivation and, therefore, some authors call it zero derivation.
 It refers to the use of the same surface form to create a new word with a change of category and meaning.
Example: V >> N N >> V A >> V A >> N Adv. >> V
To go go bottle to bottle empty to empty poor the poor down to down
To walk walk file to file dirty to dirty privileged the privileged out to out
To read read skin to skin open to open unknown the unknown up to up
Acronymy
** Acronyms are created when a new word is made up of the initial letters of a phrase or name, and they pronounced as a single word.
Ex: NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), UNICEF (United Nations Children's Fund), RAM (Random Access Memory),
RADAR (Radio detecting and ranging), SCUBA (Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus).
Other examples:
LASER Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation PIN Personal identification number
SONAR Sound navigation and ranging TASER Tom A. Swift Electric Rifle
CAPTCHA Completely Automated Public Turing Test to tell Computers and Humans Apart
GIF Graphics Interchange Format SWAT Special Weapons And Tactics
Yahoo! Yet Another Hierarchically Organized Oracle LED Light Emitting Diode PDF Portable Document Format
Blending
Blend words (also known as portamanteau words) are the combination of parts of two words, for instance, brunch is created by
combining breakfast and lunch, and smog is the result of smoke and fog.
Even though it is not the most important process, Lieber argues that “it is used quite a bit in English in advertising, product- naming, and
playful language”.

3) Common derivational affixes
AFFIX (suffixes) CHANGE EXAMPLES AFFIX (suffixes) CHANGE EXAMPLES
-(at)ion V > N Realization, assertion, protection, persuasion -able/ -ible V>A /
N>A
Perishable, breakable, discernible, reasonable
-age N>N/ V>N Orphanage, voltage, yardage, spillage -ance (-ence/
-ancy/ -ency)
V>N Riddance, dependence, expectancy
-ant V>N Defendant, claimant -ate A>N Activate, captivate, regulate
-ee V>N/ A>N/
A>N
Evacuee, employee, absentee, refugee -eer N>N Puppeteer, mountaineer
-en A>V/ N> V Blacken, strengthen, lengthen -er/or V>N/ N>N Teacher, writer, Londoner
-(e)ry A>N/ N>N Bravery, cookery -ess N>N Lioness, waitress
-ette N>N Kitchenette, ushertte -dom N>N Apedom, slumdom
-ful N>N/ N>A Mouthful, beautiful -hood N>N Adulthood, childhood
-(i)al N>A Presidential, national -(i)an N>A Technician, historian
-ic/-ical N>A Electric(al), economic(al), -ify A>V Solidify, humidify
-ing V>N/ V>A Shooting, sleeping (bag) -ish N>A/ A>A Childish, reddish
-ity A>N Curiosity, formality -ive V>N Assertive, predictive
-ize N>V/ A>V Computerize, hospitalize -less N>A Hopeless, speechless
-let N>N Booklet, piglet -ly N>A/
A>Adj
Brotherly, happily
-ment V>N establishment -ness A>N Silliness, blindness
-ous N>A Poisonous, mountainous -y/-ey N>A Dusty, clayey
-y/-ie N>N Daddy, doggie
PREFIXES -------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------- ------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------
Anti- N/A>N/A Anti-abortion, anti- pollution De- V>V Deactivate, demystify
Dis- V>V Discontinue, disagree Ex- N>N Ex-friend, ex- wife
In- (and variants) A>A Incompetent, implausible Mis- V>V Misidentify, misplace
Re- V>V Rethink, redo Un- V>V/ A>A Untie, undo, unfair

4) Word formation spelling rules
This rules indicate how to add suffixes and prefixes to different words in the correct way. These rules apply to both inflectional and derivational suffixes.

RULE 1
How to add a suffix to a word that ends in a consonant:
a) One-syllable words ending in a CVC (consonant – vowel - consonant) combination
 When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel double the final consonant: ship+ -ing= shipping// run+-ing= running // sun+-y= sunny
 When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant do not double the final consonant: ship + ment= shipment

Note: this rule does not apply to words that do not end in a CVC combination. Ex.: pump + ed= pumped // sing + ing= singing

b) Two – syllable and longer words ending in a CVC combination
 When adding a suffix that begins with a vowel to a word of more than one-syllable ending in the CVC combination stressed on the last syllable, usually double the
final consonant: commit +-ing= committing // begin + -er= beginner // prefer + ing= preferring

 When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant, but do not double the final consonant: commit + -ment= commitment // enroll + ment: enrolment
Note: this rule does not apply to words that do not end in the CVC combination: intend+ -ed= intended // contain+ -ing= containing
Exceptions: conference –reference – transferable – transference (the stress pattern of the base word is moved to the first syllable)

 If the word has moved and ends in a single consonant, but the stress is not on the last syllable, do not double the final consonant.
Ex.: offer+ -ing= offering // benfit + -ed= benefited
Exceptions: cancellation, crystallize, equipped, excellence, excellent, questionnaire.
Notice the difference between in the spelling of the following words:

RULE 2
How to add a suffix to a word that ends in “y”
 When adding a suffix to a word which ends in a consonant followed by a “y”, change the “y” to “I”: happy - -ness= happiness // study + -ed= studied
 If you add the suffix “ing” to a word ending in “y”, keep the “y”: try + -ing= trying
 If the –y is preceded by a vowel, do not change it: destroy + -ed= destroyed
Exceptions: daily, dryly, dryness, shyly, shyness, slyly, slyness, gaiety, gaily

RULE 3
How to add a suffix to a word that ends in a silent “e”
 When adding a “y” or a suffix which starts with a vowel to a word which ends in a silent “e”, drop the silent “e”: noise + y= noisy // like + ing= liking
 When adding a suffix that begins with a consonant, keep the –e: love + less= loveless
 When adding a suffix beginning with either an “a”, or an “o” to a word that ends in “ce”, or “ge”, keep the “e”: courage+-ous= courageous
manage+able= manageable // notice+ able= noticeable // outrage+ ous= outrageous // peace+ able= peaceable // service+ able= serviceable
Exceptions: argument, awful, duly, ninth, truly, wholly, and wisdom.

RULE 4
How to add prefixes to words that start with certain letters
 Add “il” to words beginning with l-: illiterate , illogical
 Add “im” to words beginning with “m” or “p”: impersonal, immature
 Add “ir” to words beginning with r-: irrational, irreparable
American English British English American English British English
Traveling travelling Paralleled parallelled
canceled Cancelled signaling Signaling
fueling Fueling snorkeling snorkelling
modeling modelling

APUNTES DE GRAMMAR - I - LICENCIATURA .docx

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