Argument[1]
pmunts
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61 slides
Mar 02, 2011
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About This Presentation
No description available for this slideshow.
Slide Content
ArgumentArgument
This slide show will define argument This slide show will define argument
and explain why you need one in most and explain why you need one in most
of your academic essays. of your academic essays.
The information in this slide show is The information in this slide show is
from the UNC Writing Center’s website. from the UNC Writing Center’s website.
I thank them. I thank them.
This slide show will define argument This slide show will define argument
and explain why you need one in most and explain why you need one in most
of your academic essays. of your academic essays.
The information in this slide show is The information in this slide show is
from the UNC Writing Center’s website. from the UNC Writing Center’s website.
I thank them. I thank them.
Arguments are everywhereArguments are everywhere
You may be surprised to hear that the You may be surprised to hear that the
word "argument" does not have to be word "argument" does not have to be
written anywhere in your assignment written anywhere in your assignment
for it to be an important part of your for it to be an important part of your
task. In fact, making an argument—task. In fact, making an argument—
expressing a point of view on a expressing a point of view on a
subject and supporting it with subject and supporting it with
evidence—is often the aim of evidence—is often the aim of
academic writing. academic writing.
word "argument" does not have to be word "argument" does not have to be
written anywhere in your assignment written anywhere in your assignment
for it to be an important part of your for it to be an important part of your
task. In fact, making an argument—task. In fact, making an argument—
expressing a point of view on a expressing a point of view on a
subject and supporting it with subject and supporting it with
evidence—is often the aim of evidence—is often the aim of
academic writing. academic writing.
Your instructors may assume Your instructors may assume
that you know this and thus that you know this and thus
may not explain the importance may not explain the importance
of arguments in class.of arguments in class.
Most material you learn in school is or has Most material you learn in school is or has
been debated by someone, somewhere, at been debated by someone, somewhere, at
some time. Even when the material you some time. Even when the material you
read or hear is presented as simple "fact," it read or hear is presented as simple "fact," it
may actually be one person's interpretation may actually be one person's interpretation
of a set of information. of a set of information.
that you know this and thus that you know this and thus
may not explain the importance may not explain the importance
of arguments in class.of arguments in class.
Most material you learn in school is or has Most material you learn in school is or has
been debated by someone, somewhere, at been debated by someone, somewhere, at
some time. Even when the material you some time. Even when the material you
read or hear is presented as simple "fact," it read or hear is presented as simple "fact," it
may actually be one person's interpretation may actually be one person's interpretation
of a set of information. of a set of information.
Instructors may call on you to examine Instructors may call on you to examine
that interpretation and defend it, that interpretation and defend it,
refute it, or offer some new view of refute it, or offer some new view of
your own. In writing assignments, you your own. In writing assignments, you
will almost always need to do more will almost always need to do more
than just summarize information that than just summarize information that
you have gathered or regurgitate facts you have gathered or regurgitate facts
that have been discussed in class. that have been discussed in class.
that interpretation and defend it, that interpretation and defend it,
refute it, or offer some new view of refute it, or offer some new view of
your own. In writing assignments, you your own. In writing assignments, you
will almost always need to do more will almost always need to do more
than just summarize information that than just summarize information that
you have gathered or regurgitate facts you have gathered or regurgitate facts
that have been discussed in class. that have been discussed in class.
You will need to develop a point of You will need to develop a point of
view on or interpretation of that view on or interpretation of that
material and provide evidence for your material and provide evidence for your
position. position.
view on or interpretation of that view on or interpretation of that
material and provide evidence for your material and provide evidence for your
position. position.
If you think that "fact," not If you think that "fact," not
argument, rules intelligent argument, rules intelligent
thinking, consider an example.thinking, consider an example.
For nearly 2000 years, educated For nearly 2000 years, educated
people in many Western cultures people in many Western cultures
believed that bloodletting—believed that bloodletting—
deliberately causing a sick person to deliberately causing a sick person to
lose blood—was the most effective lose blood—was the most effective
treatment for a variety of illnesses. treatment for a variety of illnesses.
argument, rules intelligent argument, rules intelligent
thinking, consider an example.thinking, consider an example.
For nearly 2000 years, educated For nearly 2000 years, educated
people in many Western cultures people in many Western cultures
believed that bloodletting—believed that bloodletting—
deliberately causing a sick person to deliberately causing a sick person to
lose blood—was the most effective lose blood—was the most effective
treatment for a variety of illnesses. treatment for a variety of illnesses.
The "fact" that bloodletting is beneficial to The "fact" that bloodletting is beneficial to
human health was not widely questioned human health was not widely questioned
until the 1800's, and some physicians until the 1800's, and some physicians
continued to recommend bloodletting as late continued to recommend bloodletting as late
as the 1920's. We have come to accept a as the 1920's. We have come to accept a
different set of "facts" now because some different set of "facts" now because some
people began to doubt the effectiveness of people began to doubt the effectiveness of
bloodletting; these people argued against it bloodletting; these people argued against it
and provided convincing evidence. and provided convincing evidence.
human health was not widely questioned human health was not widely questioned
until the 1800's, and some physicians until the 1800's, and some physicians
continued to recommend bloodletting as late continued to recommend bloodletting as late
as the 1920's. We have come to accept a as the 1920's. We have come to accept a
different set of "facts" now because some different set of "facts" now because some
people began to doubt the effectiveness of people began to doubt the effectiveness of
bloodletting; these people argued against it bloodletting; these people argued against it
and provided convincing evidence. and provided convincing evidence.
Human knowledge grows out of such Human knowledge grows out of such
differences of opinion, and scholars differences of opinion, and scholars
like your instructors spend their lives like your instructors spend their lives
engaged in debate over what may be engaged in debate over what may be
counted as "true," "real," or "right" in counted as "true," "real," or "right" in
their fields. In their courses, they want their fields. In their courses, they want
you to engage in similar kinds of you to engage in similar kinds of
critical thinking and debate. critical thinking and debate.
differences of opinion, and scholars differences of opinion, and scholars
like your instructors spend their lives like your instructors spend their lives
engaged in debate over what may be engaged in debate over what may be
counted as "true," "real," or "right" in counted as "true," "real," or "right" in
their fields. In their courses, they want their fields. In their courses, they want
you to engage in similar kinds of you to engage in similar kinds of
critical thinking and debate. critical thinking and debate.
Argumentation is not just what your Argumentation is not just what your
instructors do. We all use instructors do. We all use
argumentation on a daily basis, and argumentation on a daily basis, and
you probably already have some skill you probably already have some skill
at crafting an argument. The more you at crafting an argument. The more you
improve your skills in this area, the improve your skills in this area, the
better you will be at thinking critically, better you will be at thinking critically,
reasoning, making choices, and reasoning, making choices, and
weighing evidence. weighing evidence.
instructors do. We all use instructors do. We all use
argumentation on a daily basis, and argumentation on a daily basis, and
you probably already have some skill you probably already have some skill
at crafting an argument. The more you at crafting an argument. The more you
improve your skills in this area, the improve your skills in this area, the
better you will be at thinking critically, better you will be at thinking critically,
reasoning, making choices, and reasoning, making choices, and
weighing evidence. weighing evidence.
Making a claim Making a claim
What is an argument? In academic What is an argument? In academic
writing, an argument is usually a main writing, an argument is usually a main
idea, often called a "claim" or "thesis idea, often called a "claim" or "thesis
statement," backed up with evidence statement," backed up with evidence
that supports the idea. that supports the idea.
What is an argument? In academic What is an argument? In academic
writing, an argument is usually a main writing, an argument is usually a main
idea, often called a "claim" or "thesis idea, often called a "claim" or "thesis
statement," backed up with evidence statement," backed up with evidence
that supports the idea. that supports the idea.
In the majority of college papers, you In the majority of college papers, you
will need to make some sort of claim will need to make some sort of claim
and use evidence to support it, and and use evidence to support it, and
your ability to do this well will separate your ability to do this well will separate
your papers from those of students your papers from those of students
who see assignments as mere who see assignments as mere
accumulations of fact and detail. accumulations of fact and detail.
will need to make some sort of claim will need to make some sort of claim
and use evidence to support it, and and use evidence to support it, and
your ability to do this well will separate your ability to do this well will separate
your papers from those of students your papers from those of students
who see assignments as mere who see assignments as mere
accumulations of fact and detail. accumulations of fact and detail.
In other words, gone are the happy In other words, gone are the happy
days of being given a "topic" about days of being given a "topic" about
which you can write anything. It is which you can write anything. It is
time to stake out a position and prove time to stake out a position and prove
why it is a good position for a thinking why it is a good position for a thinking
person to hold. person to hold.
days of being given a "topic" about days of being given a "topic" about
which you can write anything. It is which you can write anything. It is
time to stake out a position and prove time to stake out a position and prove
why it is a good position for a thinking why it is a good position for a thinking
person to hold. person to hold.
Claims can be as simple as "Protons Claims can be as simple as "Protons
are positively charged and electrons are positively charged and electrons
are negatively charged," with evidence are negatively charged," with evidence
such as, "In this experiment, protons such as, "In this experiment, protons
and electrons acted in such and such a and electrons acted in such and such a
way." way."
are positively charged and electrons are positively charged and electrons
are negatively charged," with evidence are negatively charged," with evidence
such as, "In this experiment, protons such as, "In this experiment, protons
and electrons acted in such and such a and electrons acted in such and such a
way." way."
Claims can also be as complex as "The Claims can also be as complex as "The
end of the South African system of end of the South African system of
apartheid was inevitable," using apartheid was inevitable," using
reasoning and evidence such as, reasoning and evidence such as,
"Every successful revolution in the "Every successful revolution in the
modern era has come about after the modern era has come about after the
government in power has given and government in power has given and
then removed small concessions to the then removed small concessions to the
uprising group." uprising group."
end of the South African system of end of the South African system of
apartheid was inevitable," using apartheid was inevitable," using
reasoning and evidence such as, reasoning and evidence such as,
"Every successful revolution in the "Every successful revolution in the
modern era has come about after the modern era has come about after the
government in power has given and government in power has given and
then removed small concessions to the then removed small concessions to the
uprising group." uprising group."
In either case, the rest of your paper In either case, the rest of your paper
will detail the reasoning and evidence will detail the reasoning and evidence
that have led you to believe that your that have led you to believe that your
position is best. position is best.
will detail the reasoning and evidence will detail the reasoning and evidence
that have led you to believe that your that have led you to believe that your
position is best. position is best.
When beginning to write a When beginning to write a
paper, ask yourself, "What is my paper, ask yourself, "What is my
point?"point?"
For example, the point of this handout is to help For example, the point of this handout is to help
you become a better writer, and we are arguing you become a better writer, and we are arguing
that an important step in the process of writing that an important step in the process of writing
effective arguments is understanding the concept effective arguments is understanding the concept
of argumentation. If your papers do not have a of argumentation. If your papers do not have a
main point, they cannot be arguing for anything. main point, they cannot be arguing for anything.
paper, ask yourself, "What is my paper, ask yourself, "What is my
point?"point?"
For example, the point of this handout is to help For example, the point of this handout is to help
you become a better writer, and we are arguing you become a better writer, and we are arguing
that an important step in the process of writing that an important step in the process of writing
effective arguments is understanding the concept effective arguments is understanding the concept
of argumentation. If your papers do not have a of argumentation. If your papers do not have a
main point, they cannot be arguing for anything. main point, they cannot be arguing for anything.
Asking yourself what your point is can Asking yourself what your point is can
help you avoid a mere "information help you avoid a mere "information
dump." Consider this: your instructors dump." Consider this: your instructors
probably know a lot more than you do probably know a lot more than you do
about your subject matter. Why, then, about your subject matter. Why, then,
would you want to provide them with would you want to provide them with
material they already know? material they already know?
help you avoid a mere "information help you avoid a mere "information
dump." Consider this: your instructors dump." Consider this: your instructors
probably know a lot more than you do probably know a lot more than you do
about your subject matter. Why, then, about your subject matter. Why, then,
would you want to provide them with would you want to provide them with
material they already know? material they already know?
Instructors are usually Instructors are usually
looking for two things: looking for two things:
Proof that you understand the Proof that you understand the
material, AND material, AND
A demonstration of your ability to A demonstration of your ability to
use or apply the material in ways use or apply the material in ways
that go beyond what you have read that go beyond what you have read
or heard. or heard.
looking for two things: looking for two things:
Proof that you understand the Proof that you understand the
material, AND material, AND
A demonstration of your ability to A demonstration of your ability to
use or apply the material in ways use or apply the material in ways
that go beyond what you have read that go beyond what you have read
or heard. or heard.
This second part can be done in many This second part can be done in many
ways: you can critique the material, ways: you can critique the material,
apply it to something else, or even just apply it to something else, or even just
explain it in a different way. In order explain it in a different way. In order
to succeed at this second step, to succeed at this second step,
though, you must have a particular though, you must have a particular
point to argue. point to argue.
ways: you can critique the material, ways: you can critique the material,
apply it to something else, or even just apply it to something else, or even just
explain it in a different way. In order explain it in a different way. In order
to succeed at this second step, to succeed at this second step,
though, you must have a particular though, you must have a particular
point to argue. point to argue.
Arguments in academic writing are Arguments in academic writing are
usually complex and take time to usually complex and take time to
develop. develop.
usually complex and take time to usually complex and take time to
develop. develop.
Your argument will need to be Your argument will need to be
more than a simple or obvious more than a simple or obvious
statement such as "Frank Lloyd statement such as "Frank Lloyd
Wright was a great architect."Wright was a great architect."
more than a simple or obvious more than a simple or obvious
statement such as "Frank Lloyd statement such as "Frank Lloyd
Wright was a great architect."Wright was a great architect."
Such a statement might capture Such a statement might capture
your initial impressions of Wright your initial impressions of Wright
as you have studied him in class; as you have studied him in class;
however, you need to look deeper however, you need to look deeper
and express specifically what and express specifically what
caused that "greatness." caused that "greatness."
your initial impressions of Wright your initial impressions of Wright
as you have studied him in class; as you have studied him in class;
however, you need to look deeper however, you need to look deeper
and express specifically what and express specifically what
caused that "greatness." caused that "greatness."
Your instructor will probably expect Your instructor will probably expect
something more complicated, such as something more complicated, such as
"Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture combines "Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture combines
elements of European modernism, Asian elements of European modernism, Asian
aesthetic form, and locally found materials aesthetic form, and locally found materials
to create a unique new style," or "There are to create a unique new style," or "There are
many strong similarities between Wright's many strong similarities between Wright's
building designs and those of his mother, building designs and those of his mother,
which suggests that he may have borrowed which suggests that he may have borrowed
some of her ideas."some of her ideas."
something more complicated, such as something more complicated, such as
"Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture combines "Frank Lloyd Wright's architecture combines
elements of European modernism, Asian elements of European modernism, Asian
aesthetic form, and locally found materials aesthetic form, and locally found materials
to create a unique new style," or "There are to create a unique new style," or "There are
many strong similarities between Wright's many strong similarities between Wright's
building designs and those of his mother, building designs and those of his mother,
which suggests that he may have borrowed which suggests that he may have borrowed
some of her ideas."some of her ideas."
To develop your argument, you would To develop your argument, you would
then define your terms and prove your then define your terms and prove your
claim with evidence from Wright's claim with evidence from Wright's
drawings and buildings and those of drawings and buildings and those of
the other architects you mentioned. the other architects you mentioned.
then define your terms and prove your then define your terms and prove your
claim with evidence from Wright's claim with evidence from Wright's
drawings and buildings and those of drawings and buildings and those of
the other architects you mentioned. the other architects you mentioned.
Evidence Evidence
Do not stop with having a point. You Do not stop with having a point. You
have to back up your point with have to back up your point with
evidence. The strength of your evidence. The strength of your
evidence, and your use of it, can make evidence, and your use of it, can make
or break your argument. or break your argument.
Do not stop with having a point. You Do not stop with having a point. You
have to back up your point with have to back up your point with
evidence. The strength of your evidence. The strength of your
evidence, and your use of it, can make evidence, and your use of it, can make
or break your argument. or break your argument.
You already have the natural You already have the natural
inclination for this type of thinking, if inclination for this type of thinking, if
not in an academic setting. Think not in an academic setting. Think
about how you talked your parents about how you talked your parents
into letting you borrow the family car. into letting you borrow the family car.
inclination for this type of thinking, if inclination for this type of thinking, if
not in an academic setting. Think not in an academic setting. Think
about how you talked your parents about how you talked your parents
into letting you borrow the family car. into letting you borrow the family car.
Did you present them with lots of Did you present them with lots of
instances of your past trustworthiness? instances of your past trustworthiness?
Did you make them feel guilty because Did you make them feel guilty because
your friends' parents all let them your friends' parents all let them
drive? drive?
Did you whine until they just wanted Did you whine until they just wanted
you to shut up? you to shut up?
instances of your past trustworthiness? instances of your past trustworthiness?
Did you make them feel guilty because Did you make them feel guilty because
your friends' parents all let them your friends' parents all let them
drive? drive?
Did you whine until they just wanted Did you whine until they just wanted
you to shut up? you to shut up?
Did you look up statistics on teen Did you look up statistics on teen
driving and use them to show how you driving and use them to show how you
didn't fit the dangerous-driver profile? didn't fit the dangerous-driver profile?
These are all types of argumentation, These are all types of argumentation,
and they exist in academia in similar and they exist in academia in similar
forms. forms.
driving and use them to show how you driving and use them to show how you
didn't fit the dangerous-driver profile? didn't fit the dangerous-driver profile?
These are all types of argumentation, These are all types of argumentation,
and they exist in academia in similar and they exist in academia in similar
forms. forms.
Every field has slightly different Every field has slightly different
requirements for acceptable evidence, requirements for acceptable evidence,
so familiarize yourself with some so familiarize yourself with some
arguments from within that field arguments from within that field
instead of just applying whatever instead of just applying whatever
evidence you like best. evidence you like best.
Pay attention to your textbooks and Pay attention to your textbooks and
your instructor's lectures. your instructor's lectures.
requirements for acceptable evidence, requirements for acceptable evidence,
so familiarize yourself with some so familiarize yourself with some
arguments from within that field arguments from within that field
instead of just applying whatever instead of just applying whatever
evidence you like best. evidence you like best.
Pay attention to your textbooks and Pay attention to your textbooks and
your instructor's lectures. your instructor's lectures.
What types of argument and evidence What types of argument and evidence
are they using? The type of evidence are they using? The type of evidence
that sways an English instructor may that sways an English instructor may
not work to convince a sociology not work to convince a sociology
instructor. instructor.
are they using? The type of evidence are they using? The type of evidence
that sways an English instructor may that sways an English instructor may
not work to convince a sociology not work to convince a sociology
instructor. instructor.
Find out what counts as proof that Find out what counts as proof that
something is true in that field. Is it something is true in that field. Is it
statistics, a logical development of statistics, a logical development of
points, something from the object points, something from the object
being discussed (art work, text, being discussed (art work, text,
culture, or atom), the way something culture, or atom), the way something
works, or some combination of more works, or some combination of more
than one of these things? than one of these things?
something is true in that field. Is it something is true in that field. Is it
statistics, a logical development of statistics, a logical development of
points, something from the object points, something from the object
being discussed (art work, text, being discussed (art work, text,
culture, or atom), the way something culture, or atom), the way something
works, or some combination of more works, or some combination of more
than one of these things? than one of these things?
Be consistent with your evidence. Unlike Be consistent with your evidence. Unlike
negotiating for the use of your negotiating for the use of your
parents' car, a college paper is not the parents' car, a college paper is not the
place for an all-out blitz of every type place for an all-out blitz of every type
of argument. of argument.
negotiating for the use of your negotiating for the use of your
parents' car, a college paper is not the parents' car, a college paper is not the
place for an all-out blitz of every type place for an all-out blitz of every type
of argument. of argument.
You can often use more than one type You can often use more than one type
of evidence within a paper, but make of evidence within a paper, but make
sure that within each section you are sure that within each section you are
providing the reader with evidence providing the reader with evidence
appropriate to each claim appropriate to each claim
of evidence within a paper, but make of evidence within a paper, but make
sure that within each section you are sure that within each section you are
providing the reader with evidence providing the reader with evidence
appropriate to each claim appropriate to each claim
So, if you start a paragraph or section So, if you start a paragraph or section
with a statement like "Putting the with a statement like "Putting the
student seating area closer to the student seating area closer to the
basketball court will raise player basketball court will raise player
performance," do not follow with your performance," do not follow with your
evidence on how much more money evidence on how much more money
the university could raise by letting the university could raise by letting
more students go to games for free. more students go to games for free.
with a statement like "Putting the with a statement like "Putting the
student seating area closer to the student seating area closer to the
basketball court will raise player basketball court will raise player
performance," do not follow with your performance," do not follow with your
evidence on how much more money evidence on how much more money
the university could raise by letting the university could raise by letting
more students go to games for free. more students go to games for free.
Information about how fan support Information about how fan support
raises player morale, which then raises player morale, which then
results in better play, would be a results in better play, would be a
better follow-up.better follow-up.
raises player morale, which then raises player morale, which then
results in better play, would be a results in better play, would be a
better follow-up.better follow-up.
Your next section could offer clear Your next section could offer clear
reasons why undergraduates have as reasons why undergraduates have as
much or more right to attend an much or more right to attend an
undergraduate event as wealthy undergraduate event as wealthy
alumni—but this information would not alumni—but this information would not
go in the same section as the fan go in the same section as the fan
support stuff. You cannot convince a support stuff. You cannot convince a
confused person, so keep things tidy confused person, so keep things tidy
and ordered. and ordered.
reasons why undergraduates have as reasons why undergraduates have as
much or more right to attend an much or more right to attend an
undergraduate event as wealthy undergraduate event as wealthy
alumni—but this information would not alumni—but this information would not
go in the same section as the fan go in the same section as the fan
support stuff. You cannot convince a support stuff. You cannot convince a
confused person, so keep things tidy confused person, so keep things tidy
and ordered. and ordered.
CounterargumentCounterargument
One way to strengthen your argument One way to strengthen your argument
and show that you have a deep and show that you have a deep
understanding of the issue you are understanding of the issue you are
discussing is to anticipate and address discussing is to anticipate and address
counterarguments or objections. counterarguments or objections.
One way to strengthen your argument One way to strengthen your argument
and show that you have a deep and show that you have a deep
understanding of the issue you are understanding of the issue you are
discussing is to anticipate and address discussing is to anticipate and address
counterarguments or objections. counterarguments or objections.
By considering what someone who By considering what someone who
disagrees with your position might disagrees with your position might
have to say about your argument, have to say about your argument,
you show that you have thought you show that you have thought
things through, and you dispose things through, and you dispose
of some of the reasons your of some of the reasons your
audience might have for not audience might have for not
accepting your argument.accepting your argument.
disagrees with your position might disagrees with your position might
have to say about your argument, have to say about your argument,
you show that you have thought you show that you have thought
things through, and you dispose things through, and you dispose
of some of the reasons your of some of the reasons your
audience might have for not audience might have for not
accepting your argument.accepting your argument.
You can generate counterarguments You can generate counterarguments
by asking yourself how someone who by asking yourself how someone who
disagrees with you might respond to disagrees with you might respond to
each of the points you've made or each of the points you've made or
your position as a whole. If you can't your position as a whole. If you can't
immediately imagine another position, immediately imagine another position,
here are some strategies to try:here are some strategies to try:
by asking yourself how someone who by asking yourself how someone who
disagrees with you might respond to disagrees with you might respond to
each of the points you've made or each of the points you've made or
your position as a whole. If you can't your position as a whole. If you can't
immediately imagine another position, immediately imagine another position,
here are some strategies to try:here are some strategies to try:
·
Do some research. It may seem to you Do some research. It may seem to you
that no one could possibly disagree that no one could possibly disagree
with the position you are arguing, but with the position you are arguing, but
someone probably has. For example, someone probably has. For example,
some people argue that the American some people argue that the American
Civil War never ended. If you are Civil War never ended. If you are
making an argument concerning, for making an argument concerning, for
example, the outcomes of the Civil example, the outcomes of the Civil
War, you might wish to see what some War, you might wish to see what some
of these people have to say. of these people have to say.
Do some research. It may seem to you Do some research. It may seem to you
that no one could possibly disagree that no one could possibly disagree
with the position you are arguing, but with the position you are arguing, but
someone probably has. For example, someone probably has. For example,
some people argue that the American some people argue that the American
Civil War never ended. If you are Civil War never ended. If you are
making an argument concerning, for making an argument concerning, for
example, the outcomes of the Civil example, the outcomes of the Civil
War, you might wish to see what some War, you might wish to see what some
of these people have to say. of these people have to say.
·
Talk with a friend or with your Talk with a friend or with your
teacher. Another person may be able teacher. Another person may be able
to imagine counterarguments that to imagine counterarguments that
haven't occurred to you. haven't occurred to you.
Talk with a friend or with your Talk with a friend or with your
teacher. Another person may be able teacher. Another person may be able
to imagine counterarguments that to imagine counterarguments that
haven't occurred to you. haven't occurred to you.
·
Consider your conclusion or claim Consider your conclusion or claim
and the premises of your argument and the premises of your argument
and imagine someone who denies and imagine someone who denies
each of them. For example, if you each of them. For example, if you
argued "Cats make the best pets. argued "Cats make the best pets.
This is because they are clean and This is because they are clean and
independent," you might imagine independent," you might imagine
someone saying "Cats do not make someone saying "Cats do not make
the best pets. They are dirty and the best pets. They are dirty and
needy." needy."
Consider your conclusion or claim Consider your conclusion or claim
and the premises of your argument and the premises of your argument
and imagine someone who denies and imagine someone who denies
each of them. For example, if you each of them. For example, if you
argued "Cats make the best pets. argued "Cats make the best pets.
This is because they are clean and This is because they are clean and
independent," you might imagine independent," you might imagine
someone saying "Cats do not make someone saying "Cats do not make
the best pets. They are dirty and the best pets. They are dirty and
needy." needy."
Once you have thought up some Once you have thought up some
counterarguments, consider how you counterarguments, consider how you
will respond to them—will you concede will respond to them—will you concede
that your opponent has a point but that your opponent has a point but
explain why your audience should explain why your audience should
nonetheless accept your argument? nonetheless accept your argument?
counterarguments, consider how you counterarguments, consider how you
will respond to them—will you concede will respond to them—will you concede
that your opponent has a point but that your opponent has a point but
explain why your audience should explain why your audience should
nonetheless accept your argument? nonetheless accept your argument?
Will you reject the Will you reject the
counterargument and explain why counterargument and explain why
it is mistaken? Either way, you will it is mistaken? Either way, you will
want to leave your reader with a want to leave your reader with a
sense that your argument is sense that your argument is
stronger than opposing stronger than opposing
arguments.arguments.
counterargument and explain why counterargument and explain why
it is mistaken? Either way, you will it is mistaken? Either way, you will
want to leave your reader with a want to leave your reader with a
sense that your argument is sense that your argument is
stronger than opposing stronger than opposing
arguments.arguments.
When you are summarizing opposing When you are summarizing opposing
arguments, be charitable. Present arguments, be charitable. Present
each argument fairly and objectively, each argument fairly and objectively,
rather than trying to make it look rather than trying to make it look
foolish. foolish.
arguments, be charitable. Present arguments, be charitable. Present
each argument fairly and objectively, each argument fairly and objectively,
rather than trying to make it look rather than trying to make it look
foolish. foolish.
You want to show that you have You want to show that you have
seriously considered the many sides of seriously considered the many sides of
the issue and that you are not simply the issue and that you are not simply
attacking or caricaturing your attacking or caricaturing your
opponents.opponents.
seriously considered the many sides of seriously considered the many sides of
the issue and that you are not simply the issue and that you are not simply
attacking or caricaturing your attacking or caricaturing your
opponents.opponents.
It is usually better to consider one or It is usually better to consider one or
two serious counterarguments in some two serious counterarguments in some
depth, rather than to give a long but depth, rather than to give a long but
superficial list of many different superficial list of many different
counterarguments and replies.counterarguments and replies.
Be sure that your reply is consistent Be sure that your reply is consistent
with your original argument. If with your original argument. If
considering a counterargument considering a counterargument
changes your position, you will need changes your position, you will need
to go back and revise your original to go back and revise your original
argument accordingly.argument accordingly.
two serious counterarguments in some two serious counterarguments in some
depth, rather than to give a long but depth, rather than to give a long but
superficial list of many different superficial list of many different
counterarguments and replies.counterarguments and replies.
Be sure that your reply is consistent Be sure that your reply is consistent
with your original argument. If with your original argument. If
considering a counterargument considering a counterargument
changes your position, you will need changes your position, you will need
to go back and revise your original to go back and revise your original
argument accordingly.argument accordingly.
Audience Audience
Audience is a very important Audience is a very important
consideration in argument. A lifetime consideration in argument. A lifetime
of dealing with your family members of dealing with your family members
has helped you figure out which has helped you figure out which
arguments work best to persuade arguments work best to persuade
each of them. Maybe whining works each of them. Maybe whining works
with one parent, but the other will with one parent, but the other will
only accept cold, hard statistics. only accept cold, hard statistics.
Audience is a very important Audience is a very important
consideration in argument. A lifetime consideration in argument. A lifetime
of dealing with your family members of dealing with your family members
has helped you figure out which has helped you figure out which
arguments work best to persuade arguments work best to persuade
each of them. Maybe whining works each of them. Maybe whining works
with one parent, but the other will with one parent, but the other will
only accept cold, hard statistics. only accept cold, hard statistics.
Your kid brother may listen only to the Your kid brother may listen only to the
sound of money in his palm. It's sound of money in his palm. It's
usually wise to think of your audience usually wise to think of your audience
in an academic setting as someone in an academic setting as someone
who is perfectly smart but who doesn't who is perfectly smart but who doesn't
necessarily agree with you. necessarily agree with you.
sound of money in his palm. It's sound of money in his palm. It's
usually wise to think of your audience usually wise to think of your audience
in an academic setting as someone in an academic setting as someone
who is perfectly smart but who doesn't who is perfectly smart but who doesn't
necessarily agree with you. necessarily agree with you.
You are not just expressing your You are not just expressing your
opinion in an argument ("It's true opinion in an argument ("It's true
because I said so"), and in most because I said so"), and in most
cases your audience will know cases your audience will know
something about the subject at something about the subject at
hand—so you will need sturdy hand—so you will need sturdy
proof. proof.
opinion in an argument ("It's true opinion in an argument ("It's true
because I said so"), and in most because I said so"), and in most
cases your audience will know cases your audience will know
something about the subject at something about the subject at
hand—so you will need sturdy hand—so you will need sturdy
proof. proof.
At the same time, do not think of At the same time, do not think of
your audience as clairvoyant. You your audience as clairvoyant. You
have to come out and state both have to come out and state both
your claim and your evidence clearly. your claim and your evidence clearly.
Do not assume that because the Do not assume that because the
instructor knows the material, he or instructor knows the material, he or
she understands what part of it you she understands what part of it you
are using, what you think about it, are using, what you think about it,
and why you have taken the position and why you have taken the position
you've chosen. you've chosen.
your audience as clairvoyant. You your audience as clairvoyant. You
have to come out and state both have to come out and state both
your claim and your evidence clearly. your claim and your evidence clearly.
Do not assume that because the Do not assume that because the
instructor knows the material, he or instructor knows the material, he or
she understands what part of it you she understands what part of it you
are using, what you think about it, are using, what you think about it,
and why you have taken the position and why you have taken the position
you've chosen. you've chosen.
Critical reading Critical reading
Critical reading is a big part of Critical reading is a big part of
understanding argument. Although understanding argument. Although
some of the material you read will be some of the material you read will be
very persuasive, do not fall under the very persuasive, do not fall under the
spell of the printed word as authority. spell of the printed word as authority.
Critical reading is a big part of Critical reading is a big part of
understanding argument. Although understanding argument. Although
some of the material you read will be some of the material you read will be
very persuasive, do not fall under the very persuasive, do not fall under the
spell of the printed word as authority. spell of the printed word as authority.
Very few of your instructors Very few of your instructors
think of the texts they assign think of the texts they assign
as the last word on the as the last word on the
subject. Remember that the subject. Remember that the
author of every text has an author of every text has an
agenda, something that he or agenda, something that he or
she wants you to believe.she wants you to believe.
think of the texts they assign think of the texts they assign
as the last word on the as the last word on the
subject. Remember that the subject. Remember that the
author of every text has an author of every text has an
agenda, something that he or agenda, something that he or
she wants you to believe.she wants you to believe.
This is OK—everything is This is OK—everything is
written from someone's written from someone's
perspective—but it's a good perspective—but it's a good
thing to be aware of. thing to be aware of.
written from someone's written from someone's
perspective—but it's a good perspective—but it's a good
thing to be aware of. thing to be aware of.
Take notes either in the margins of Take notes either in the margins of
your source (if you are using a your source (if you are using a
photocopy or your own book) or on a photocopy or your own book) or on a
separate sheet as you read. Put away separate sheet as you read. Put away
that highlighter! Simply highlighting a that highlighter! Simply highlighting a
text is good for memorizing the main text is good for memorizing the main
ideas in that text—it does not ideas in that text—it does not
encourage critical reading. encourage critical reading.
your source (if you are using a your source (if you are using a
photocopy or your own book) or on a photocopy or your own book) or on a
separate sheet as you read. Put away separate sheet as you read. Put away
that highlighter! Simply highlighting a that highlighter! Simply highlighting a
text is good for memorizing the main text is good for memorizing the main
ideas in that text—it does not ideas in that text—it does not
encourage critical reading. encourage critical reading.
Part of your goal as a reader should be Part of your goal as a reader should be
to put the author's ideas in your own to put the author's ideas in your own
words. Then you can stop thinking of words. Then you can stop thinking of
these ideas as facts and start thinking these ideas as facts and start thinking
of them as arguments. of them as arguments.
to put the author's ideas in your own to put the author's ideas in your own
words. Then you can stop thinking of words. Then you can stop thinking of
these ideas as facts and start thinking these ideas as facts and start thinking
of them as arguments. of them as arguments.
When you read, ask yourself questions like When you read, ask yourself questions like
"What is the author trying to prove?" and "What is the author trying to prove?" and
"What is the author assuming I will agree "What is the author assuming I will agree
with?" Do you agree with the author? Does with?" Do you agree with the author? Does
the author adequately defend her the author adequately defend her
argument? What kind of proof does she argument? What kind of proof does she
use? Is there something she leaves out that use? Is there something she leaves out that
you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her
argument? argument?
"What is the author trying to prove?" and "What is the author trying to prove?" and
"What is the author assuming I will agree "What is the author assuming I will agree
with?" Do you agree with the author? Does with?" Do you agree with the author? Does
the author adequately defend her the author adequately defend her
argument? What kind of proof does she argument? What kind of proof does she
use? Is there something she leaves out that use? Is there something she leaves out that
you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her you would put in? Does putting it in hurt her
argument? argument?
As you get used to reading critically, As you get used to reading critically,
you will start to see the sometimes you will start to see the sometimes
hidden agendas of other writers, and hidden agendas of other writers, and
you can use this skill to improve your you can use this skill to improve your
own ability to craft effective own ability to craft effective
arguments. arguments.
you will start to see the sometimes you will start to see the sometimes
hidden agendas of other writers, and hidden agendas of other writers, and
you can use this skill to improve your you can use this skill to improve your
own ability to craft effective own ability to craft effective
arguments. arguments.
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