Asian Seabass (Lates calcarifer) Culture.pptx

Aquaculture is the most reliable sector to the providing world nutrias food. It is all depended on the cultivable species. Asian seabass is one of the candidate species for aquaculture because of the wide range of water quality tolerance, growth performance, and consumer preference. The Indian and Western Pacific Oceans are where Asian seabass is found in its natural habitat. It can be cultured in the earthen pond, floating or stationer cages, and recirculating system. Seed resources are available in rivers and lakes of fresh water, but aquaculture is the depending on the hatchery that produces seed because of the superior growth production. In the nursery phase, cannibalism is predominant in Asian seabass cultivation, which will improve via the grading of a shooter. Feeding is one of the important management for good growth performance and reducing cannibalism to give the optimum feed requirements. The growth rate of the Asian seabass is 400-600 g in 4 to 6 months. Asian seabass farmers are suffering from some infectious and non-infection diseases, it will improve via the good management practices of the culture promises. In this review paper, some key points of Asian seabass farming are covered for better understanding.

1. College of Fisheries Science - Veraval Kamdhenu University Sub: Coastal Aquaculture (AQC-509) Submitted By Rajesh V. Chudasama, Reg. No. 2021010210041063 M.F.Sc., 3 rd Sem. COF-VRL, KU. Submitted To Dr. A. S. Kotiya, Assistant Research Scientist , Fisheries Research and Training Center, Mahuva. Department of Aquaculture

2. Asian Seabass ( Lates calcarifer) Culture

3. Chudasama, R. V., Patel, P. H., Bhola, G. K., Zala , N. A., & Devaliya , J. D. (2023). A Short Review of Asian Seabass ( Lates calcarifer ) Cultivation, Ind. J. Pure App. Biosci . 11 (3), 17-35. doi : http://dx.doi.org/10.18782/2582-2845.8980

4. Species Description Scientific Classification Kingdom Animalia Phylum Chordata Class Actinopterygii Order Perciformes Family Latidae Genus Lates Species L. calcarifer Asian seabass is also called giant perch and in India, it is called “Bhetki” (SPC,2014) . Euryhaline species Protandrous hermaphrodite and catadromous fish Carnivorous and highly predatory, cannibalistic when food is scarce.

5. Morphological Characters of L. calcarifer Colour Adult: Blue to green-grey dorsally, silvery on the sides, white below Juveniles: Olive brown dorsally, silvery on sides Body Pointed head, Elongate and compressed body Fins Dorsal fin: 7-9 spines and 10-11 soft rays Anal fin: 3 spines and 7-8 soft rays Rounded caudal fin Size 1.5 to 2.0 m Source: (Li et al., 2011)

6. Global Distribution Asian sea bass is native to coastal areas in the Indian and Western Pacific Oceans . This includes coastal Australia, Southeast, and Eastern Asia, and India (Luna, 2008). Source: Aquamaps.org (computer-generated native distribution map for Lates calcarifer based on IPCC A2 Emission scenario

7. Global Production Scenario of L. calcarifer World L. calcarifer Production Coastal Aquaculture (thousand tonnes, live weight) Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 Production 18.1 27.0 52.7 68.7 105.8 Source: FAO, 2022

8. Breeding Behaviors Young fish live in the upper reaches of freshwaters. As they mature they move to estuaries often near mangroves. Breeding occurs in estuaries and coastal shallows. Males over five years of age usually go through a sex transformation to become female (they are protandrous hermaphrodites). Sexual maturity for males occurs at 3 to 4 years of age (Yearsley et al., 2003). Migration pattern of Lates calcarifer

9. Picture Title Asian sea bass Eggs Larva of L. calcarifer Picture Title Larva of L. calcarifer Size grading fry Developing stages of L. Calcarifer

10. Seed Resources of The Asian Seabass Lates calcarifer is widely cultured throughout Asia, however, fingerling supply from the wild is not reliable, hence aquaculture of this species is based primarily on hatchery-produced fry (Jerry, 2013). Thailand is the most advanced country in the production of seabass seed from spawners collected from the wild and induced to breed since 1973. Thailand is presently producing more than 100 million seeds annually. Thus, the seabass culture industry in Thailand is now assured of sufficient and consistent supply of seed ( Nammalwar & Marichamy , 1998).

11. The technology package for seabass seed production, under controlled conditions, has been standardized by the Central Institute of Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA). Seabass juveniles are available from the wild For e.g. April - June in West Bengal , May - August in Andhra Pradesh , Sept - Nov. in Tamil Nadu , May - July in Kerala , June - July in Maharashtra

12. Asian Seabass an Ideal Candidate for Aquaculture It is a relatively hardy species that tolerate crowding and has wide physiological tolerances. The high fecundity of female fish provides plenty of material for hatchery production of seed. Hatchery production of seed is relatively simple. Seabass feed well on pelleted diets, and juveniles are easy to wean to pellets. Grow rapidly, reaching a harvestable size (350 g – 3 kg) in six months to two years.

13. Problems Associated with Asian Seabass Culture Predominant cannibalistic during young stages (1-20g). It’s depending on high protein rate or on trash fish which is staple diet of poor in developing countries. Unpredictable wild fry availability, in India fry availability abundant in East coast than West coast.

14. Pond and Cage Preparation for Lates Calcarifer Culture Suitable soil type (Seepage) The pond must be located near a water supply. Location and size of the water inlet and outlet. Pond wall minimize the chances of erosion. The pond base must be carefully sloped. E lectricity for the operation of aerators, pumps. The pond may have to be protected from predators, e.g. birds ( Schipp et al., 2007) .

15. Floating Cages The net-cages are hung on GI pipe, wooden or bamboo frames. The cage is kept afloat by styrofoam drum, plastic carbuoy or bamboo. The most convenient dimension for a cage is a rectangular and volume of 50 m 3 (5 m x 5 m x 2 m). The cage unit has to be anchored to the bottom ( Tookwinas , 1989).

16. Stationary Cages This type is fastened to wooden poles installed at its four corners. Stationary cages are usually set in shallow bays where the tidal fluctuation is low. The size is the same as the floating cages ( Tookwinas , 1989).

17. After the fishes are brought to the hatchery, they are released in to the acclimatizing tanks filled with quality filtered and aerated seawater of the same salinity, temperature etc., of the transported medium. Since the fishes would be under stress due to transportation, they should be kept in these tanks for 1 - 2 hr with flow-through water arrangement. After normalization, the fishes are treated with Acriflavine (1 ppm) for 10 minutes and later with 100 ppm formalin for one hour as prophylactic treatment to avoid infection due to minor injuries, if any. The fish should be closely observed for 3-5 days ( Arasu et al., 2008) . Acclimatization

18. Stocking Rate Stocking is done separately for each size group. This would minimize losses from cannibalism ( Tookwinas , 1989). Stocking density varies depending upon the Size of the Fry, 5,000/m 3 for those smaller than 1 cm; 4,000/m 3 for those of 1.0 - 1.5 cm, and 2,000/m 3 for those of 1.5 - 2.5 cm ( Nammalwar & Marichamy , 1998).

19. Rearing system Stocking Density (no./m 3 ) 30 dph seed 70 dph seed Tank with aeration 2200 1500 Nylon hapa 500 250 Cage 900 630 Stocking Density for Rearing F ry (Day post-hatching) Source:  Department of Fisheries, Government of Kerala

20. Size Grading Highly cannibalistic fish. Grading improve the survival. Size grading is done at 4 – 5 days intervals. Grading-Slat Gap 12 mm Manual Grading for Bigger Size

21. Fry Size Graders with Various Sizes During the grading, all seed is removed from each hapa and taken in grading containers where shooters are separated from the small size seed group and kept separately according to their sizes as smaller one, medium one and larger one in different hapa.

22. Culture of Lates Calcarifer Asian Seabass can be cultured in ponds and cages in coastal and inland ecosystems since it can adapt to even freshwater. For better survival the fry or early fingerlings either collected from the wild or procured from the hatcheries have to be further reared to stackable size in the nurseries.

23. Although, net cage culture technologies of this species are developed in Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. Australia is experiencing the development of large-scale seabass farms ( Mathew, 2009) . In India, seabass Can be profitably cultured in ponds, net cages and pens. Most of the traditional culture practices in the country are in ponds The experimental culture of the seabass in coastal pond at Tuticorin carried out by the CMFRI ( Nammalwar & Marichamy , 1998).

24. Nursey Rearing In South-East Asia, juvenile barramundi (1.0-2.5 cm TL) may be stocked in nursery cages in rivers, coastal areas or ponds, or directly into fresh or brackish water nursery ponds. Nursery cages are of floating or fixed design, and range in size from 2 m³ to 10 m³. Barramundi juveniles are stocked in nursery cages at densities of 80-300 fish/m³, and in nursery ponds at 20-50 fish/m².

25. The barramundi are fed on minced trash fish at the rate of 100% of biomass twice daily for the first week, reducing to 60% then 40% of biomass for the second and third weeks respectively. Vitamin premix may be added to the minced fish at a rate of 2%. The fish are 'trained' to feed at the same site at the same time each day. This nursery phase lasts for 30-45 days and once the fingerlings have reached 5-10 cm TL they are transferred to grow-out ponds or cages ( Kungvankij et al., 1986)

26. In Australia, juvenile barramundi are transferred to nursery facilities after they have been harvested from the rearing ponds or from intensive culture tanks. Most nursery facilities use small cages made from insect screen mesh in concrete tanks or above-ground pools. Many barramundi farms use freshwater ponds for grow-out and thus operate freshwater nursery facilities ( Rimmer , 2003) .

27. Most mortalities during the nursery phase occur during the weaning period. The cause of these mortalities varies, but most result from diseases caused by stress associated with: • Harvesting • Salinity conversion • High stocking densities in the nursery tanks. Cannibalism can be a major cause of mortalities during the nursery phase and during early grow-out. Barramundi will eat fish of up to 60-67% of their own length ( Parazo et al., 1998). Cannibalism is reduced by grading the fish at regular intervals (usually at least every 7-10 days) to ensure that the fish in each cage are similar in size (Lucas & Southgate, 2003).

28. Water Quality Parameter Parameter Range pH 7.5 - 8.5 Dissolved oxygen 4 - 9 ppm Salinity 10 - 30 ppt Temperature 26 - 32 C NH 3 < 1 ppm H 2 S < 0.3 ppm

29. Grow Out Culture of Seabass Grow-out culture is the rearing of Sea bass fingerlings/juveniles to marketable size . The culture period also varies from 4-6 months to 8-12 months. Sea Bass Culture in Ponds Seabass culture has been done in ponds in Thailand, Australia and India mainly under extensive method. There are two culture systems adopted in the pond culture of Seabass, i.e. monoculture and polyculture.

30. Monoculture of Asian Seabass Only Asian Seabass juveniles stoking Seed stocking density (5 – 10 cm): 10,000 per ha (2 gm) Feeding : Trash fish in chopped and grounded form twice or thrice a day. Feeding rate 10% of biomass maintain. Artificial feed protein level required for batter growth 45 – 55% Culture period 4 – 6 months: 400 – 600g, with 2 – 3 tonnes per ha production).

31. Polyculture of Asian Seabass Asian Seabass is cultured along with other forage fishes like Tilapia. Tilapia is good market price and also, used as Seabass feed. First Tilapia stocking : 10,000 – 15,000 per ha (Male : Female = 1:3). 1-2 months of rearing Tilapia fry and fingerlings will become available in abundance in the pond. Asian Seabass stocking density : 3,000 – 5,000 per ha. Water exchange 30-50% in three or four days once. Production of Seabass up to 2-3 tonnes is obtained by the method of polyculture.

32. Cage Culture of Asian Seabass Seabass culture in cages is quite well developed in Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore and Hongkong . It is very successful and economically viable culture method and can be adopted to any extent depending upon the capacity of the farmer. Cages can be either floating net cages or stationary net cages. Floating net cages are put up in areas with more than 4 or 5 meter of water depth and stationary cages are operated in areas with water depths of less than 3-4 meters.

33. Management of Cages 7 cm (5 g) seeds are stocked at a density of 20 no./m 3 Regular cleaning of the cage. Regular grading Cage Culture of Asian Seabass

34. Recirculating Systems The second method of on - growing barramundi is intensive production in an indoor, controlled environment. Recirculating tank - based growout systems generally use underground (bore) fresh water or brackish water and a high level of recirculation through filters ( Rimmer & Russell 1998 ). The high degree of control in these systems, particularly of temperature and feeding, allows year - long production and rapid growth. However, capital and operating costs are generally higher than for outdoor cage systems (Barlow, 1998 ).

35. In recirculating systems, stocking densities are usually maintained at between 15 and 40 kg/m 3 , depending on the technologies and methodologies used. At optimum temperatures, barramundi can reach market size (500 g) in 6 – 12 months. It also avoids the environmental concerns associated with release of nutrients to open waterways from pond or cage culture operations (Schipp, 1996 ).

36. Source: Handbook of Barramundi ( Schipp, 2007) Growth Rate

37. Seabass cultured in cages grows to about 400-600 g in 4-6 month period. When the fish are allowed to grow for longer period of up to 8-12 months, the growth attains to 800-1200 g. Production rate ranging from 6 kg to 14.4 kg/m 3 is obtained in cage culture practice (Lucas & Southgate, 2003).

38. Feeding Habits and Management Seabass or barramundi are opportunistic predators ; crustaceans and fish predominate in the diet of adults. Although the adult seabass is regarded as a voracious carnivore, juveniles are omnivores. Analysis of stomach content of wild specimens (1–10 cm) show that about 20% consists plankton, primarily diatom and algae and the rest are made up to small shrimp, fish, etc. Fish of more than 20 cm, the stomach content consists of 100% animal prey: 70% crustaceans (such as shrimp and small crab) and 30% small fishes. The fish species found in the guts at this stage are mainly slip mouths or pony fish ( Leiognatus sp.) and mullets (Mugil sp ) ( Mathew, 2009) .

39. Broodstock Diet Broodstock barramundi are fed a high-quality diet consisting of freshly thawed whole mullet and squid. The size of the feed is usually between 10 and 20 cm per piece. The fish are fed three days a week and tank cleaning is undertaken on the non-feeding days. The feed for the broodstock is supplemented by a special diet additive and a vitamin mix is also injected into each piece of food ( Schipp, 2007) .

40. Larval Diet Seabass begin to feed 50 h after hatching at 28°C. However, it is advisable to introduce the larval feed at an earlier time. If larvae are unable to feed 60 h after hatching, irreversible starvation will occur and at least 50% of them will die. Larvae should be weaned gradually to each new food type. Larval rearing of seabass is largely dependent on the use of live food organisms, e.g., rotifer ( Brachionus plicatilis ) , Artemia (newly hatched nauplii, enriched nauplii, subadult or adult biomass), and the freshwater cladoceran Moina . The rotifers ( Brachionus plicatilis ) are given as feed to the larvae from 3 rd day onwards.

41. Algal water is added daily up to l5 th day. The algal concentration is kept around 20,000 cells/ml in the rearing tank. The rotifers in the larval rearing tanks are maintained @ 20-30 nos/ml initially and increased to 40-50 nos/ml from 4 th to 8 th day. Every day, after water exchange, the food concentration in the tank should be assessed and fresh rotifers should be added to maintain the required concentration. In the early stages (3-5 days) the larvae may not be in a position to ingest the large sized rotifer. Hence, after collecting the rotifers from the tanks small size rotifers of less than 120µ should be selected by using suitable mesh size (100µ) cloth nets and fed to the early larvae. Assorted size rotifers can be given as feed from 6 th day onwards.

42. Brine shrimp (Artemia) nauplii are fed along with rotifers from 9 th to 15 th day and there after the Artemia nauplii alone were fed up to 21 st day. The density of the nauplii in the rearing medium is maintained @ 2000 nos./l initially and gradually increased to 6000 nos./l as the rearing days progress. The daily ration is adjusted after assessing the unfed Artemia in the rearing tank at the time of water exchange. By 25 th day, the larvae will attain a length of 1.0 - 1.5 cm and the fry can be fed with Artemia sub adult (biomass) along with cooked minced fish/shrimp meat. The fry can also be weaned slowly to artificial feed.

43. Days Feed Larval stage Chlorella/ Isochrysis (10 3 cells/ml) Rotifer ( nos /ml) Artemia nauplii ( nos /l) Artemia biomass ( nos /l) Cooked minced fish/ shrimp meat (% body wt. per day) 3 – 8 20 – 30 20 – 30 - - - 9 – 15 20 – 30 40 – 50 2000 – 3000 - - 16 – 21 - - 4000 – 6000 - - 22 – 30 - - - 1000 - 1500 30 – 40 Source: Arasu (2008) Feeding Schedule for Seabass Larvae

44. Growout Feed Barramundi are fed on 'trash fish' or on commercially available pellets specifically formulated for this species. Trash fish is widely used in Asia, but only pellets are used in Australia. Barramundi fed on trash fish are fed twice daily at 8-10% body weight for fish up to 100 g, decreasing to 3-5% body weight for fish over 600 g. Vitamin premix may be added to the trash fish at a rate of 2%, or rice bran or broken rice may be added to increase the bulk of the feed at minimal cost. Food conversion ratios (FCRs) for barramundi fed on trash fish are high, generally ranging from 4:1 to 8:1 (Cheong, 1989).

45. Barramundi diets in Australia generally contain around 45% crude protein (CP) and 10% lipid. Semi floating, extruded pellets are generally preferred because they are available to the fish for longer than sinking pellets. Average body weight (ABW, g) Feeding rate (% ABW) Type of feed Feeding frequency (times daily) 20-50 7 Starter 3 50-100 6 Starter 3 100-200 5 Grower 2-3 200-300 4 Grower 2-3 300-400 3 Finisher 2-3 400-500 2.5 Finisher 2-3 Suggested feeding schedule for Asian seabass during grow-out culture ( Jamerlan and Coloso 2010).

46. Sampling Protocol A. In Cage Periodic samplings of fish were performed to assess the growth performance and separate the shooters weekly. The weekly mean length and weight increments were obtained from three random samples of 10 individual fish from each net cage. At first, the average body weight of the growing fishes was calculated. The shooters which had a minimum size difference of approximately 33% from the rest of the stock ( Parazo et al., 1991) were then removed without replacement. Lastly, average body weight of fish excluding the shooters in each cage was computed from the sampling data and weekly feed adjustment was made accordingly ( Biswas et al., 2010) .

47. B. In Pond Step 1: After 30 DOC First one pond six cast net sampling conduct.   Step 2: Calculate cast net covering total area and net opening efficiency.   Cast net covering area A = πr 2 , Unit - m 2 (π = 3.14) Most of cast net 12 (3.66 m) feet in diameter r = 6 feet (1.83 m)   Cast net opening efficiency 70% may be. A = πr 2 x opening efficiency of cast net 70% = 3.14 x (1.83 x 1.83) x 0.7 = 7.36 m 2

48. Step 3: Calculate average of six cast net numbers of seabass and total weight of one cast net convert help of average.   Population Density = Total No. Fish in Cast Nets / Total Area of Cast Net (m 2 ) Survival Rate % = Population Density x Total Area of Pond x 100 / Total Stocking Density Average Body Weight (ABW) / Mean Weight = Total Weight (g) / No. of Fish   Average Daily Weight (ADW) = ABW / DOC   Biomass = Population Density x ABW x Total Area of Pond x Survival Rate / 1000

49. Feed of Asian Seabass

50. Dieses Management In Asian Seabass Culture A spectrum of diseases, pathogens and parasites are known to infect barramundi, some of which are of major biological and economic importance in the production of farmed fish and some of which occur incidentally. Non-infectious Diseases Deformities A range of deformities have been recognised in barramundi. These include missing dorsal fins, missing opercula and jaw abnormalities. Strong evidence that nutritional deficiencies or imbalances including minerals, vitamins, essential fatty acids, may be involved in rapidly growing fish.

51. B. Cannibalism Cannibalism is a behavioural trait that may directly cause the death of the targeted fish by it being eaten or, in the case of a fish that is too large to be eaten it may result in skin damage with secondary bacterial infection and death Fry or fingerling stage. Cannibalism may be controlled by regular grading

52. Viral Diseases A. Nodavirus Nodaviruses infect the central nervous system of the fish. Although the exact source of nodavirus infection is uncertain it appears likely that virus is shed in the reproductive fluids of the male and female fish and is present in or on fertilised eggs.

53. Signs of infection Evidence of N odavirus infection is usually most prevalent in larval barramundi between 15 to 24 days of age although fish up to 7 weeks have been seen with the disease. Infected fish are generally pale or show generalised dark coloration with redness of the head area. Affected fish usually swim with an erratic spiralling action. These signs are followed by death. Treatment and control There is no known treatment for VNN.

54. B . Lymphocystis Lymphocystis is a disease of the skin caused by an iridovirus and is a common disease of fish worldwide. Lymphocystis is reported rarely in barramundi. Signs of infection Multiple nodular lesions in the skin, particularly on the fins. Treatment and control At present there is no known treatment for lymphocystis disease. Providing fish are kept in a clean environment they stand a good chance of recovery.

55. B . Scale Drop Disease

56. Signs of infection Gills appear congested. Internally, multiple haemorrhages may be seen on the surface of the visceral organs. Often, the skeletal muscle has a pink-red colouration. Treatment and control Streptococcosis may respond to the administration of oral or injectable antibiotic. Bacterial Diseases A. Streptococcosis Streptococcosis is a severe, generalised infection caused by the gram positive coccoid bacterium Streptococcus iniae . Streptococcosis has been recognized in barramundi in Australia for some years.

57. B. Vibriosis In barramundi the clinical signs have been abnormal swimming behaviour, opaque eyes, and reddening of the abdomen. Internally, areas of necrosis and haemorrhage in kidney, liver and spleen may be seen. Treatment and control Vibriosis may be treated by administration of antibiotics including oxytetracycline.

58. Signs of infection Typically, affected fish have swollen abdomens, become lethargic and die. Treatment and control Fish that have ‘bloat’ do not respond to antibiotic treatment because once signs appear too much damage has already been done to the intestinal tract and abdominal organs. Reducing pellet size and frequency of feeding are strategies employed to reduce the prevalence of ‘bloat’. C. Necrotic enteritis and peritonitis (Bloat) Commonly referred to as ‘bloat’, occurs periodically in farmed barramundi.

59. D. Bacterial Gill Disease Bacterial gill disease (BGD) commonly affects fry/fingerlings, especially those that are subject to environmental stress. As the name implies, the gills become covered with bacteria, predominantly from the Flexibacterial group, which effectively smother the gills. Rapid death and high mortalities may ensue. Treatment and control BGD may be responsive to salinity change and decreasing salinity in early cases may reduce the severity of infection. The quaternary ammonium compound, benzalkonium chloride, may be used to treat, however, strict attention to correct dose is necessary as the toxicity of these compounds is increased at lower water temperatures and in lower salinity water.

60. Fungal Diseases A. Red spot Red spot or Epizootic Ulcerative Syndrome (EUS) has been periodically reported to infect a variety of fish species in the wild, including barramundi. Signs of infection Typically affected fish have deep red or haemorrhagic ulcers on the skin of the bodies. Treatment and control Red spot outbreaks have been treated successfully by raising the salinity of freshwater ponds.

61. Signs of infection The first clinical signs of the disease appear when the fish begin scratching or ‘flashing’ against the tank bottom or walls. As the disease progresses the fish suffer a loss of appetite and become listless. If left untreated the fish’s eyes become opaque and white spots or small ulcers may develop on their scales. Treatment and control Treatment is effected by lowering the salinity from the usual level of 30–35 ppt down to at least 15 ppt or lower. A. Cryptocaryonosis Cryptocaryonosis or Marine Ich is caused by infection of the skin and gills This is one of the major parasitic diseases that affect barramundi kept in tanks for breeding. Parasitic Diseases

62. Signs of infection Affected fish show lethargy, incoordination, apparent blindness and death. Smaller haemorrhagic erosions of the skin are seen. Treatment and control There are no practical treatments for Trypanosomosis . B. Trypanosomosis Trypanosomosis is a disease caused by infection with the blood protozoan Trypanosoma sp . has been diagnosed (July 2005) in sea-caged barramundi which experienced high mortalities.

63. Recommendations of Asian Seabass Culture Establishment of adequate numbers of hatcheries to meet the demand of seed. Introducing selective breeding to improve qualitative and quantitative attributes of the fish. Establishment of commercial feed industry to produce species specific feed and ensure high-quality marketing facilities to expand market demand at both national and international level.

64. Asian Seabass Products Fresh Fillet Asian Seabass Koduva (Fry-cut) Asian-steamed seabass Asian baked sea bass

65. Crispy Seabass Whole Grilled Sea Bass  Pan Roasted Sea Bass Pan Seared Chilean Roasted Seabass Backed Chilean Seabass

66. Conclusion The barramundi aquaculture industry is growing at a rapid rate, and there is great potential for the continued development of the industry. A number of key advances have been made over the past few decades, and there have been significant gains in knowledge as well as production efficiency. Progress in barramundi nutrition, disease management, and larval culture in particular has been rapid over the past decade or so. New directions for the industry as it starts to mature include work on selective breeding and aquaculture in non - traditional areas such as inland saline areas, as well as greater attention to product quality.

67. References Aji, L. P. (2012). The operation and production of the barramundi, Lates calcarifer, at the Good Fortune Bay (GFB) Barramundi Farm Australia.  Journal of Tropical Life Science ,  2 (1), 25-28. Ali, S. A., Ambasankar , K., Dayal , J. S., Thirunavukkarasu , A. R., Kailasam , M., Sundaray , J. K., & Ponniah, A. G. (2012). Seabass feed technology-CIBA bhetkiahar . Arasu, A. R. T., Kailasam , M., Sundaray , J. K., Subburaj , R., Thiagrajan , G., & Karaiyan , K. (2008). Improved hatchery technology for Asian seabass Lates calcarifer (Bloch).  CIBA, Chennai, Special Publication , (34). Barlow , C. ( 1998 ). Barramundi . In: The New Rural Industries, a Handbook for Farmers and Investors (ed. K.W. Hyde ), pp. 93 – 100 . Rural Industries Research & Development Corporation , Canberra. Barlow, C., Williams, K., & Rimmer , M. (1996). Sea bass culture in Australia.  Infofish International ,  2 (96), 26-33. Biswas, G., Thirunavukkarasu , A. R., Sundaray , J. K., & Kailasam , M. (2010). Optimization of feeding frequency of Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) fry reared in net cages under brackishwater environment.  Aquaculture ,  305 (1-4), 26-31. Boonyaratpalin,M . and Williams, K., 2002.Asian sea bass, Lates calcarifer. In: Nutrient Requirements and Feeding of Finfish for Aquaculture, (Webster, C.D., Lim, C. Eds .), CAB International, pp. 40 – 50.

68. Carter, C.G., Glencross, B., Katersky , R.S., Bermudes , M., Coregonids , M., 2009. Centropomidae Latidae. In: Le Francois, N.R., Jobling, M., Carter, C.G., Blier , P.U. (Eds.), Diversification of Finfish Aquaculture. CAB International, Wallingford, CT. Chamika , S. (n.d.). AQUACULTURE PRACTICES IN NURSERY PHASE OF COMMERCIAL SCALE BARRAMUNDI (Lates calcarifer) FARMING AT OCEANPICK PRIVATE LIMITED, SRI LANKA . Retrieved October 8, 2022, from Cheong, L. (1989). Status of knowledge on farming of seabass (Lates calcarifer) in South East Asia. In  Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop at Tahiti, French Polynesia, 20 Feb-4 Mar 1989 . Cheong, L. (1989, February). Status of knowledge on farming of seabass (Lates calcarifer) in South East Asia. In  Advances in Tropical Aquaculture, Workshop at Tahiti, French Polynesia, 20 Feb-4 Mar 1989 . Day. F. (1958). The Fishes of India. William Dawson and Sons Limited, London. Fisheries :: Sea Fishes . (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://agritech.tnau.ac.in/fishery/fish_seafishes.html https://www.academia.edu/22355598/AQUACULTURE_PRACTICES_IN_NURSERY_PHASE_OF_COMMERCIAL_SCALE_BARRAMUNDI_Lates_calcarifer_FARMING_AT_OCEANPICK_PRIVATE_LIMITED_SRI_LANKA Htwe , Y. Y., Ei , T., & Naing, T. Z. (2020). Breeder Management and Induced breeding of Sea Bass, Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) in Myeik Archipelago (Doctoral dissertation, MERAL Portal). Maubin University Research Journal, 11, 266-273.

69. Jamerlan , G. S., & Coloso , R. M. (2010).  Intensive culture of sea bass, Lates calcarifer Bloch, in brackishwater earthen ponds . Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center. Jerry, D. R. (Ed.). (2013).  Biology and culture of Asian seabass Lates calcarifer . CRC Press. Kasim, H. M., & James, P. S. B. R. (1986). Distribution and fishery of Lates calcarifer in India. In  Proceedings of an International Workshop on Management of wild and cultured sea bass  (pp. 109-114). Kungvankij , P., Tiro , L. B., Pudadera , B. J. & Potestas , 1. O. (1986). Biology and Culture of Sea Bass ( Lates calcarifer ). Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia Training Manual Series No. 3. FAO, Rome, and Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Iloilo, Philippines. Lates calcarifer (barramundi) . (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/77993 Li, C., Ricardo, B. R., Leo Smith, W., & Ortí , G. (2011). Monophyly and interrelationships of Snook and Barramundi (Centropomidae sensu Greenwood) and five new markers for fish phylogenetics. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution , 60 (3), 463–471. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2011.05.004 Li, C., Ricardo, B. R., Smith, W. L., & Ortí , G. (2011). Monophyly and interrelationships of Snook and Barramundi (Centropomidae sensu Greenwood) and five new markers for fish phylogenetics.  Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution ,  60 (3), 463-471.

70. Lucas, J. S., & Southgate, P. C., (2003). Aquaculture Farming Animals and Plants. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Madrones- Ladja , J. A., Opiña , N., Catacutan , M., Vallejo, E., & Cercado, V. (2012). Cage nursery of high-value fishes in brackishwater ponds: Seabass, grouper, snapper, pompano.  Aquaculture Extension Manual . Mathew, G. (2009). Taxonomy, identification, and biology of seabass ( Lates calcarifer ).  National Training on Cage Culture of Seabass held at CMFRI, Kochi , 38-43. Nammalwar , P., & Marichamy , R. (1998). Seabass Hatchery. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Kochi. 149-153 Parazo , M. M., Avila, E. M., & Jr, D. R. (1991). Size‐and weight‐dependent cannibalism in hatchery‐bred sea bass (Lates calcarifer Bloch).  Journal of Applied Ichthyology ,  7 (1), 1-7. Parazo , M. M., Garcia, L. Ma. B., Ayson , F. G., Fermin, A. C., et al. (1998). Sea Bass Hatchery Operations, 2nd edn , Aquaculture Extension Manual No. 18, Aquaculture Department, Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Centre, Iloilo, Philippines. Parazo , M. M., Reyes Jr, D. M., & Avila, E. M. (1991). Hatchery rearing of sea bass Lates calcarifer Bloch.  The Philippine Scientist ,  28 , 65-76. Rimmer , M. A., & Russell, D. J. (1998). Aspects of the biology and culture of Lates calcarifer. In  Tropical mariculture  (pp. 449-476). Academic Press.

71. Rimmer , M., (2003). Barramundi, Aquaculture Farming Animals and Plants (pp. 364-381). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Schipp, G. (1996) Barramundi farming in the Northern Territory . Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries , Darwin, Australia . Schipp, G., Bosmans , J., & Humphrey, J. (2007). Barramundi farming handbook.  Department of Primary Industry, Fisheries and Mines, Northern Territory Government , 1-81. SEA BASS – MPEDA . (n.d.). Retrieved September 28, 2022, from https://mpeda.gov.in/?page_id=746 Secretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC), (2014). Barramundi factsheet, pp 04. Tookwinas , S. (1989). Review of grow-out techniques under tropical conditions: Experience of Thailand on seabass ( Lates calcarifer ) and grouper ( Epinephelus malabaricus ). Advances In Tropical Aquaculture, Archimer , 67, 737-750.  https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00000/1423/

72. Thank You !!