assigment.pptx poisonous animal toxicology

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1. Poisonous Animals

2. Index 1. Scorpions 2. Snakes 3. Spiders 4. Lionfish 5. Mosquitoes 6. Ticks

3. scorpions BY/ Ahmed Fayez Ahmed Allam - 98 Ahmed Magdy Mostafa - 105

4. They are members of the phylum Arthropoda and arachnids with a total of eight appendages including a pair of pedipalps or claws, as well as a segmented tail (the metasoma) that ends with the telson,a bulbous organ containing venom glands and a stinger. Background

5. In Egypt there are multiple types of scorpions most of them being venomous like: • Androctonus bicolor • androctonus crassicauda • Androctonus australis • Leiurus quinquestriatus

6. Clinical manifestations Scorpion sting is rarely a life-threatening condition except for children and adults who may suffer serious systemic complications. Local symptoms: Immediate feeling of pain. Numbness/tingling. Warmth. Swelling Systemic signs and symptoms: Dyspnea. Tachycardia Drooling. Muscle twitching. Nausea and vomiting. Head and neck rigidity or flaccidity

7. Clinical spectrum of scorpion envenomation Scorpions are more active at night, and stings are more frequent in the summer months or after rainfall when scorpions may have more encounters with humans. Scorpion stings generally produce one of the following toxidromes, although overlap may exist: Tissue necrosis, hemolysis, and cytolysis: DIC HUS acute renal toxicity Autonomic storm and cardiotoxicity: Symptoms of either sympathetic or parasympathetic overload may manifest. Neuromuscular toxicity: Loss of bulbar or skeletal muscle control may ensue.

8. Scorpion venom may also cause pancreatitis or severe allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis.

9. Tissue Necrosis, Hemolysis, and Cytolysis Hemiscorpius lepturus  : Its venom cause tissue necrosis, cytolysis, and hemolysis; DIC and HUS can result. Other complications are rhabdomyolysis, acute renal failure Envenomation is typically painless and occurs at night, while victims are asleep. Thus, many stings go unnoticed, and the diagnosis of envenomation results after examination reveals the characteristic skin changes associated around the sting site.

10. Within 1-2 days of envenomation: - local evidence of lymphangitis - edema - erythema may progress to purpuric bullae, which eventually become necrotic. Eventually, if DIC develops, generalized hemorrhage, petechiae, and purpura may be noted. - The systemic inflammation that results from tissue damage and hemolysis can produce myalgias, fatigue, and fever; death, although rare , results from complications of HUS and renal failure.

11. Autonomic Storm The venom of scorpions of the genera Tityus, Androctonus , Buthus , Leiurus , and Hottentotta contain: Alpha-toxins that bind and activate sodium channels in the pre- and postsynaptic membranes of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons, resulting in sustained action potentials and depolarization Excessive and unregulated release of neurotransmitters develops ( eg , acetylcholine, norepinephrine, epinephrine ) lead to autonomic storm and be marked by a dominance of either sympathetic or parasympathetic effects, depending on the venom.

12. Parasympathetic excessive salivation bronchorrhea, lacrimation Vomiting Diarrhea bradycardia. The "killer Bs"— bronchoconstriction, bronchorrhea, and bradycardia—may trigger death. sympathetic Tachycardia Arrhythmias Hypertension a gitation cardiac toxicity ( possibly due to cardiac stunning from excessive catecholamine release) manifest as: arrhythmias or left heart failure, with resultant pulmonary edema and/or cardiogenic shock. N.B: Scorpion venom may also stimulate the exocrine pancreas to release proteolytic enzymes, resulting in pancreatitis.  

13. Neuromuscular Toxidrome Envenomation by  Centruroides  and  Parabuthus  scorpion species can produce significant neuromuscular toxicity. A main venom component is alpha-toxins, similar to those of  Tityus ,  Androctonus ,  Buthus ,  Leiurus , and  Hottentotta  venoms

14. Centruroides  and  Parabuthus  act principally at the neuromuscular junction causing: sustained release of neurotransmitters at the neuromuscular synapses and the neuromuscular junction hyperactive and dysregulated activation of the muscular system.

15. Severe  Centruroides  and  Parabuthus  envenomation may manifest with: cranial nerve dysfunction, including Dysphagia tongue fasciculations increased oral secretions rotatory nystagmus. Skeletal muscle activation may present as: restlessness myoclonic jerking alternating opisthotonos, tremor which may be mistaken for seizure activity, although the patient is generally completely alert.

16. Management

17. Immediate management for scorpion stings: Most of scorpion stings don’t need medical treatment except for children or elderly people and depending on the scorpion type. approach includes: Cleaning the site with soap and water. Applying cold or ice compress to the area Analgesics like acetaminophen If allergic reaction is severe, u can use local antihistamine or epinephrine.

18. Investigations: Target the diagnostic workup in scorpion envenomation toward the main toxidromes and to rule out other differential diagnostic considerations. For example, in regions where  H lepturus  stings are possible, investigate the development of rhabdomyolysis, DIC, and HUS. Thus, consider the following studies .

19. Image of a urine sample from a patient with rhabdomyolysis

20. Local treatment Use ice bags to reduce pain and to slow the absorption of venom via vasoconstriction. This is most effective during the first 2 hours following the sting. Alternatively, hot water immersion has been described as a first aid treatment for scorpion bites in Australia and in Taiwan. Immobilize the affected part in a functional position below the level of the heart to delay venom absorption. Calm the patient to lower the heart rate and blood pressure, thus limiting the spread of the venom. For medical delay secondary to remoteness, consider applying a lymphatic-venous compression wrap

21. Systemic treatment Systemic treatment is instituted by directing supportive care toward the organ specifically affected by the venom. Establish airway, breathing, and circulation (i.e., ABCs) to provide adequate airway, ventilation, and perfusion. Monitor vital signs (e.g., pulse oximetry; heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate monitor). Use invasive monitoring for patients who are unstable and hemodynamic. Administer oxygen. Administer intravenous fluids to help prevent hypovolemia from vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, hypersalivation, and insensible water loss from a tropical environment. Perform intubation and institute mechanical ventilation with end-tidal carbon dioxide monitoring for patients in respiratory distress.

22. For hyperdynamic cardiovascular changes, administration of a combination of beta-blockers with sympathetic alphablockers is most effective in reversing this venom-induced effect. Avoid using betablockers alone because this leads to an unopposed alpha-adrenergic effect. Also, nitrates can be used for hypertension and myocardial ischemia. For hypodynamic cardiac changes, a titrated monitored fluid infusion with afterload reduction helps reduce mortality. A diuretic may be used for pulmonary edema in the absence of hypovolemia, but an afterload reducer, such as prazosin, nifedipine, nitroprusside, hydralazine, or angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, is better. Inotropic medications, such as digitalis, have little effect, while dopamine aggravates the myocardial damage through catecholamine like actions. Dobutamine may be a better choice for the inotropic effect. Finally, a pressor such as norepinephrine can be used as a last resort to correct hypotension refractory to fluid therapy. Administer atropine to counter venom-induced parasympathomimetic effects

23. Mild stings Treatment of mild H lepturus stings is largely supportive , including pain management and tetanus prophylaxis. Antibiotics are not routinely indicated and should be reserved for cases of suspected bacterial superinfection of the sting site. Administer intravenous (IV) Razi polyvalent scorpion antivenom within 2 hours of the sting. Although some benefit in improving outcomes may still exist with delayed administration, data are lacking. Closely monitor patients for postantivenom development of allergic reactions, including anaphylaxis or angioedema, although these are less common with newer antivenom formulations. Provide standard supportive care for DIC, HUS, and acute renal failure, including fluid and blood product administration, as indicated.

24. Image of a scorpion sting

25. Management of Autonomic and/or neuromuscular symptoms The medical care of scorpion stings producing autonomic or neuromuscular findings and symptoms depends largely on grading of the envenomation severity. In addition to the diagnostics studies discussed earlier consider obtainin : electrocardiography levels of cardiac biomarkers and brain natriuretic peptide chest x-ray and cardiopulmonary ultrasound to evaluate left ventricular function and the presence of pulmonary edema.

26. Grade I and II stings:   Pain control with anti-inflammatories and tetanus prophylaxis is often all that is required. A 12-24–hour observation period to surveil for the development of autonomic symptoms is reasonable. Grade II or higher severity:  Consider intensive care unit (ICU) monitoring. Consult with a medical toxicologist with experience in treating scorpion envenomations. In the setting of severe autonomic toxicity resulting in adrenergic stimulation, consider giving prazosin, an alpha-1 adrenergic receptor blocker that has demonstrated reduction in the effects of sympathetic overload in patients with scorpion venom–induced autonomic storm.

27. Limited support exists in the literature for use of antivenom for scorpion stings resulting in autonomic storm, and evidence is limited and varies by species on the use of scorpion-specific antivenom. For example, limited effect is suspected for stings by  Leiurus ,  Tityus , and  Hottentotta  species, but an argument could be made to use antivenom with severe cases involving these species, particularly if a positive identification is not possible.

28. Management Neuromuscular symptoms

29. Grade I or II envenomations:  Most do not require significant medical intervention. Grades III and IV envenomations:  In general, promptly consult with a medical toxicologist, and treat patients in an ICU setting. In addition to the standard diagnostic and supportive care described earlier.

30. Role of antivenom: In cases of grade III or IV  Centruroides  envenomation, administer IV Anascorp scorpion antivenom   in cases of grade III or IV  Parabuthus  envenomation in southern Africa , administer IV SAIMR (South African Institute for Medical Research) scorpion-specific antivenom As with the administration of other antivenoms, closely monitor and prepare for the development of severe allergic reactions ( eg , anaphylaxis, angioedema) to scorpion antivenom. Respiratory support, including endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation, may be required. Serum sickness may also be a delayed complication of antivenom administration (several days to a week).

31. Examples of SCORPIONS IN EGYPT

32. Androctonus bicolor It belongs to family Buthidae and commonly known as black fat-tailed or man-killing scorpion. Description: it has a black colored body and can grow up to 8 cm, it’s often confused with the black variety of A. crassicauda but it has a slender pedipalp and elongated chela (not bulbous) and yellowish brownish fingers, the aculeus is curved and same length as vesicle.

33. Distribution: Marsa- Matrouh , sainai as it basically needs temperature around 30-35 to grow. Venom: The clinical manifestations of envenoming by the Buthidae family include sympathetic excitatory effects such as tachycardia, hypertension, arrhythmia, and mydriasis. Parasympathetic effects manifest as excessive salivation, lacrimation, bradycardia, and hypotension. Death is related to cardiac failure and pulmonary edema as a result of massive release of catecholamines from the adrenals and noradrenergic nerve terminals.

34. Androctonus crassicauda It is commonly known as Arabian fat-tailed scorpion and considered a dangerous and rare species belonging to family Buthidae. Description: black colored body with length ranging between 9 to 9.5 cm, the dorsal region and yellowish brown at the ventral surface, legs end. Slender pedipalp with bulbous chela occurs, aculeus moderately curved as long as the vesicle. Distribution: East of sainai .

35. Venom: main symptoms include cns manifestations like: seizures irritability and unconsciousness in infants and toddlers while children around 11 years old develop normal scorpion sting symptoms E.G: nausea, vomiting, hypertension and tachypnea, tachycardia.

36. Androctonus australis Commonly known as Egyptian or yellow fat-tailed scorpion Description: It’s a large-sized species that can grow over 10 cm, it is yellow color with sometimes darker zone body, metasomal segments I-IV are yellowish and number V is brownish with darker vesicle, Telson with aculeus is black in color, Pedipalps yellow with rounded bulbous chela have moderately long and dark fingers. Distribution: Borg-El Arab and also occurred in Marsa- Matrouh , and Sinai. Venom: This is one of the world’s most dangerous scorpions, with a very potent venom. This species is medical important, and cause several deaths each year.

37. Snakes Ahmed Mazen Mohamed khaled 103 Ahmed Mohamed Ahmed Abdelhamed 107

38. Snake Bites Snake bites should always be taken seriously. Though some are dry bites, which aren't as dangerous and will likely cause some swelling, others are venomous bites, which, if not treated carefully and quickly, can result in death Types of snake Venomous snakes : snake venom poisoning Non venomous snakes : contaminated puncture wound

39. Venomous snakes Venomous snakes are species of the suborder Serpents that are capable of producing venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The venom is typically delivered by injection using hollow or grooved fangs. Common venomous snakes include : Vipers , Rattle snake , Bushmaster , Cobras , Elapids , Colurbids

40. Venomous snakes Vipers Rattle snake Bushmaster Cobras

41. Characters of venomous snakes 1- Triangular head 2- Vertically elliptical pupils 3- Easily identifiable fangs

42. Characters of venomous snakes

43. Types of snake bites Dry bites: These occur when a snake doesn’t release any venom with its bite. As you’d expect, these are mostly seen with non-venomous snakes Venomous bites: These are much more dangerous. They occur when a snake transmits venom during a bite

44. Venomous versus poisonous Venomous : Venom is a toxin that gets into the body by being injected, usually by a bite or a sting. Examples of this would be a cobra that uses its fangs to inject venom. Poisonous : Poison is a toxin that gets into the body by inhaling, swallowing, or absorption through the skin.

45. Components of snake venom Blood coagulants Cytolysins and proteolysins Neurotoxin A and B Cholinesterase and anticholinesterase Cardiotoxin Hyaluronidase

46. Clinical manifestations of snake bites Local : Puncture marks at the wound Redness, swelling, bruising, bleeding, or blistering around the bite Severe pain and tenderness at the site of the bite Ecchymosis and vesiculation .

47. Local manifestations of snake bites

48. Systemic : Mild envenomation Metallic taste develops minutes after envenomation Pain Weakness , malaise , nausea , anxiety

49. Moderate envenomation Fever Vomiting Sweating Diaphoresis Dizziness. Chills Paresthesia Sinus tachycardia Rapid respiration

50. Severe envenomation Coagulopathy : epistaxis, hematuria, DIC, oliguria, anuria. Neurologic : fasciculations , nystagmus , muscle weakness ,paralysis, convulsions, slurred, speech, and coma

51. Hematological Anemia Coagulation abnormalties Elevated blood urea nitrogen and creatinine levels Causes of death Cardio respiratory collapse Renal failure

52. Management Snake bites are a significant health issue worldwide. Snake venom can cause a range of symptoms as mentioned above. It is important to be able to diagnose and treat snake bites to minimize the risk of serious complications quickly and accurately.

53. Diagnosis The first step in diagnosing a snake bite is to perform thorough clinical assessment of the patient. This should include a detailed history of the bite, including: the type of snake involved, the time since the bite occurred, any symptoms that have developed

54. A physical examination should also be performed to assess the affected limb and look for signs of systemic envenomation. Laboratory testing can be used to help diagnose a snake bite. This may include: blood tests to assess for changes in clotting function and electrolyte levels, kidney function, skin tests to look for specific snake venom proteins

55. To assess the severity of the clinical manifestations of envenomation , there are several factors that should be considered: 1. The size of the venomous snake 2. Potency and amount of the venom 3. Size and health of the victim 4. Location of the bite 5. The progression of the swelling and edema around the bite area

56. Treatment Antivenin The primary treatment for a snake bite is antivenin, which is specific to the type of snake that caused the bite, this is called the monovalent type. There is also a polyvalent which is not specific to a certain snake it may be used in cases of uncertainty towards the type of the snake Antivenin works by neutralizing the venom in the body, reducing the risk of serious complications. Antivenin is antibodies that are against the venom in the body of the patient

57. It should be applied to the patient within 4 hours of the bite in the setting of an ICU in the hospital, because the patient may be allergic to the antivenin so a skin testing must occur before administration of the antivenin. Later adminstarion of the antivenin(within 12-24hours) will be ineffective but should be given also. The antivenin should be given until: Systemic toxicity is controlled Resolving of the coagulopathies Progression of the edema has stopped

58. 2. Prior to antivenin, First aid measures should be applied in which the bitten part must be immobilized 3. Supportive therapy(ABC ): Investigate for and treat cardiac arrythmias if present 4. Symptomatic treatment should also be considered. This may include the use of pain medication such as opioids or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, as well as local measures such as ice packs

59. 5. Others: Tourniquet(pressure band): the application of the band MUST be a loose one (no more than 20mmHG). It is applied to decrease lymphatic flow. It must be PROXIMAL to the bite. This tourniquet is used to decrease the absorption of the venom. The antivenin must be applied before removing this band . Incision and suction of the bite is a controversial technique so it may be done but must be done by well trained people and must be done WITHIN 16 MINUTES since the bite. It removes up to 20% of the poison.

60. Prevention Preventing snake bites is an important part of managing this health issue. Some key measures that can be taken to reduce the risk of snake bites include : avoiding areas where snakes are known to be present. wearing protective gear such as high boots and long pants when in snake-prone areas. educating the public about the dangers of snake bites and how to avoid them. If bitten it is also important to give antitetanic serum and antibiotics.

61. Conclusion In conclusion, snake bites are a significant health issue that require prompt management. By following best practices for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention, medical doctors can help reduce the risk of serious complications and improve patient outcomes.

62. References : 1. World Health Organization. (2017). Snake bite envenoming: A neglected public health issue. World Health Organization. 2. White, J., Laing, G., & Lalloo , D. (2017). Antivenoms for snake bite. The Cochrane Library, 11, 1-102. 3. Warrell , D. A. (2010). Snake bites: Applying the evidence. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 15(8), 924-937. 4. Isbister , G. K., & Kiraithe , M. (2015). Snake bite. The Lancet, 385(9977), 1977-1988. 5. Grenvik AKE, Ayers SM, Holbrook PR, Shoemaker WC (editors). Injuries by venomous and poisonous animals. In: Textbook of Critical Care 4th ed 2000: I: 224-233

63. Spider Bites and Poisons By: Ahmed Kamel Elshahawy - 101 Mohamed Kamel Elshahawy - 962

64. Introduction

65. Types There are more than 40,000 different spider species, but only a few pose any danger to humans. These more dangerous spiders include:

66. Black widows : These black spiders have a red hourglass shape on their bellies. Black widows like to build webs in woodpiles, building overhangs (eaves), fences and outhouses. They mostly live in the Western and Southern U.S.

67. Funnel-web spider the most dangerous spider in the world, is aggressive in the absence of provocation. The structure of this spider’s web is funnel-shaped, hence the name.

68. Brown recluses Sometimes called fiddleback or violin spiders, these brown spiders have a dark, violin-shaped mark on their heads. Brown recluses live in Midwestern and Southern states. They like dry, sheltered areas, such as piles of wood, rocks and leaves. Indoors, brown recluses seek out dark closets, attics and shoes.

69. Hobo spiders These brown spiders have a grey V-shaped (herringbone) pattern on their bellies. They build funnel-shaped webs in dark, moist basements, crawl spaces, window wells and woodpiles. Hobo spiders are mostly found in the Pacific Northwest.

70. Armadeiras (Armed spiders) commonly known as Brazilian wandering spider or armed spider. have long arms Since they often hide in banana boxes, they are known as banana bunch spiders by locals.

71. Tarantula is recognized by its hairy 3-inch brown or black colored body. This type of spider is kept as pet.

72. Risk factors Anyone can accidentally come into contact with a spider and get bitten. Still, some people may be more at risk because their jobs or actions put them in closer contact with places where spiders live. People at risk include : Outdoor workers, including landscapers, groundskeepers, and farmworkers . Children who play in piles of leaves or rocks . Hikers . Janitors . Machine operators.

73. Signs and Symptoms depending on the type of spider.

74. Black widow spider

75. Funnel-web spider

76. Brown recluse spiders

77. Hobo spider

78. Armadeiras (armed spiders)

79. Tarantula Its venom is not dangerous for the human being and merely creates lesions without any specific systemic reaction except for pyrexia.

80. Diagnosis

81. Management and Treatment

82. Prevention

83. Thank you

84. Mosquitoes Introduction Mosquitoes are common, flying insects that
live in most parts of the world. Over 3,500
types of mosquitoes can be found worldwide Mosquitoes cause the deaths of more people
than any other animal taxon: over 700,000
each year.

85. Description Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body,
one pair of wings, one pair of halteres, three
pairs of long hair-like legs, and elongated
.mouthparts

86. Mosquito Bite Symptom F emale mosquitoes bite people and animals
to get a blood meal. Most female mosquitoes
cannot produce eggs without a blood meal.
Male mosquitoes do not bite people and
animals

87. What Happens When a Mosquito Bites You When a mosquito bites you, it pierces the skin
using a special mouthpart (proboscis) to suck
up blood. As the mosquito is feeding, it injects
saliva into your skin. Your body reacts to the
.saliva resulting in a bump and itching
Some people have only a mild reaction to a
bite or bites. Other people react more
strongly, and a large area of swelling,
soreness, and redness can occur

88. Symptoms Mosquito bite signs include:
• A puffy and reddish bump appearing a
few minutes after the bit
• A hard, itchy, reddish-brown bump, or
multiple bumps appearing a day or so
after the bite or bite
• Small blisters instead of hard bumps
• Dark spots that look like bruises

89. Mechanism Visible, irritating bites are due to an immune response from the binding of IgG and IgE antibodies to antigens in the mosquito’s saliva immediate hypersensitivity reactions
(types I and III) and delayed hypersensitivity
reactions (type IV) to mosquito bites. Both
reactions result in itching, redness and
swelling. Immediate reactions develop within
a few minutes of the bite and last for a few
hours. Delayed reactions take around a day to
develop, and last for up to a week

90. Mosquito bite on the inside of a person’s forearm.

91. More severe reactions can occur in: Children
• Adults bitten by a mosquito species they haven’t been exposed to previously
• People with immune system disorder

92. People experiencing more severe reactions may have the following signs:
• A large area of swelling and redness
• Low-grade fever
• Swollen lymph nodes

93. Treatment • Wash the area with soap and water.
• Apply an ice pack for 10 minutes to reduce swelling and itching. Reapply ice pack as needed.
• Use an over-the-counter anti-itch or
antihistamine cream to help relieve itching For more severe cases, corticosteroids, such as hydrocortisone and triamcinolone. Aqueous ammonia (3.6%) has also been shown to provide relief

94. Complications Infected bite:
• Do not scratch bites. They can become infected.
• An infected bite may appear red, feel warm, or a red streak will spread outward from the bite.
• See a healthcare provider if symptoms worse

95. Mosquito-borne diseases Mosquitoes spread germs through bites. Viruses like West Nile and dengue andparasites like malaria can make you sick.A mosquito gets infected with a virus or parasite when it bites a person or animal that is infected. The infected mosquito can spread germs to other people or animals through bites.Not everyone infected with a mosquito-borne germ gets sick.

96. Prevent Mosquito Bites You can protect yourself and your family from
mosquito bites.
• Treat clothing and gear with permethrin.
• Wear long-sleeved shirts and long pants .
• Control mosquitoes inside and outside.
• Prevent mosquito bites when traveling overseas

97. Introduction Ticks are obligate ectoparasites that feed on the blood of their hosts. Ticks belong to the phylum Arthropoda, class Arachnida, subclass Acari, order Parasitiformes, and suborder Ixodida .There are three families of ticks classified as Ixodidae (hard ticks), Argasidae (soft ticks), and Nuttalliellidae (limited to Tanzania and South Africa). More than 900 species of ticks have been classified in the world. Ticks not only cause physical damage to their hosts by sucking blood and injuring skin, but many of these tick species also have the ability to transmit pathogens to their host Ticks transfer pathogens from their gut to host bloodstream by their saliva. Ticks transmit a range of pathogens including viruses, bacteria, and protists to vertebrate hosts, including humans, domestic, and wild animals.

98. Anatomy Ticks, like mites, belong to the subclass Acari that lack their primary somatic segmentation of the abdomen (or opisthosoma), rather these parasitic arachnids present a subsequent fusion of the abdomen with the cephalothorax (or prosoma). Most ticks are inornate and appear to be brown or reddish brown in color. However, some species are ornate and have distinctive white patterns on the scutum.

99. Characteristics Range and habitat Ticks are extremely tough, hardy, and resilient animals. They can survive in a near vacuum for as long as half an hour. Their slow metabolism during their dormant periods enables them to go prolonged durations between meals. During droughts, they can endure dehydration without feeding for as long as eighteen weeks, however, ticks with limited energy reserves may succumb to desiccation after thirty-six weeks. To keep from dehydrating, ticks hide in humid spots on the forest floor or absorb water from subsaturated air by secreting hygroscopic fluid produced by the salivary glands onto the external mouthparts and then reinvesting the water-enriched fluid. Ticks can withstand temperatures just above −18 °C (0 °F) for more than two hours and can survive temperatures between −7 and −2 °C (20 and 29 °F) for at least two weeks. Tick species are widely distributed around the world. They tend to flourish more in warm, humid climates, because they require a certain amount of moisture in the air to undergo metamorphosis, and low temperatures inhibit their development of eggs to larvae. The occurrence of ticks and tick-borne illnesses in humans is increasing Tick populations are spreading into new areas, due in part to the warming temperatures of climate change.

100. Types of ticks species Ixodidae In nymphs and adults, the capitulum is prominent and projects forwards from the body. The eyes are close to the sides of the scutum and the large spiracles are located just behind the coxae of the fourth pair of legs. The hard protective scutellum, a characteristic of this family, covers nearly the whole dorsal surface in males, but is restricted to a small, shield-like structure behind the capitulum in females and nymphs. When an ixodid attaches to a host the bite is typically painless and generally goes unnoticed. They remain in place until they engorge and are ready to molt; this process may take days or weeks. Argasidae The body of a soft tick is pear-shaped or oval with a rounded anterior portion. The mouthparts cannot be seen from above, as they are on the ventral surface. A centrally positioned dorsal plate with ridges projecting slightly above the surrounding surface, but with no decoration are often present. Soft ticks possess a leathery cuticle as well. A pattern of small, circular depressions expose where muscles are attached to the interior of the integument. The eyes are on the sides of the body, the spiracles open between legs 3 and 4, and males and females only differ in the structure of the genital pore. Nuttalliellidae Nuttalliellidae can be distinguished from both ixodid and argasid ticks by a combination of a projecting gnathosoma and a soft leathery skin. Other distinguishing characteristics include the position of the stigmata, the lack of setae, the strongly corrugated integument, and the form of the fenestrated plates

101. Tick-borne disease Ticks are implicated in the transmission of a number of infections caused by pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and protozoa. A tick can harbor more than one type of pathogen, making diagnosis more difficult. Species of the bacterial genus Rickettsia are responsible for typhus, rickettsia pox, boutonneuse fever, African tick bite fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Flinders Island spotted fever, and Queensland tick typhus (Australian tick typhus. Other tick-borne diseases include Lyme disease and Q fever. Colorado tick fever, Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever, tularemia, tick-borne relapsing fever, babesiosis, ehrlichiosis, Bourbon virus, and tick-borne meningoencephalitis, as well as bovine anaplasmosis and the Heartland virus. In the United States, Lyme disease is the most commonly reported vector-borne disease in the country. Some species, notably the Australian paralysis tick, are also intrinsically venomous and can cause tick paralysis. In the Egyptian migratory bird study, over 20 strains of pathogenic viruses were detected within the tick sample from autumn.

102. Examples of Tick-borne disease : 1- Lyme disease is transmitted by the blacklegged tick ( Ixodes scapularis ) in the northeastern U.S. and upper midwestern U.S. and the western blacklegged tick ( Ixodes pacificus ) along the Pacific coast. 2- Borrelia mayonii infection has recently been described as a cause of illness in the upper midwestern United States. It has been found in blacklegged ticks (Ixodes scapularis) in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Borrelia mayonii is a new species and is the only species besides B. burgdorferi known to cause Lyme disease in North America. 3- Rocky Mountain spotted fever (RMSF) is transmitted by the American dog tick (Dermacentor variabilis), Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersonite), and the brown dog tick (Rhipicephalus sanguineous) in the U.S. The brown dog tick and other tick species are associated with RMSF in Central and South America.

103. 4- Tickborne relapsing fever (TBRF) is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected soft ticks. TBRF has been reported in 15 states: Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming and is associated with sleeping in rustic cabins and vacation homes. 5- Colorado tick fever is caused by a virus transmitted by the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersonite). It occurs in the Rocky Mountain states at elevations of 4,000 to 10,500 feet.

104. Tick paralysis Tick paralysis is an uncommon, noninfectious, neurologic syndrome characterized by acute ataxia progressing to ascending paralysis. It is caused by the salivary neurotoxin of several species of tick. Clinical findings are similar to and often confused with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Most human cases of tick paralysis occur in North America and Australia. If recognized early and treated promptly, complete recovery is expected with tick removal and supportive care alone. Untreated, it can advance to respiratory failure and death. Most patients present with fatigue and weakness which progress to ataxia and then ascending paralysis. Some also report irritability, muscle pain or paresthesias . Fever is absent, and there is no associated rash, headache or change in mental status. Sensory exam, despite paresthesias , is usually normal. Weakness starts in the legs and ascends and progresses rapidly. Deep tendon reflexes are absent. Muscles innervated by cranial nerves may be involved and may occasionally include pupillary dilatation. Involvement of respiratory muscles may lead to respiratory failure or death. Patients rarely present with a history of tick bites. Guillain-Barre syndrome is the most common misdiagnosis.

105. Treatment / Management Treatment involves removal of the tick. This is best accomplished using fine forceps applied close to the skin with gentle, steady, upward and outward traction, taking care to avoid leaving mouth parts embedded in the wound. Care is otherwise supportive but may require intubation for respiratory support in severe cases. Prevention is the best way to avoid tick-borne illness. Except for tick-borne encephalitis, there is no vaccine available to prevent tick-borne disease. Protective clothing, such as long pants, long sleeves, and closed shoes should be worn in tick-infested areas, particularly in the late spring in summer when most cases occur. Pant legs should be tucked into socks when walking through high grass and brush. Permethrin, which is an insecticide, may be applied to clothing and is quite effective in repelling ticks. Other tick repellents such as diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET) may be applied to skin or clothing, with variable effectiveness. DEET can be quite toxic, with effects ranging from local skin irritation to seizures. DEET should be avoided in infants.

106. Prevention and control of ticks Know where to expect ticks. ... Reduce the risk of tick bites by wearing long pants with covered ankles when walking in areas with a lot of ticks. Using repellents containing DEET or Icaridin on clothes will also reduce the risk of tick bites. Ticks are easier to spot on light clothes. Walk on paths in tick areas instead of high grass, heath and scrub. Vets can prescribe agents against ticks for use on cats and dogs. When you come home after walking in tick areas, check yourself, children, dogs and cats thoroughly. Ticks like to seek out thin-skinned places such as behind the knee, groin, armpits

107. Prevention and control of ticks Treat clothing and gear with products containing 0.5% permethrin. ... Use Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)-registered insect repellents containing DEET, picaridin, IR3535, Oil of Lemon Eucalyptus (OLE), para-menthane-diol (PMD), or 2-undecanone.

108. Thank you