Basic principle of liquid scintillation counter norfaizal
10,178 views
59 slides
Feb 19, 2021
Slide 1 of 59
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
About This Presentation
NM-2017
Size: 11.65 MB
Language: en
Added: Feb 19, 2021
Slides: 59 pages
Slide Content
Follow-up Training Course (FTC) on
Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring (ERM)
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Introduction
I
Liquid Scintillator
I
Quenching Effect
I
Sample Preparation
I
Measurement of Tritium
I
Q & A
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
1947 -First and Kallman found that certain organic
chemicals emit fluorescence light when bombarded
by nuclear radiations
I
1953 -Hayes et. al. introduced radiolabeled biological
material into the scintillation solution
I
1953 -First commercial LSC manufactured by
Packard Instrument
I
Now -LSC, which is applicable to various types of
radiations, is the most sensitive and widely used
technique for measurement of radioactivity. It is
applied to environmental radioactivity monitoring,
for not only low energy ββββemitters such as
3
H or
14
C
but also for ααααor ββββ-γγγγemitters.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Liquid scintillation counter was originally
devised for the measurement of such low
energyβ–emitteras
3
Hand
14
C.
I
Variety of methods have been developed for
measurementsofothernuclides.
I
Applied to various fields including the
industryandtheenvironmentalsafety.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Aim -To measure the amount of activity
associated with individual radionuclides
I
The most sensitive and widely used technique
for the detection and quantification of
radioactivity
I
Applicable to all forms of decay emission
such as:
◦
alpha particle
◦
beta particle
◦
beta/gamma ray
◦
example:
3
H,
14
C,
22
Na,
24
Na,
32
P,
32
S,
35
S,
45
Ca
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
New generation LSC -classified as `low level’
instrument -because of their background reduction
features enable to quantify of much lower
activities for a range of radionuclides.
Example:
I
increased in counting sensitivity have extended the
effective age limit of radiocarbon dating from
50,000 years to 60,000 years.
I
Levels of < 1 Bq/L of water can be detected for
environmental
3
H.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Measurement of natural series radionuclides at natu ral
environmental level in a range of environmental sample
matrices.
-isotopes of radium (Ra), uranium (U),
210
Pb,
222
Rn,
231
Pa
and
234
Th.
I
Monitoring the environment around establishment
associated with the nuclear power industry for
anthropogenic radionuclides -principally beta emitt ers
without significant gamma emissions such as
3
H,
14
C,
35
S,
55
Fe,
85
Kr and
89,90
Sr.
I
Nuclear weapons decommissioning; measurement of gross
alpha activities in airborne particulate and surfac e wipes.
I
Radiocarbon dating.
I
Ground water / environmental
3
H.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Advantages I
No need of considering self-and external absorption of
radiations: low-energy beta-ray emitters can be
measured effectively.
I
4ππππgeometry measurement: resulting in a high
counting efficiency.
Disadvantages
I
Quenching effect: radioactive material added in a scintillator
obstructs the light emission process of the scintil lator, which is
called quenching effect.
I
Interference of chemiluminescence: unwillingly, oth er light
photon which may be produced in a sample interferes radiation
measurement.
I
Production of organic radioactive waste.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
The energy of nuclear decay is proportional to light
intensity. The number of flashes of light (CPM) is
proportional to the number of disintegrations (DPM)
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Scintillator is an energy transducer which
transforms radiation energy into light energy or
fluorescence or photons.
Solid scintillator - the energy transducer is
such a crystal as NaI
Liquid scintillator - the energy transducer
is the molecules of particular organic
compounds dissolved in a solution
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Measuring the activity of radionuclides from the rate
of light photons emitted by a liquid sample
I
Field of application -Medicine, agriculture,
environmental, biological, tracer etc.
Tritium,
3
H : E
max= 18.6 keV
Carbon 14,
14
C: E
max= 156 keV
Phosphorus 32,
32
P: E
max= 1710 keV
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Consists mainly four components: I
Solvent
I
Primary fluorescing solute (scintillator)
I
Secondary fluorescing solute (scintillator)
I
Surfactant
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
play a very important role in energy transfer proce ss:
through the solvent, radiation energy is transferre d to
fluorescing solute.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
receives the excitation energy from solvent, and
emits fluorescence photon with λλλλof about 360 nm.
(ca. the sensitivity of the photomultiplier tube of
about 420 nm, for changing the photons into
electric pulse).
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
has the maximum peak of emission spectrum at
420 nm -called as wavelength shifter.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
surfactant is added to emulsify the sample into the
liquid scintillator. The surfactant has hydrophili c and
hydrophobic radical. The former is miscible with wa ter,
and the latter is incorporated with aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
When the luminescence process is interfered, the
photons generated in a sample is decreased
This phenomenon is called quenching effect.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Chemical quenching is the quenching which occurs before
scintillation photons are emitted from the solute. This is
caused by the interference of the energy transfer p rocess
between solvent and solute.
I
Color quenching is the quenching which occurs after the
scintillation photons are emitted. This is due to the
absorption of photons by colored material in a samp le.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Reduction of counting efficiency
due to quenching effect
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
①Chemical quenching I
It takes place before the solute emits fluorescence;
I
impurity is responsible for this phenomenon.
②Color quenching
I
It takes place after the solute emits fluorescence, caused
by the substance with absorption spectrum overlapping
the emission spectrum of the solute.
③Oxygen quenching
I
A kind of chemical quenching caused by oxygen dissol ved
in liquid scintillator.
④Concentration quenching
I
It is caused by the solute of very high concentrati on (self-
quenching or self-absorption).
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
①Cosmic rays I
secondary electrons produced by collisions of cosmi c ray with the
material around the detective part of a LSC.
②Natural radioactivity
I
40
K contained in glass vials,
222
Rn,
220
Rn and their daughters are
present in air in laboratories.
③Chance coincidence counting
I
To suppress pulses except those from signal, a meth od of
coincidence counting has been adopted; however, complete
removal of noise is difficult even with coincidence circuit, and
noise can be counted as the “chance coincidence cou nting” leaking
from the coincidence circuit.
④Cross-talk
I
two PMTs are located face-to-face with an angle of 180 degree,
the light generated in one of the two PMTs can be s ensed by the
other.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
In sample preparation, 10 – 15 ml of emulsion
scintillation is added in a counting vial, and then
1 – 10 ml of the sample to be measured is added
init,andshaked.
I
To obtain reliable counting data, it is essential to
disperse homogeneously the activity sample into
a liquid scintillator, and to prepare a transparent
sample.
I
The sample thus prepared is measured with a
liquid scintillation counter.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
the activity of a sample is calculated from the cou nting
rate (cpm) obtained from the counter:
I
the counting efficiency varies complicatedly with t he
quenching condition of the sample, it is necessary to
determine the counting efficiency for each sample to
calculate the activity
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
There are four methods for determining the
counting efficiency:
1. Internal standard method -accuracy
2. Sample spectrum method -quench curve
3. External standard method -quench curve
4. Efficiency tracing method
I
In these methods, external standard method
is generally used.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
CAUTION 1. Radioactive radionuclide must be the same as sample
2. Activity added should be greater than sample activity
3. Internal standard DPM accurate, known
4. Internal standard must not affect quenching of sa mple
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
a. Ten standards all with 100,000 DPM
(stock solution 120mL at 100,000 DPM/
10mL)
b. Add 10 mL to each vial
c. Add increasing amount of quench agent to
each sample -such as nitromethane 0 -50 μμμμL
d. Determine the CPM and QIP (Quench
Indicating Parameter) for each standard
and plot data
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
How Are DPM Calculated for Unknowns?
1. Count sample obtain CPM, e.g., 36,000 CPM
2. Determine isotope - H-3
3. Determine spectral index of sample (SIS)
- 12.0 %eff = 48%
⇒⇒⇒⇒DPM unknown = 36,000/0.48
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
tSIE -transformed spectral index of external standa rd (i.e. : Ba-133)
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
1. Independent of vial size -4, 7, 20 mL
2. Independent of vial material -glass, plastic
3. Independent of quenching agent -color /
chemical
4. Independent of sample volume
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Determine Radioactivity of Sample
Assumptions:
1. Homogeneous sample
2. 4ππππcounting geometry
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
to achieve the precision and accuracy for the
measurement
I
optimizing the sample counting efficiency
Important properties:
i. Homogeneous and single-phase sample condition so
as to ensure that the radionuclide is in solution and
contacts with the scintillator
ii. Clear translucent sample condition free of
quenching and chemiluminescence
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Scintillatorbased on toluene or xylenesolvent for
222
Rn analysis
-This scintillatorconsists of a primary solute (PPO or butyl-
PBD, 4-8g/l), a secondary solute (bis-MSB, 1 g/l) a nd solvent
(toluene or xylene), and does not contain surfactan t due to high
solubility of
222
Rn gas in these solvents.
I
Emulsion scintillatorbased on di-isopropylnaphthale ne
-the solvent is nontoxic, nonflammable and biodegradable, it
has been widely used in a conventional emulsion sci ntillator.
I
Extractive scintillator
-consists of liquid-liquid extractantand liquid sci ntillator, and
has been developed for the alpha-ray spectrometry of
actinides. This allows extraction of the nuclide o f interest from
an aqueous sample directly into the scintillator.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
The cocktail is a major determining
factor of the quality of the data
obtainable from LSC. Criteria in
selecting a cocktail:
I
sample compatibility
I
counting efficiency
I
cost
I
convenience
I
safety
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
sample compatibility - the best performance is obtained when the analyte is entirely dissolved in the
cocktail (homogeneous phase)
- samples in heterogeneous phase (precipitate, separ ate liquid phase) yield lower
counting efficiency
- check always the sample loading capacity of the co cktail, I.e. the amount of
sample that may be incorporated in given cocktail
I
counting efficiency - the best cocktail is the one allowing higher detec tion efficiency and higher
resistance to quenching I
cost - some economy may be made preparing the cocktail in the lab, but quality may
be lower than in commercially available cocktails I
convenience - the use of an universal cocktail may represent an economy and reduces risk of
mistakes in sample preparation I
safety - Fire hazard: solvents are flammable; check the fla sh point
- Health hazard: solvent vapors are toxic; especiall y toluene. Excessive exposure to
vapors may cause headache, nausea etc.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Provide adequate ventilation in areas
where solvents are used and stored
I
use dispensing devices to transfer
cocktail to vials and to limit solvent
evaporation
Volume of cocktail to use I
10 or 15 ml per vial is, in general
sufficient (sample load)
I
standardize and keep constant during
one experiment
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
The vial is the container for the analyze
and the scintillation cocktail. It permits
light transfer from the liquid scintillator
cocktail to PMT.
Economic glass vials: -soda-lime (flint) glass
-non-permeable by chemicals
(solvent)
-optical clarity adequate
-background counts; adequate for use
with radiotracers
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Low -Background glass vials: - low potassium borosilicate
glass
- low radioactivity background
- better optical quality
- adequate for low radioactivity
(environmental research)
- expensive
Special vials: - teflon, quartz
Polyethylene vials: - high density polyethylene
- very low radioactivity
background
- very low cost
- high transmission of light
although they are opaque to the
eye
Vial closure: must be tight to prevent evaporation of solvent and analytes
- screw cap, snap-cap or plug cap
- urea-formaldehyde with or without Al foil liner
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
90
Sr and
89
Sr are fission products, so their main sources in
environment are atmospheric nuclear weapon testing and
releases from the nuclear fuel cycle. In general,
90
Sr is in
equilibrium with its
90
Y daughter. Water, milk, soil,
vegetationandurinearetypicalsampletobeanalyzed.
I
The analysis involves the sample pretreatment to bring the
sample into suitable form, radiochemical separation, and
radiation measurement. The most popular separation methods
involve the use of ion exchange chromatography, liquid-liq uid
extraction,andextractionchromatography.
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Anthropogenic tritium is from atmospheric weapons
testing and nuclear fuel cycle I
Weapons testing from 1954 to 1963
I
Natural levels are now back to the levels of pre-
atmospheric bomb tests I
The present day activity in precipitation is
approximately 2 Bq/L I
3
H, E
max= 18.6 keV, half-life 12.32 y
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Direct addition - mix with cocktail and measure (sam ple 10 mL) ◦
less labor intensive
◦
distillation or purification by Eichrom
3
H column is needed to
remove impurities from a low activity sample
I
Electrolytic enrichment (starting volume 100-300 mL) ◦
enrichment system required, no commercially made systems
readily available ◦
time consuming
I
Benzene synthesis (C
6
H
6
contains 3 times as much
3
H as H
2
O)
◦
synthesis apparatus required, no commercially made
synthesizers readily available ◦
labor intensive, time consuming
◦
carcinogenic end product
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
typical
3
H eff typical bkg detection limit
I
Direct counting 25 % 1.0 CPM 2.5 Bq/L
I
Benzene synthesis 60 % 1.2 CPM 0.37 Bq/L
I
Enrichment 25 % 1.0 CPM 0.13 Bq/L
Direct counting and enrichment calculations are made for 10 mL water and 500 min counting time
20 mL benzene is equivalent to 30 mL water with 100 % yi eld.
Numbers are typical for Quantulus
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
I
Samples measured first as they are
I
Very small volume of known activity standard
material added and recounted
I
Efficiency verified for each sample and activity
calculated
I
Advantage: ◦
Based on raw data, no quench curves needed
◦
Works on any counter (performance is an issue)
I
Disadvantages: ◦
Destroys samples, recounting not possible
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Cocktails for aqueous
3
H samples I
Ultima Gold LLT, high capacity, acceptance of
mineral acids I
Ultima Gold XR, high capacity, acceptance of
mineral acids I
OptiPhase HiSafe 3, multipurpose cocktail,
lower water capacity than Ultima Gold’s I
Cocktails are based on di-isopropyl-
naphthalene solvent, which has very low
vapor pressure and high flash point (148°C)
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring
Follow-up Training Course on Environmental Radioactivity Monitoring