Basic psychological process ---learning

1. Basic psychological process:Basic psychological process:
Learning & Remembering Learning & Remembering
Learning Objectives:Learning Objectives:
•Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring Learning as a deliberate effort in acquiring
knowledgeknowledge
•Classical conditioning approachClassical conditioning approach
•Operating learning: Cognitive & Social learningOperating learning: Cognitive & Social learning
•Types of learning curvesTypes of learning curves
•Principle of reinforcement in learning processPrinciple of reinforcement in learning process
•Various schedules of reinforcementVarious schedules of reinforcement
•Limitations in learning and behavioural Limitations in learning and behavioural
modification.modification.

2. Introduction Introduction
•Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in Learning is “ any relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”behaviour that occurs as a result of experience”
•Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be seen Learning can’t be observed or seen, it can only be seen
in the change in behaviourin the change in behaviour
Now learning can be :-Now learning can be :-
Permanent
(word processing)
Indirect
(out of other’s
experience)
Direct
(Typing course)
Natural
(Child)
Behaviour potential
(Drugs)

3. Theories of learning Theories of learning
Classical
conditioning
Operant
conditioning
Cognitive
learning
Social
Learning

4. A) Classical ConditioningA) Classical Conditioning
•It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.It’s a ‘Cause n Effect’ relationship between ‘one stimulus and one response’.
•The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs The most well known experiment were conducted by I.P. Pavlov with dogs
and he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.and he established stimulus-response (S-R) connection or habbit.
Food
Bell
Unconditioned
stimulus
Conditioned
stimulus
Food
Bell
Unconditioned
stimulus
Conditioned
stimulus
Unconditioned
response
Response
Conditional
response

5. •Under certain situations, classical conditioning does Under certain situations, classical conditioning does
explain human behaviour.explain human behaviour.
•For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his boss For ex: if someone is always reprimanded by his boss
when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he may become when asked ‘to step in the boss’s office’, he may become
nervous whenever asked to come to the office of his nervous whenever asked to come to the office of his
boss, because of this association.boss, because of this association.
•Since classical conditioning relates to Since classical conditioning relates to involuntary involuntary
responsesresponses, it does not explain situations where people , it does not explain situations where people
rationally and objectively choose a course of action.rationally and objectively choose a course of action.
•Also, managers are more interested in voluntary and free Also, managers are more interested in voluntary and free
responses from their workers rather than involuntary and responses from their workers rather than involuntary and
reflex responses.reflex responses.

6. B) Operant ConditioningB) Operant Conditioning
•An alternate approach to classical conditioning was proposed by An alternate approach to classical conditioning was proposed by
B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning in order to explain B.F Skinner, known as Operant Conditioning in order to explain
more complex behaviour of humans.more complex behaviour of humans.
•It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and learning occurs It includes voluntary change in the behaviour and learning occurs
as consequence of such change.as consequence of such change.
It is a relationship between
consequence-behaviour.
It is also known as
Reinforcement theory.
Behaviour is a function of its
consequences (results
or outcomes)
Behaviour or job performance is not
a function of inner thoughts, feelings,
emotions or perceptions
but
Is keyed to the nature of the outcome of that behaviour.
If it is positive, employee feel motivated and vice-versa.
For ex: working hard and getting the promotion will probably
cause the person to keep working hard in the future.

7. C) Cognitive LearningC) Cognitive Learning
•Cognition is the act of knowing an item of information Cognition is the act of knowing an item of information
and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person and this knowledge affects the behaviour of the person
so that information provides cognitive cues towards the so that information provides cognitive cues towards the
expected goal.expected goal.
•Based on the experience of Tolman. Based on the experience of Tolman.
•Using rats in his laboratory shows that they learned to Using rats in his laboratory shows that they learned to
run through a complicated maze towards their goal of run through a complicated maze towards their goal of
food.food.
•It was observed that rats developed expectations at It was observed that rats developed expectations at
every choice point in the maze.every choice point in the maze.
•They learned that this cognitive cues will ultimately lead They learned that this cognitive cues will ultimately lead
to food.to food.

8. •In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some training In organisational setting, Tolman’s ideas , some training
programs were designed to strengthen the relationship programs were designed to strengthen the relationship
between cognitive cues such as supervision, job between cognitive cues such as supervision, job
procedures and worker expectations such as monetary procedures and worker expectations such as monetary
and other rewards.and other rewards.
•It was believed that worker would learn to be more It was believed that worker would learn to be more
productive by building a relationship between following productive by building a relationship between following
directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary directions and procedures and expectancy of monetary
rewards for these efforts.rewards for these efforts.

9. D) Social LearningD) Social Learning
•It integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to It integrates the cognitive and operant approaches to
learning.learning.
•It recognizes that Learning does not take place only It recognizes that Learning does not take place only
because of environmental stimuli (classical or operant) because of environmental stimuli (classical or operant)
or individual determinism (cognitive) but is a blend of or individual determinism (cognitive) but is a blend of
both.both.
•It also emphasize that people acquire learning the It also emphasize that people acquire learning the
behaviors by observing or imitating others in a social behaviors by observing or imitating others in a social
setting.setting.
•In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and In addition, learning can also be gained by discipline and
self-control.self-control.
•Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of Inner desire to acquire knowledge irrespective of
external rewards or consequences.external rewards or consequences.

10. Implications for performance/learningImplications for performance/learning
Importance for a manager:Importance for a manager:
A) A) Ability:Ability: to get the able fit for the job there are various to get the able fit for the job there are various
steps to get :steps to get :
•Effective selection process.Effective selection process.
•Promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals Promotion and transfer decisions affecting individuals
already in the organisation’s.already in the organisation’s.
•It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match It can be improved by fine-tuning the job to better match
an incumbent’s abilities.an incumbent’s abilities.
B) Biographical characteristicsB) Biographical characteristics
C) LearningC) Learning

11. MotivationMotivation

12. Motivation Motivation
•Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an active form of Motivation is derived from motive that is defined as an active form of
desire, craving or need that must be satisfied.desire, craving or need that must be satisfied.
•All motives are directed towards goals.All motives are directed towards goals.
Action, movement
or behaviour
Tension or
disequilibrium
Feedback, possible
modification of
unsatisfied need
Goal
Unsatisfied need
MEANING OF MOTIVATION :
Motivation is derived from the Latin word
‘movere’ which means ‘to move’ or
‘to energize’ or ‘to activate’.
NATURE OF MOTIVATION:
Based on motives
Affected by motivating
Goal directed behavior
Related to satisfaction
Person is motivated in totality
Complex process
A need is
and internal
state that
makes
certain
outcomes
attractive.

13. SourcesSources/Concepts/Concepts of motivation of motivation
1. Positive motivation:1. Positive motivation:
•Praise and credit for work done.Praise and credit for work done.
•Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.Sincere interest in the welfare of subordinates.
•Delegation of authority and responsibility to Delegation of authority and responsibility to
subordinates.subordinates.
•Participation of subordinates in the decision making Participation of subordinates in the decision making
process.process.
2. Negative motivation2. Negative motivation
•Use of force, power, fear and threats.Use of force, power, fear and threats.
•Punishments.Punishments.

14. 3. Extrinsic (external) motivation3. Extrinsic (external) motivation
•Primarily are of financial naturePrimarily are of financial nature
•It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement It includes higher pay, fringe benefits such as retirement
plans, stock options, profit sharing schemes, paid plans, stock options, profit sharing schemes, paid
vacations, health and medical insurance.vacations, health and medical insurance.
4. Intrinsic motivation4. Intrinsic motivation
•It stems from feelings of achievement and It stems from feelings of achievement and
accomplishment and is concerned with the state of self-accomplishment and is concerned with the state of self-
actualization.actualization.
•The satisfaction of accomplishing something motivates The satisfaction of accomplishing something motivates
he employee further so that this motivation is self-he employee further so that this motivation is self-
generated and is independent of financial rewards.generated and is independent of financial rewards.

15. Classification of Motives:Classification of Motives:
Primary MotivesPrimary Motives
General MotiveGeneral Motive
 Secondary MotivesSecondary Motives

16. Primary Motives:Primary Motives:
A motive is termed as a primary motive when A motive is termed as a primary motive when
it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as it satisfies both the criteria : it is learned as
well as it is physiologically based. It is not well as it is physiologically based. It is not
earned, and it is physiological based. earned, and it is physiological based.
 all human beings have same primary motives all human beings have same primary motives
Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of Example: Hunger, thirst, sleep, avoidance of
painpain

17. General Motives:General Motives:
A motive is considered to be a general motive if it A motive is considered to be a general motive if it
is not learned, but is also not based on is not learned, but is also not based on
physiological need. general motives stimulate physiological need. general motives stimulate
tension within the individual. They are also called tension within the individual. They are also called
“stimulus motives” “stimulus motives”
The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive The motives of curiosity, manipulation and motive
to remain active to remain active
The affection motiveThe affection motive

18. Secondary Motives:Secondary Motives:
It is a motive that has been learned or It is a motive that has been learned or
acquired over timeacquired over time
The power motiveThe power motive
The achievement motiveThe achievement motive
The affiliation motiveThe affiliation motive
The security motiveThe security motive
The status motiveThe status motive

19. The Power Motive The Power Motive
The person’ drives to gain power and The person’ drives to gain power and
prove himself superior to others.prove himself superior to others.

20. Achievement Motive Achievement Motive
The achievement motive is a person’ desire to The achievement motive is a person’ desire to
perform excellently or to handle complex or perform excellently or to handle complex or
competitive situations successfully.competitive situations successfully.
David C. McClellandDavid C. McClelland
Profile of High achievers:Profile of High achievers:
Moderate degree of riskModerate degree of risk
Need for precise feedbackNeed for precise feedback
Satisfaction with accomplishmentSatisfaction with accomplishment
Total dedication towards taskTotal dedication towards task

21. Affiliation Motive Affiliation Motive
Employees especially those at the lower Employees especially those at the lower
levels of the organizational hierarchy, levels of the organizational hierarchy,
have a strong desire to belong to and be have a strong desire to belong to and be
accepted by other employees or the accepted by other employees or the
whole group whole group

22. Security Motive Security Motive
Security motive is based largely on fear Security motive is based largely on fear
and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try and is avoidance-oriented i.e., people try
to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to to avoid insecurity rather than attempt to
achieve security achieve security

23. Status MotiveStatus Motive
Status is defined as the rank a person holds Status is defined as the rank a person holds
relative to others within a group. The relative to others within a group. The
status motive is extremely important status motive is extremely important

24. Theories of Motivation:-Theories of Motivation:-
Categories of motivation theories are:-Categories of motivation theories are:-Permantea(ewodam dpewocwe
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A category of theories
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25. Content Theories of Work MotivationContent Theories of Work Motivation
•Maslow’s hierarchy of needsMaslow’s hierarchy of needs
•McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.McGregor’s X Theory & Y theory.
•Herzberg’s Two-factor theoryHerzberg’s Two-factor theory
•McClelland’s Acquire needs theoryMcClelland’s Acquire needs theory
• Alderfer’s ERG theoryAlderfer’s ERG theory

26. Maslow’s Motivation TheoryMaslow’s Motivation Theory

27. Maslow theory – the explanationMaslow theory – the explanation
•Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which must Lower-end needs are the priority needs, which must
be satisfied before higher-order need are activated.be satisfied before higher-order need are activated.
•Needs are satisfied in sequence.Needs are satisfied in sequence.
•When a need is satisfied, it declines in importance When a need is satisfied, it declines in importance
and the next need becomes dominant.and the next need becomes dominant.
•To motivate an individual one must know where that To motivate an individual one must know where that
person is in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying at person is in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying at
or above that level.or above that level.

28. Implications of Maslow’s theory in the Implications of Maslow’s theory in the
workplaceworkplace
•Not everyone is motivated in the same way.Not everyone is motivated in the same way.
•Motivation and need satisfaction are Motivation and need satisfaction are
anticipatory in nature.anticipatory in nature.
•Managers must seek to guide and direct Managers must seek to guide and direct
employee behaviour to meet the employee behaviour to meet the
organizational needs and individual needs organizational needs and individual needs
simultaneously.simultaneously.

29. McGregor’s X & Y theoryMcGregor’s X & Y theory
•Theory X :Theory X :
This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not This theory assumes that most people prefer to be directed, are not
interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.interested in assuming responsibility & want safety above all.
Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently Accompanying this philosophy is the belief that work is inherently
distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money & distasteful to most people & people are motivated by money &
the threat of punishment.the threat of punishment.
Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure, Managers who accept Theory X assumptions, attempt to structure,
control & closely supervise their subordinates.control & closely supervise their subordinates.

30. •Theory Y:Theory Y:
This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy This theory assumes that people are not by nature lazy
& unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at & unreliable. Man can be self-directed & creative at
work, if properly motivated.work, if properly motivated.
Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their Managers who accept this theory, attempt to help their
employees mature, by exposing them to employees mature, by exposing them to
progressively less control, allowing them to assume progressively less control, allowing them to assume
more self-control.more self-control.
Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social Employees are able to achieve the satisfaction of social
esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of esteem & self-actualization needs with this kind of
environment.environment.

31. Herzberg’s Two-factor TheoryHerzberg’s Two-factor TheoryP e r m a n a t ( w o d p c
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Hygiene Factors
•Working conditions
•Pay and security
•Company policies
•Supervisors
•Interpersonal
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32. Herzberg’s theory - explanationHerzberg’s theory - explanation
•Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of job Hygiene factors involve the presence or absence of job
dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the dissatisfiers. When the hygiene factors are present, the
individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent individual is not dissatisfied; however when they are absent
the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors to the individual is dissatisfied. In any case hygiene factors to
not motivate.not motivate.
•Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and Motivators are factors that influence satisfaction and
consequently motivate the person from within as he or she consequently motivate the person from within as he or she
achieve achieve the higher-level needs of achievement, the higher-level needs of achievement,
recognition, and personal growth.recognition, and personal growth.

33. Implication of Herzberg’s theoryImplication of Herzberg’s theory
•Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee Providing the hygiene factors will eliminate employee
dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high levels of dissatisfaction bur will not motivate workers to high levels of
achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity achievement. Recognition, responsibility, and the opportunity
to achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and to achieve personal growth will promote satisfaction and
employee performance. employee performance.
•The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect of The benefit of this theory has implication for the effect of
company systems and job design (how work is arranged and company systems and job design (how work is arranged and
how much employees control their work) on employee how much employees control their work) on employee
satisfaction and performance. satisfaction and performance.

34. Alderfer’s ERG Theory:Alderfer’s ERG Theory:
Clayton Alderfer : proposed a continuum of
needs rather than a hierarchy
Existence needs – These are associated
with the survival and physiological
wellbeing of an individual.
Relatedness needs – These needs
emphasize the significance of social and
interpersonal relationship.
Growth needs – These needs are related to
a person’s inner desire for personal growth
and development.

35. •Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or Acc. To Alderfer : a person’s background or
cultural environment may cause the cultural environment may cause the
relatedness needsrelatedness needs to predominate over to predominate over
unfulfilled unfulfilled existence needs.existence needs.
• It is also possible that intensity of It is also possible that intensity of growth growth
needsneeds will increase in the degree to which will increase in the degree to which
they are satisfied.they are satisfied.
• Limitations of content theories :Limitations of content theories :
•They do not explain the complexities involved They do not explain the complexities involved
in the process of motivation. in the process of motivation.

36. The Relationship between Maslow,s The Relationship between Maslow,s
Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-Hierarchy of Needs, Herzberg’s Two-
Factor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG NeedsFactor Theory and Alderfer’s ERG Needs
Self-actualization
and fulfillment
Esteem and status
Belongings and
social needs
Safety and
security
Physiological
needs
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
Work itself Achievement
Possibility of growth
Responsibility
Advancement
Recognition
Status
Relations with supervisors
Peer relations
Relations with subordinates
Quality of supervisions
Company policy
and administration
Job security
Working conditions
Pay
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37. The Porter-Lawler ModelThe Porter-Lawler Model
Porter and Lawler tried to explore the Porter and Lawler tried to explore the
complex complex relationship between relationship between
motivation, satisfaction and motivation, satisfaction and
performance,performance, and pointed out that efforts and pointed out that efforts
put in by an employee did not directly result put in by an employee did not directly result
in performance.in performance.
 it gives a comprehensive explanation of it gives a comprehensive explanation of
work motivation. work motivation.

38. •Acc to porter Lawler model performance is Acc to porter Lawler model performance is
dependent on dependent on three factorsthree factors : :
–An employee should have the desire to perform An employee should have the desire to perform
i.e. he must feel motivated i.e. he must feel motivated
–Motivation alone cannot ensure successful Motivation alone cannot ensure successful
performance of a a task: he should have the performance of a a task: he should have the
necessary skills and abilities.necessary skills and abilities.
–The employee should also have the clear The employee should also have the clear
perception of his role in the org. and accurate perception of his role in the org. and accurate
knowledge of the job requirement.knowledge of the job requirement.

39. 1. Value of
Reward
4. Abilities &
Traits
8. Perceived
Equitable
Rewards
3. Effort
6. Performance
7.a Intrinsic
Rewards
2. Perceived Effort
Reward Probability 5. Role
Perception
7. Extrinsic
Rewards
9. Satisfaction

40. •Effort:Effort: the amount of energy expended by an the amount of energy expended by an
individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends individual to perform a specific task. Effort depends
upon the upon the attractiveness of the rewardattractiveness of the reward and the and the
probability that his effortsprobability that his efforts will lead to the reward. will lead to the reward.
• PerformancePerformance : : it is not necessary that the effort will it is not necessary that the effort will
result in performance. Performance in turn is result in performance. Performance in turn is
depended on the abilities and skills and the way the depended on the abilities and skills and the way the
individual perceives his role. individual perceives his role.

41. important variables in the modelimportant variables in the model
• RewardReward: : employee is rewarded acc. To employee is rewarded acc. To
performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic. performance. Reward can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
– intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to intrinsic rewards : are those a person grants to
himself for having performed a task wellhimself for having performed a task well
–Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the Extrinsic rewards : are the rewards given to the
employee by the organizationemployee by the organization
•Satisfaction:Satisfaction: depends upon whether the actual depends upon whether the actual
reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the reward offered fall short of, match or exceed what the
individual perceives as an equitable level of reward. individual perceives as an equitable level of reward.

42. The Process Theories of Work Motivation The Process Theories of Work Motivation
The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of The process theories of motivation deal with “How” of
Motivation. Motivation.
It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor) It deal with the cognitive antecedents (preceding factor)
that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically, that go into motivation or effort, and more specifically,
with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual with the way the cognitive antecedents of an individual
relate to one another.relate to one another.
The theories areThe theories are
Vroom's’ Expectancy Theory of MotivationVroom's’ Expectancy Theory of Motivation
Equity TheoryEquity Theory
Goal-Setting TheoryGoal-Setting Theory

43. The Vroom’s Expectancy TheoryThe Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
•A process theory simply states that people A process theory simply states that people
are motivated to work when they believe that are motivated to work when they believe that
they can achieve things they want from their they can achieve things they want from their
jobs. jobs.
•Such expectation depend on their ability to Such expectation depend on their ability to
perform the task, given their effort and the perform the task, given their effort and the
attractiveness of the reward.attractiveness of the reward.
•Or, Or,
•it is based on the belief that motivation is it is based on the belief that motivation is
determined by the nature of the reward determined by the nature of the reward
people expect to get as a result of their job people expect to get as a result of their job
performance.performance.

44. Theories of Work MotivationTheories of Work Motivation
Instrumentalities Instrumentalities
(performance-reward relationship ) (performance-reward relationship )

ExpectancyExpectancy
(hard work)(hard work) Second levelSecond level
First levelFirst level Outcomes Outcomes
outcomesoutcomes
Outcome 1 aOutcome 1 a
Outcome 1Outcome 1
Outcome 1 bOutcome 1 b
Motivational Motivational
Force F Outcome2aForce F Outcome2a

Outcome2 Outcome2bOutcome2 Outcome2b

Outcome2cOutcome2c

45. Equity Theory :Equity Theory :
J. Stacy AdamsJ. Stacy Adams
This theory states that the degree of equity This theory states that the degree of equity
or inequity or inequity perceived by an employeeperceived by an employee with with
reference to his work situation plays a reference to his work situation plays a
major role in work performance and major role in work performance and
satisfaction.satisfaction.
Employees generally compares their output Employees generally compares their output
– input ratio with that of others. If they – input ratio with that of others. If they
perceives the ratio of their outcomes and perceives the ratio of their outcomes and
inputs are equal to that of their peers and inputs are equal to that of their peers and
others , it will result in equity others , it will result in equity

46. Equity theory represented
schematically as:
Person’s Outcomes = Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
Inequity is represented as follows:
Person’s Outcomes < Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs
(or)
Person’s Outcomes > Other’s Outcomes
Person’s inputs Other’s inputs

47. Various referent comparison used by employees:
Self-inside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in same org.
Self-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a similar position in another org
Other-inside- comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a a different position but belonging to the
same org.
Other-outside - comparing ones experience in the
present position with the experiences of those
holding a different position in another org

48. After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an After comparing his position with that of his referent, if an
employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices. employee perceives an inequity, he will make certain choices.
The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described The choices that an employee is likely to make are as described
below:below:
Change in inputs: Change in inputs: he may reduce the effort he puts in a he may reduce the effort he puts in a
particular job particular job
Change in outcomes: Change in outcomes: the employee may act an in the employee may act an in
a manner that brings about change in the outcome a manner that brings about change in the outcome
or end result. or end result.
Distort perceptions of selfDistort perceptions of self: : the employee may distort the employee may distort
the perception he held about his own performancethe perception he held about his own performance
Distort perception of othersDistort perception of others: : an employee may change an employee may change
the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity. the way he perceives others jobs, positions and productivity.
 choose a different referent choose a different referent
 leave the field leave the field

49. Motivating Performance Motivating Performance
Through Goal Setting:Through Goal Setting:
•A goal can be defined as the desired consequence of an A goal can be defined as the desired consequence of an
action. action.
Performance enhancement through goal setting:Performance enhancement through goal setting:
•Goals should be specificGoals should be specific
•Goals should be difficult and challengingGoals should be difficult and challenging
•Goals must be owned and acceptedGoals must be owned and accepted
•Goals must have a specific time frameGoals must have a specific time frame
•Goals should be measurableGoals should be measurable

50. Barriers to Effective Goal Barriers to Effective Goal
Setting Setting
Lack of top management-supportLack of top management-support
Lack of CommunicationLack of Communication
Content of the goalContent of the goal
Technical incompetence Technical incompetence

51. Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System Application of Goal Setting to Organizational System
Performance Performance
The theory of goal setting is usually implemented The theory of goal setting is usually implemented
through a system called Management by through a system called Management by
Objectives, popularly known as MBO.Objectives, popularly known as MBO.
MBO refers to the process of setting goals and MBO refers to the process of setting goals and
objectives through the participation of the objectives through the participation of the
management and the workers. management and the workers.

52. Consensus on key goals and Consensus on key goals and
objectivesobjectives
Sketch a plan of actionSketch a plan of action
Control of behaviorControl of behavior
Periodic appraisal and reviewsPeriodic appraisal and reviews
The Process of MBOThe Process of MBO