Behavioral Sciences And Medical Psychology Revision-1.pptx

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1. Behavioral Sciences And Medical Psychology Revision

2. Developmental Psychology Cognitive Development Founder: Jean Piaget This theory describes how the child understands the world around him during different ages. Methods of understanding: Schemas: first, the child develop a schema for everything around him, for example; schema for "mother", "dog", "food”…etc. Schemas are formed by experience.   Assimilation : involves taking new information and fitting it into an existing schema. For example, when the child develops a schema about "dog" he simply enlarges it by adding "cat" to this schema. This occurs through assimilation. Accommodation: Involves changing and revising existing schemas in the face of new experiences or new information. For example; he starts to differentiate between the dog and the cat, by their voices, ear shape, etc.

3. Developmental Psychology Stages of development: Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years): At this stage the child discovers the world through sensation (hearing, seeing, smelling…). The main schema is that of causality (cause – effect) or (sensation –motor act). For example, when he taps the table, a voice occurs. Preoperational stage (2-6 years): Children begin to develop and use symbols usually in the form of words to represent concepts. At the same time they start speaking. The amount of knowledge increases and (the number of schemas increase). At this stage children are egocentric (selfish). Concrete operational stage (6–12 years): At this stage the child starts: Organization: Children start formation of concepts and rules, for example animals, fruits etc. Conservation: of volume, length, and mass. This involves the cognitive awareness that changing the form or appearance of something does not necessarily change what it really is. Understands relational term, for example above, under, beside….etc. Begins using simple logic concepts. Formal operational stage (above 12 years): Thinking becomes abstract and symbolic. Reasoning skills develop. Hypothetical concepts develop.

4. Stage Characteristics Sensorimotor stage 0-2 years "Knows" through active interaction with environment – becomes aware of cause effect relationships. Learns that objects exist even when not in view. Imitates crudely the actions of others. Preoperational stage 2-6 years Begins by being very egocentric. Language and mental representations develop. Objects are classified on just one characteristic at one time. Concrete operational stage 7-12 years Develops conservation of volume, length, mass and weight Organizes objects into ordered categories. Understands relational terms (bigger than, above, under.. etc. Begins using simple logic. Formal operational stage Above 12 years Thinking becomes abstract and symbolic. Reasoning skills develop. Senses of hypothetical concepts develop. Table (4.1) Summary of Piaget's stages of cognitive development:

5. Psychology of Personality Factors affecting personality Biological (physical factors): It includes general health of the individuals and how physical and biological factors can affect personality such as drug intake, endocrinal diseases (myxedema, Cushing disease) and nutritional factors. Geographical factors: Which include a number of readymade impressions of stereotypes (e.g. British people do not show emotions, Irish are argumentative Middle Eastern people talk in a loud voice, etc …). Pre-natal effects: Which include fetal exposure to maternal smoking or substance abuse or hormonal therapy and low birth weight? Social: It includes the order of birth of a child in a family (oldest or youngest child) and whether parents are overcautious and protective or emotionally cold and give harsh punishments to their children.

6. Psychology of Personality Trait (Biological) approach A) Kretschmer : Who described personality as – “ Pyknic” -“ Asthenic ”. -“ Athletic” b ) Sheldon : Who described personality temperament as a) “ Endomorphy ” b ) “ Ectomorphy ”). c) “ Mesomorphy ”. a ) Carl Jung : described the dimension of “Extraversion/Introversion”. b ) Eysenck: He proposed 5 dimensions instead of only one dimension and they include: Extraversion/Introversion. Neuroticism (emotionality, anxiety and instability versus stability). Psychoticism (tough mindedness, psychopathy and aggressiveness). Conservatism versus Radicalism and Liberalism. Intelligence (general ability).

7. Psychology of Personality Psychoanalytical approach a person’s overt behaviours are interpreted as hidden representation of underlying conscious processes. Freud compared the human mind to an iceberg, a small part that floats on the surface of the water is the conscious experience and a larger mass under the water is the unconscious experience which is the storehouse of impulses, passions and primitive instincts that affects our thoughts and behaviours . ( Behavioural ) approach This approach believes that personality can be learned (environmentally determined) as any other kind of response. It considers the situation as an important determinant of behaviour . It assumes that different behaviour does not necessarily reflect variations on the same underlying motive they are often discrete responses to different situations.

8. Psychology of Personality Humanistic approach This approach emphasizes man’s potential for self-direction and freedom of choice. They are concerned with the self and the individual subjective experiences. Most humanistic theories stress our positive nature, or push towards growth and self-actualization. The emphasis is also on the “here and now” rather than on events in early childhood that may have shaped the individuals personality. Two the leaders of this approach are Carl Rogers ( client centered approach) and Abraham Maslow (self-actualization).

9. Learning Differences between both types of conditioning

10. Learning Classical Conditioning The food is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), a stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning. Salivation is an unconditioned response (UCR), a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning. The tone has now become a conditioned stimulus (CS), a stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR. Because the dog is now salivating to the tone, salivation has become a conditioned response (CR), a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus . Phenomena Associated with Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization: Pavlov found that once a CR is acquired, the organism often responds not only to the original CS but also to stimuli that are similar to it. Adog that salivates to a medium-pitched tone is more likely to salivate to a new tone different in pitch. Stimulus discrimination: Is demonstrated when a CR occurs to one stimulus but not to others. Extinction: A conditioned response will disappear over time by repeated presentation of the CS without the US. Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished response.

11. Learning Concepts Associated with OPERANT CONDITIONING Reinforcement : A response is strengthened by an outcome that follows it. In other words the delivery of a stimulus (reinforce) increases the probability of a behavior. Reinforcement can be done by giving an appetitive stimulus (positive reinforcement) or by the removal of an aversive stimulus (negative reinforcement). Punishment : Is the converse of reinforcement: it decreases the probability of a behavior, and consists of the delivery of an aversive stimulus (positive punishment, or simply ‘punishment’) or the removal of an appetitive stimulus (negative punishment ). e.g disulfiram use in alcoholic patients. Shaping : Reward closer approximations at a desired behavior until the correct one is achieved . Chaining: Break complex behaviors into simple components, each component is reinforced once acquired . An example is teaching a child to write his name. The shape of individual alphabets is first taught using reinforcers and forward chaining can be used to link each alphabet in the correct order, finally reinforcing the completed name.

12. Learning Observational Learning ( Vicarious learning ) The learning that occurs by observing the behavior of a model Use of positive punishment to manage maladaptive behaviour in children leads to. Vicarious learning of aggressive behaviour

13. Attention and Perception Attention: is the process by which we select some stimuli for further processing while ignoring others, i.e. the ability to focus our awareness on some stimuli while ignoring others. Vigilance is the ability to sustain attention. Selective attention is the ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process, while ignoring distracting information. Perception : interpretation of sensations produced by stimulation of the sensory organs to make meaning of the world surrounding the person The Absolute threshold : is the lowest level of a stimulation that an organism can detect. Habituation: Decreased perceptual response to a repeated stimulus Sensation : The process of converting physical energy into neural code.

14. Attention and Perception Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) Telepathy : It refers to transfer of thought between two persons at different places. Clairvoyance: Perceiving objects and events without the involvement of senses. Telekinesis: Controlling objects without touching them.

15. Thinking Definitions Thinking is a mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is organizing and attempting to understand information and communicating information to others. Thinking requires the ability to imagine and mentally represent objects and events that are not physically present (mental image), i.e., concept formation. Concept formation: are the building blocks of mental representation and thoughts. Concepts are mental categories we form to group objects, events, or situations that share common characteristics or features. A concept is the idea referred to objects or events by noticing similarities (attributes) and differences among items. So, it represents the common properties of a group of different objects.

16. Thinking The Types of Concepts Inborn Concepts: As the concept of “time” and “space ”. Learned Concepts: Can be taught, Can be learnt by experience, aquired concepts Key Barriers to Problem Solving Mental Sets (persistence in using strategies that have worked in the past). Functional Fixedness is a rigid mental set Thinking of an object as only functioning in its usual way . 2. Confirmation Bias Preferring information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory evidence. 3. Availability Heuristic Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

17. Intelligence IQ= MA/CA *100 Distribution of Intelligence Genius >140. Superior: 130-140. Normal: 90-119. Dull 80-90. Borderline 70-80. Mental retardation<70.

18. Intelligence Uses of intelligence tests: Educational purpose: to direct according to abilities. Vocational guidance: to select employers to certain jobs. Measurement of level of intellectual impairment in certain diseases. Marital counseling To check effect of therapy on intellectual abilities. Emotional intelligence: Ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others and of groups.   The four branches of emotional intelligence: Perceiving emotions: It is understanding emotions accurately. Reasoning emotions: Use emotions to promote thinking and cognitive activity. Understand emotions: It is understanding the cause of emotions. Managing emotions : Regulate and to respond appropriately to the emotions of others.

19. Language Definition of Language ? It is a system of combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating ideas among two or more individuals using the same language. It involves: Primary means of human communication. A system for representing human thought. Use of a finite number of sounds to create an infinite number of words. Acquired through active participation. Definition of Morphemes : The study of the smallest meaningful units of speech. Definition of Syntax: How individual words and basic meaningful units are combined to create sentences . The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language. Definition of Semantics: The ways in which a language conveys meaning . Semantics is the study of meaning, that is, how people mentally represent the meaning of words and sentences.

20. Memory Functions of Memory: Encoding is the active process or putting information into memory (learning). When information comes into our memory system (from sensory input) it needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can be stored. Storage is the process of holding encoded information in memory until the time of retrieval. This concerns the nature of memory stores i.e. where the information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieved it. It is either short-term memory or long-term memory. Retrieval is the process of using the information, which is stored in memory (remembering). If we cannot remember something it may be because we are unable to retrieve it. When we are asked to retrieve something from memory, the differences between short-term memory and long-term memory become very clear.

21. Memory Types and Levels of Memory: A- Sensory Memory: Hold large amounts of information . Registered at the sense receptors (auditory, visual etc.…) Very brief period (visual1/2 second and auditory3seconds ). It is based on electrical changes. B- Short Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (7±2 bits of information ). Limited duration (15-20seconds). Limited storage . Encoding = we have to pay attention to the information process. Forgetting occur by decay or displacement. Information in STM could pass to long-term memory LTM rehearsal or consolidation. It is based on chemical changes reverberating circuits. It is stored and retrieved sequentially. For example, if a group of participants are given a list of words to remember and then asked to recall the fourth word on the list, participants go through the list in the order they heard to retrieve the information. C- Long Term Memory: Unlimited capacity . Very Long Duration. Permanent but subjected to distortion or replacement.

22. Memory Types of Long Term Memory Procedural memory: is a apart of long term memory that is responsible, for knowing how to do things i.e. memory of motor skills. It does not involve conscious thought and is not declarative. For example how to ride a bicycle. Semantic memory: is a part of long-term memory that is responsible for storing information about the world. This includes knowledge about the meaning of words as well as general knowledge, for example, London is the capital of England. It involves conscious thought and is declarative. Episodic memory: is a part of the long-term memory responsible for storing information about events (i.e. episodes) that we have experience in our lives. It involves conscious thought and declarative.

23. Sleep Sleep performs a restorative function for the brain and body, as enhancing memory, growth hormone secretion and relief of anxiety during dreams. Characteristics of REM sleep includes brain activity is increased during REM, vivid emotional dreams, enhanced respiration and blood pressure and presence of beta activity. NREM (Non Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is characterized by it is responsible for protein synthesis and restoration of body functions. The symptoms of sleep deprivation include trembling hands and irritability, inability to concentrate, decreased growth and hallucinations.

24. Motivation Primary motives: Unlearned biological motives necessary for survival Self esteem is defined as: how much we approve of ourselves and how worthy we think of ourselves Homeostasis: Drive reduction aims to restore a steady state of physiological equilibrium. Drive reduction theories of learning & motivation are based on The principle of homeostasis Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory: at the times of natural disasters Provision of food and shelter will be the most appropriate intervention At the top of Maslow’s hierarchy of motives is Self-actualization.

25. Emotions Theories of Emotion The James-Lange Theory of Emotion emotions occur as a result of physiological arousal to events. That means seeing an external stimulus leads to a physiological reaction. The emotional reaction is dependent upon how the person interprets those physical reactions.   The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion the experience of an emotion is accompanied by physiological arousal i.e the physical and psychological experience of emotion happen at the same time.   Schachter -Singer Theory is an example of a cognitive theory of emotion. the physiological arousal occurs first, and then the individual must identify the reason for this arousal (=cognitive appraisal) to experience and label it as an emotion. A stimulus leads to a physiological response that is then cognitively interpreted and labelled, resulting in an emotion. emotion = arousal + cognition

26. Emotions Neuroanatomy of emotions The hypothalamus  activation of the sympathetic nervous system that is a part of any given emotional reaction. The thalamus  sensory relay center whose neurons project to both the amygdala and the higher cortical regions for further processing. The amygdala  processing emotional information ( e.g.feeling angry and afraid) and sending that information on to cortical structures. The hippocampus integrates emotional experience with cognition

27. Stress stages of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS ): Alarm , Resistance, Exhaustion Ways of coping with stress : Controlling the source of stress, Learning to say “no” to some of the demands, Tolerating the source of stress by thinking about another topic such as a hobby, listening to music, Managing the negative emotions Physical signs of stress: Tiredness, fatigue, lethargy . Heart palpitations, racing pulse, rapid shallow breathing. Muscle tension and aches . Shakiness , tremors, tics, & twitches. Heart burn, indigestion, diarrhea, constipation, nervousness. Dry mouth & throat . Excessive sweating, clammy hands, cold hands & feet. Sleeping difficulties. The body’s main stress hormone is Cortisol.

28. Frustration and Defensive Mechanisms Repression : The process of blocking out of consciousness any upsetting thoughts. Projection : Person attributes his own wishes, desires, thoughts, or emotions to someone else. Internal states are perceived as a part of someone else or of the world in general. Rationalization : Rational explanations are used to justify attitudes that are unacceptable.e.g . Finding justification for an event or feelings Splitting : People and things in the world are perceived as all bad or all good (God or the Devil). Acting out: Massive emotional or behavioral outburst to cover up underlying feeling or idea. Strong action or emotions used to cover unacceptable emotions. mature defensive mechanisms Humor, Altruism, Sublimation and Isolation of affect. Reasons of frustration include Environmental obstacles, Conflicts and Limitations in the subject’s ability

29. Social Psychology In interpersonal attraction: Physical attractiveness is more important in Early in the relationship. conformity : A change in belief or behavior in response to group pressure Attribution : When we perform well; we typically attribute our success to Internal characteristics. In emergency situations, if a large crowd is witnessing helping behaviour may be discouraged by Social loafing phenomenon. Diffusion of responsibility and social loafing: People who are less likely to help someone because there are a lot of people present

30. Aggression and Violence The frustration-aggression theory : argues that the blocking of one's goals will lead to aggressive behavior because of anger and hostility . The aggression could be explained by the person being frustrated by some person Frustration probably encourages aggression because it raises arousal levels and sensitivity to cues for aggression. Neurotransmitters has been implicated in aggression: Low levels of Serotonin Increase in testosterone level

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