Behaviour modification

behaviour modification and psychology

1. BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION Dr. Vimal kumar S V Clinical psychologist & Consultant in learning disabilities CDC Trivandrum

2. CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION Focus on behavior Behavior modification procedures are designed to change behavior, not a personal characteristic or trait. Therefore, behavior modification deemphasizes labeling. For example, behavior modification is not used to change autism (a label); rather, behavior modification is used to change problem behaviors exhibited by children with autism.

3. Behavioral excesses and deficits are targets for change with behavior modification procedures. In behavior modification, the behavior to be modified is called the target behavior. A behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior the person wants to decrease in frequency, duration, or intensity. Smoking -a behavioral excess. A behavioral deficit is a desirable target behavior the person wants to increase in frequency, duration, or intensity. Exercise and studying -behavioral deficits.

4. Procedures based on behavioral principles . Behavior modification is the application of basic principles originally derived from experimental research with laboratory animals (Skinner, 1938). The scientific study of behavior is called the experimental analysis of behavior, or behavior analysis (Skinner). The scientific study of human behavior is called the experimental analysis of human behavior, or applied behavior analysis Behavior modification procedures are based on research in applied behavior analysis that has been conducted for more than 40 years

5. Emphasis on current environmental events. Behavior modification involves assessing and modifying the current environmental events that are functionally related to the behavior. Human behavior is controlled by events in the immediate environment, and the goal of behavior modification is to identify those events. Sometimes labels are mistakenly identified as the causes of behavior. For example, a person might say that a child with autism engages in problem behaviors(such as screaming, hitting himself, refusal to follow instructions) because the child is autistic.

6. Measurement of behavior change One of the hallmarks of behavior modification is its emphasis on measuring the behavior before and after intervention to document the behavior change resulting from the behavior modification procedures. In addition, ongoing assessment of the behavior is done well beyond the point of intervention to determine whether the behavior change is maintained in the long run.

7. De-emphasis on past events as causes of behavior . Behavior modification places emphasis on recent environmental events as the causes of behavior. However, knowledge of the past also provides useful information about environmental events related to the current behavior. For example, previous learning experiences have been shown to influence current behavior. Therefore, understanding these learning experiences can be valuable in analyzing current behavior and choosing behavior modification procedures. Although information on past events is useful, knowledge of current controlling variables is most relevant to developing effective behavior modification interventions because those variables, unlike past events, can still be changed

8. Rejection of hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. Although some fields of psychology, such as Freudian psychoanalytic approaches, might be interested in hypothesized underlying causes of behavior, such as an unresolved Oedipus complex, behavior modification rejects such hypothetical explanations of behavior. Skinner (1974) has called such explanations “ explanatory fictions ” because they can never be proved or disproved, and thus are unscientific. These supposed underlying causes can never be measured or manipulated to demonstrate a functional relationship to the behavior they are intended to explain.

9. AREAS OF APPLICATION Behavior modification procedures have been used in many areas to help people change a vast array of problematic behaviors. Developmental Disabilities More behavior modification research has been conducted in the field of developmental disabilities than perhaps any other area (Iwata et al., 1997). People with developmental disabilities often have serious behavioral deficits, and behavior modification has been used to teach a variety of functional skills to overcome these deficits In addition, people with developmental disabilities may exhibit serious problem behaviors such as self-injurious behaviors, aggressive behaviors, and destructive behaviors

10. Mental Illness Some of the earliest research in behavior modification demonstrated its effectiveness in helping people with mental illness in institutional settings Behavior modification has been used with patients with chronic mental illness to modify such behaviors as daily living skills, social behavior, aggressive behavior, treatment compliance, psychotic behaviors, and work skills

11. Education and special education the education of people with developmental disabilities, behavior modification has played a major role ( Rusch et al., 1988) in developing teaching methods, controlling problem behaviors in the classroom, improving social behaviors and functional skills, promoting self-management, and training teachers

12. Rehabilitation Rehabilitation is the process of helping people regain normal function after an injury or trauma, such as a head injury from an accident or brain damage from a stroke. Behavior modification is used in rehabilitation to promote compliance with rehabilitation routines such as physical therapy, to teach new skills that can replace skills lost through the injury or trauma, to decrease problem behaviors, to help manage chronic pain, and to improve memory performance

13. Child Management Numerous applications of behavior modification to the management of child behavior exist Parents and teachers can learn to use behavior modification procedures to help children overcome bedwetting, nail-biting, temper tantrums, noncompliance, aggressive behaviors, bad manners, stuttering, and other common problems

14. BEHAVIOURAL ASSESSMENT Measuring the behavior before treatment provides information that can help to determine whether treatment is necessary. Behavioral assessment can provide information that helps to choose the best treatment. Measuring the target behavior before and after treatment allows to determine whether the behavior changed after the treatment was implemented.

15. There are two types of behavioral assessment: direct and indirect Indirect assessment involves using interviews, questionnaires, and rating scales to obtain information on the target behavior from the person exhibiting the behavior or from others (e.g., parents, teachers, or staff). With direct assessment, a person observes and records the target behavior as it occurs. To observe the target behavior, the observer (or a video camera, in some cases) must be in close proximity to the person exhibiting the behavior so that the target behavior can be seen (or heard). Direct assessment usually is more accurate than indirect assessment. This is because in direct assessment, the observer is trained specifically to observe the target behavior and record its occurrence immediately. In indirect assessment, information on the target behavior depends on people’s memories. In addition, the people providing information may not have been trained to observe the target behavior and may not have noticed all the occurrences of the behavior. As a result, indirect assessment may be based on incomplete information about the target behavior. Most research and application in behavior modification relies on direct assessment

16. Defining the target behaviour The first step in developing a behavior recording plan is to define the target behavior. To define the target behavior for a particular person, identify exactly what the person says or does that constitutes the behavioral excess or deficit targeted for change

17. Functional assessment Functional assessment is the process of gathering information about the antecedents and consequences that are functionally related to the occurrence of a problem behavior. It provides information that helps you determine why a problem behavior In addition to information on the reinforcing consequences (functions) of target behaviors, a functional assessment also provides detailed information about antecedent stimuli, including the time and place of the behavior, people present when the behavior occurs, any environmental events immediately preceding the behavior, and the frequency (or other dimensions) of the target behavior.

18. POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT It is extremely important to remember that both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement are processes that strengthen a behavior; that is, they both increase the probability that the behavior will occur in the future. Positive and negative reinforcement are distinguished only by the nature of the consequence that follows the behavior. Positive reinforcement is defined as follows. 1. The occurrence of a behavior 2. is followed by the addition of a stimulus (a reinforcer) or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus, 3. which results in the strengthening of the behavior. Negative reinforcement, by contrast, is defined as follows. 1. The occurrence of a behavior 2. is followed by the removal of a stimulus (an aversive stimulus) or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus, 3. which results in the strengthening of the behavior.

19. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT Fixed ratio Reinforcer delivered after a certain number of responses. Produces high rate of behavior, with a pause after reinforcement. Variable ratio Reinforcer delivered after an average of x responses. Produces a high and steady rate of behavior, with no pause after reinforcement. Fixed interval Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a fixed interval of time. Produces a low rate of behavior, with an on-and-off pattern. The response rate increases near the end of the interval. Variable interval Reinforcer delivered for the first response that occurs after a variable interval of time. Produces a steady, low-to-moderate rate of behavior, with no on-and-off pattern.

20. Extinction The basic behavioral principle that is illustrated in the preceding examples is extinction. In each example, a behavior that had been reinforced for a period of time was no longer reinforced The behavioral definition of extinction is as follows: Extinction occurs when 1. A behavior that has been previously reinforced 2. no longer results in the reinforcing consequences 3. and, therefore, the behavior stops occurring in the future therefore, the behavior stopped occurring.

21. Spontaneous recovery One other characteristic of extinction is that the behavior may occur again even after it has not occurred for some time. This is called spontaneous recovery. Spontaneous recovery is the natural tendency for the behavior to occur again in situations that are similar to those in which it occurred before extinction

22. Punishment There are three parts to the definition of punishment. 1. A particular behavior occurs. 2. A consequence immediately follows the behavior. 3. As a result, the behavior is less likely to occur again in the future. (The behavior is weakened.) A punisher(also called an aversive stimulus) is a consequence that makes a particular behavior less likely to occur in the future

23. ABC Antecedent Behavior Consequence Mom is present. Jake asks for money. Mom gives him the cash. Dad is present. Jake asks for money. Dad does not give him cash. Outcome: Jake asks his mom for money in the future and does not ask his dad for money anymore.

24. SHAPING Shaping is used to develop a target behavior that a person does not currently exhibit. Shaping is defined as the differential reinforcement of successive approximations of a target behavior until the person exhibits the target behavior. Differential reinforcement involves the basic principles of reinforcement and extinction. Differential reinforcement occurs when one particular behavior is reinforced and all other behaviors are not reinforced in a particular situation. As a result, the behavior that is reinforced increases and the behaviors that are not reinforced decrease through extinction.

25. DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENT OF ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA) is a behavioral procedure used to increase the frequency of a desirable behavior and to decrease the frequency of undesirable behaviors. The desirable behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. This results in an increase in the future probability of the desirable behavior. At the same time, any undesirable behaviors that may interfere with the desirable behavior are not reinforced. This results in a decrease in the future probability of the undesirable behaviors.

26. TIME OUT TOKEN ECONOMY RELAXATION SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

27. Time out Time allotted Environment Emotional expression EXCLUSIONARY TIME-OUT The person is removed from the room (the reinforcing environment) where the problem behavior occurred and is taken to another room. This removes the person from all sources of positive reinforcement. NONEXCLUSIONARY TIME-OUT The person remains in the room while being removed from access to positive reinforcers

28. TOKEN ECONOMY to strengthen clients’ desirable behaviors that occur too infrequently and to decrease their undesirable behaviors in a structured treatment environment or educational setting. Each point received by the children for desirable behavior is a token. A token is delivered immediately after a desirable behavior and is later exchanged for backup reinforcers. Because the token is paired with other reinforcers, it becomes a conditioned reinforcer that strengthens the desirable behavior it follows. Backup reinforcers can be obtained only by paying for them with tokens, and tokens can be obtained only by exhibiting desirable behaviors. The backup reinforcers are chosen because they are known to be powerful reinforcers for the clients in the treatment environment; therefore, the clients are motivated to engage in the desirable behaviors and avoid the undesirable behaviors.

29. Examples of Backup Reinforcers for Elementary School-Age Children Listening to music Choosing a game for the class Cutting and pasting Finger painting Eating lunch with teacher Playing marbles Extra free time Showing hobby to classmates Visiting the nurse Reading a story out loud to classmates Reading morning announcements Visiting another class Having a project displayed Erasing the chalkboard Helping the librarian Positive note home to parents Leading student groups

30. RELAXATION SYSTEMATIC DESENSITIZATION COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION

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