Biodiversity Definition, Hot spots of biodiversity

For MPHE Students

1. BIODIVERSITY

2. The term biodiversity (from “biological diversity”) refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and can encompass the evolutionary, ecological, and cultural processes that sustain life.  Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened, or endangered but also every living thing-from humans to organisms we know little about, such as microbes, fungi, and invertebrates. Biodiversity holds ecological and economic significance. It provides us with nourishment, housing, fuel, clothing and several other resources. It also extracts monetary benefits through tourism. Therefore, it is very important to have a good knowledge of biodiversity for a sustainable livelihood. Biodiversity

3. 3 Estimated Number of Described Species Insecta 827,875 (47.3%) N e m a t o d a A c t i n o p t e r y g i i 2 0,000 (1.1%) 23,712 (1.4%) Other Vertebrata 27,199 (1.6%) Other Eucarya 36,702 (2.1%) Crustacea 38,839 (2.2%) Other Plantae 49,530 (2.8%) Arachnida 74,445 (4.3%) Other invertebrate Metazoa 82,047 (4.7%) Fungi 100,800 (5.8%) Stramenopiles 105,922 (6.1%) Mollusca 117,495 (6.7%) Angiospermae 233,885 (13.4%) Bacteria 9,021 (0.5%) Archaea 259 (0.01%)

4. There are the following three different types of biodiversity: Genetic Biodiversity Species Biodiversity Ecological Biodiversity Genetic diversity It refers to the variations among the genetic resources of the organisms . Every individual of a particular species differs from each other in their genetic constitution. That is why every human looks different from each other. Similarly, there are different varieties in the same species of rice, wheat, maize, barley, etc.

5. Species diversity  Species diversity refers to the variety of different types of species found in a particular area . It is the biodiversity at the most basic level. It includes all the species ranging from plants to different microorganisms. No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For example, humans show a lot of diversity among themselves.  Ecological diversity  An ecosystem is a collection of living and non-living organisms and their interaction with each other. Ecological biodiversity refers to the variations in the plant and animal species living together and connected by food chains and food webs. It is the diversity observed among the different ecosystems in a region. Diversity in different ecosystems like deserts, rainforests, mangroves, etc., include ecological diversity.

6. Biodiversity and its maintenance are very important for sustaining life on earth. A few of the reasons explaining the importance of biodiversity are: Ecological Stability Every species has a specific role in an ecosystem. They capture and store energy and also produce and decompose organic matter. The ecosystem supports the services without which humans cannot survive. A diverse ecosystem is more productive and can withstand environmental stress. Economic Importance Biodiversity is a reservoir of resources for the manufacture of food, cosmetic products and pharmaceuticals. Crops livestock, fishery, and forests are a rich sources of food. Wild plants such as Cinchona and Foxglove plant are used for medicinal purposes. Wood, fibres , perfumes, lubricants, rubber, resins, poison and cork are all derived from different plant species. The national parks and sanctuaries are a source of tourism. They are a source of beauty and joy for many people. Ethical Importance All species have a right to exist. Humans should not cause their voluntary extinction. Biodiversity preserves different cultures and spiritual heritage. Therefore, it is very important to conserve biodiversity. IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

7. Measuring Biodiversity: There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the number of species diversity in different regions. The measure of diversity of species is also known as species richness. These are as follows: Alpha diversity: This is the diversity in species, i.e. the number of species within a community. This depends on the interaction between the biotic and abiotic factors and also takes into account immigration from other locations. Beta diversity: This is the change in the composition of the species with reference to the changes in the environment. Gamma diversity: This refers to the overall diversity and is applied to larger areas in which both alpha and beta diversity are measured.

8. Biodiversity hotspot A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened by human habitation. Norman Myers wrote about the concept in two articles in The Environmentalist in 1988 and 1990, after which the concept was revised following thorough analysis by Myers and others into “Hotspots: Earth’s Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions” and a paper published in the journal Nature, both in 2000. To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot, an area must meet two strict criteria: Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants found nowhere else on Earth (known as "endemic" species). Have lost at least 70 percent of its primary native vegetation. Many of the biodiversity hotspots exceed the two criteria. For example, both the Sundaland Hotspot in Southeast Asia and the Tropical Andes Hotspot in South America have about 15,000 endemic plant species. The loss of vegetation in some hotspots has reached a startling 95 percent. There are currently 36 recognized biodiversity hotspots.

9. Several international organizations are working to conserve biodiversity hotspots. Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund (CEPF) is a global program that provides funding and technical assistance to nongovernmental organizations in order to protect the Earth's richest regions of plant and animal diversity, including biodiversity hotspots, high-biodiversity wilderness areas and important marine regions. The World Wide Fund for Nature has devised a system called the "Global 200 Ecoregions", the aim of which is to select priority ecoregions for conservation from fourteen terrestrial, three freshwater, and four marine habitat types. Birdlife International has identified 218 “Endemic Bird Areas” (EBAs) each of which holds two or more bird species found nowhere else. Birdlife International has identified more than 11,000 Important Bird Areas all over the world. Plant life International coordinates programs aiming to identify and manage Important Plant Areas. Alliance for Zero Extinction is an initiative of scientific organizations and conservation groups who co-operate to focus on the most threatened endemic species of the world. They have identified 595 sites, including many Birdlife’s Important Bird Areas. The National Geographic Society has prepared a world map of the hotspots and ArcView shapefile and metadata for the Biodiversity Hotspots including details of the individual endangered fauna in each hotspot, which is available from Conservation International. The Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) seeks to control the destruction of forests in India.

10. Endemism is a term used in biology to talk about the distribution of a taxon limited to a small geographic area and which can therefore be found naturally in this place. In consequence, endemic species are those that live in a limited area, such as a mountain range, lake or island, among others. Therefore, the ecological aspect of the place and the biological characteristics of the living beings influence this condition. Endemic species are crucial to the health of our planet because of the enormous variety of living beings they contribute to the environment. In fact, it is no coincidence that megadiverse countries, those that are home to at least 70 % of the planet's terrestrial biological diversity account for only around 10 % of the surface but are home to a massive number of endemic species. Endemic species are the most vulnerable of all and, therefore, those in the greatest danger of extinction, which can be due to natural causes or human activity. As well as the consequences of climate change, there are other threats, such as poaching, changing habitats and the introduction of invasive species. What's more, environmental conservation has become a major standard-bearer for protecting these species.

11. TYPES OF ENDEMISM Endemic species can be classified in two ways, by their geographical distribution or genetics, giving rise to a series of categories: By location Microendemic species : are those established in a limited area. Quasi-endemic: are species that go beyond the limits of their specific zone. Semi-endemic: are species that spend only part of the year in a specific area. By genetics Paleo-endemics: are species that eventually form isolated groups due to their morphological, chemical or genetic characteristics. Schizo -endemics: are species formed by gradual isolation but which have similar chromosomic and morphological characteristics. Patro -endemics: are species that emerge due to changes in the number of chromosomes and which colonise more extensive areas than their predecessors. Apo-endemics: these are species that derive from others and which, unlike patro -endemic species, occupy smaller areas than their predecessors.

12. EXAMPLES OF ENDEMIC SPECIES Endemic animals Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus ): This carnivorous mammal is endemic to the Iberian Peninsula and is also the world's most seriously threatened feline species. Polar bear ( Ursus maritimus ): this carnivorous mammal lives in the polar region and in the frozen areas of the Northern Hemisphere. It is the only surviving super-predator in the Arctic. Lemur ( Lemuroidea ): This Strepsirrhini primate is native to the island of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. It has shiny eyes and makes strange noises. Panda ( Ailuropoda melanoleuca ): This mammal is typical of Asia, although it has become a symbol of China the country that has done most to save it from extinction. Endemic plants Red sequoia ( Sequoia sempervirens ): This tree, also known as the California sequoia, is found in this part of the USA and lives for a very long time. Dragon tree (Dracaena draco ): This tree has rough bark and is one of many endemic plants to be found in the Canary Islands (Spain). Palma barrigona ( Colpothrinax wrightii ): this species of palm originates in Cuba and has an unusually shaped trunk, whose diameter balloons out around two-three metres from the ground. Jalisca pine ( Pinus jaliscana ): this tree is a member of the pine family and is unusually tall, more than 20 metres . It is found in the Jalisco region of Mexico.

13. Invasive alien species are species that are introduced into new areas and, once there, are able to adapt, become established, reproduce and spread, colonising the environment, creating new populations and impacting on biodiversity, health and the economy. These can cause numerous problems, such as acting as predators - hindering the growth of native species —, altering habitats-causing physical and chemical changes to the soil -, competing for food and space; hybridising with native species, introducing new parasites and diseases. A biological invasion can also have an impact on human health, since several species can transmit disease, cause allergies, and even be poisonous. The impact on the economy can be significant, leading to a reduction in or even the disappearance of fishing, livestock breeding and crop cultivation, and damage to the tourism industry. Not all introduced species are invasive. Some of them are unable to adapt to their new environment or spread freely, as is the case with many farm animals and garden plants, meaning that they are not a threat to the area. Others acclimatise and spread without damaging the ecosystem, such as potatoes and corn, becoming established species. INVASIVE SPECIES

14. Exotic species travel around the world in the most unexpected ways, taking root in places that are thousands of kilometres away from their natural habitats. This is sometimes the result of human intervention — whether intentional or not — and sometimes caused by natural phenomena. Below, we look in more detail at some of the causes linked to human activity: The trade in wildlife Trade in exotic plants and animals is the main cause. Illegal trafficking of wildlife is a crime that turns over between 10 and 20 billion euros a year, according to the Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF). Tourism Visiting other countries contributes to the spread of foreign species, whether intentionally or otherwise. Hunting and fishing for leisure In the past, these two activities were responsible for the introduction of animals such as the barbary sheep and the catfish across large parts of Europe. Transport and international trade Invasive species often travel hidden away in aircraft holds, shipping containers and ships' hulls. Abandoned pets Raccoons, monk parakeets and red-eared slider turtles are examples of exotic pets that have colonised ecosystems after escaping or being abandoned. Crops and the fur industry The fashion industry and horticulture have also been gateways for mammals such as the American mink in Europe, and for plants such as the erect prickly pear in Africa and Oceania. HOW INVASIVE SPECIES ARE INTRODUCED

15. INVASIVE SPECIES EXAMPLES There is a long list of insects, animals and plants that have spread across the world, endangering biodiversity. Some of them are outlined below: American mink ( Neovison vison ). This small mammal affects numerous protected species of amphibians, fish, and mammals such as the European mink, which has been driven to the edge of extinction. Hottentot fig ( Carpobrotus edulis ). This plant is originally from Peru, and is often used as decorative plant because of itseye -catching flowers. However, it growth hinders the development of other species by taking over the ground occupied by the native vegetation. Zebra mussel ( Dreissena polymorpha ). This specie spreads very quickly, causing damage to habitats and fauna and to industrial, agricultural and urban water supply systems by blocking filters and pipes. Red swamp crayfish ( Procambarus clarkii ). The voracity of this crayfish makes it a threat to other fish, amphibians and aquatic invertebrates. It is also harmful to rice fields, and contains parasites, heavy metals and toxins. East Asian arrowroot ( Pueraria montana lobata ). this Japanese climbing plant, considered to be one of the most harmful species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), is found in a variety of very different places, such as the Caucasus, southern Africa, Switzerland, Italy and Canada.

16. Rare species A  species  that is uncommon, few in number, or not abundant. A species can be rare and not necessarily be endangered or threatened, for example, an organism found only on an island or one that is naturally low in numbers because of a restricted range. Such species are, however, usually vulnerable to any exploitation, interference, or disturbance of their habitats. Species may also be common in some areas but rare in others, such as at the edge of its natural range. "Rare" is also a designation that the IUCN—The World Conservation Union gives to certain species "with small world populations that are not at present 'endangered' or 'vulnerable' but are at risk. These species are usually localized within restricted geographical areas or habitats or are thinly scattered over a more extensive range." Some American states have also employed this category in protective legislation. Endangered Species An endangered species is a type of organism that is threatened by extinction. Species become endangered for two main reasons: loss of habitat and loss of genetic variation

17. 1) Population reduction rate A species is enlisted as endangered when its population has declined between 50 and 70 percent . This decline is measured over 10 years or three generations of the species , whichever is longer. A species is classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 70 percent and the cause of the decline is known . A species is also classified as endangered when its population has declined at least 50 percent and the cause of the decline is not known. 2) Geographic range An endangered species’ extent of occurrence is less than 5,000 square kilometers (1,930 square miles). An endangered species’ area of occupancy is less than 500 square kilometers (193 square miles). 3) Population size A species is classified as endangered when there are fewer than 2,500 mature individuals or when a species population declines by at least 20 percent within five years or two generations. 4) Population restrictions A species is classified as endangered when its population is restricted to less than 250 mature individuals . When a species’ population is this low, its area of occupancy is not considered. 5) Probability of extinction in the wild is at least 20 percent within 20 years or five generations , whichever is longer.

18. The biodiversity indices aim to describe general properties of communities that allow us to compare different regions, taxa, and trophic levels. They are of fundamental importance for environmental monitoring and conservation, although there is no consensus about which indices are more appropriate and informative. The spatial component of biodiversity can be termed as alpha, beta, and gamma diversity. Imagine that you have a landscape containing of a number of separate sites and habitats. Alpha diversity is just the diversity of each site/habitat (local species pool). Beta diversity represents the differences in species composition among sites/habitats. Gamma diversity is the diversity of the entire landscape (regional species pool). Diversity mainly includes two different aspects: species richness and evenness.

19. Species richness , or the number of species, is the simplest measure of diversity and does not consider differences in species relative abundance. That is, each species is not likely to have the same number of individuals. One species may be represented by 1000 birds, another by 200 and a third only a single bird species. Species evenness is the similarity in species relative abundance in a community. The majority of studies on biodiversity have used species richness to represent diversity on account of its apparent simplicity compared to species evenness Diversity indices are mathematical functions that combine richness and evenness in a single measure. The most commonly used diversity indices are: Shannon’s diversity and Simpson’s diversity indices.

20. Shannon Diversity Index The Shannon index increases as both the richness and the evenness of the community increase . The fact that the index incorporates both components of biodiversity can be seen as both a strength and a weakness. It is a strength because it provides a simple, synthetic summary, but it is a weakness because it makes it difficult to compare communities that differ greatly in richness. Typical values are generally between 1.5 and 3.5 in most ecological studies, and the index is rarely greater than 4. H’ = – Σ p i In p i Where, H’ = Shannon index of diversity p i = the proportion of important value of the ith species ( p i = ni / N, ni is the important value index of ith species and N is the important value index of all the species). To calculate the index: 1. Divide the number of individuals of species #1 you found in your sample by the total number of individuals of all species. This is p i 2. Multiply the fraction by its natural log (pi * ln pi) 3. Repeat this for all of the different species that you have. 4. Sum all the - ( p i * ln p i) products to get the value of H’

21. H = 2.636 Example 1

22. Example 2

23. High values of H’ would be representative of more diverse communities. A community with only one species would have an H’ value of 0 because p i would equal 1 and be multiplied by ln p i which would equal zero. If the species are evenly distributed then the H’ value would be high. So the H’ value allows us to know not only the number of species but how the abundance of the species is distributed among all the species in the community

24. Dominance Index (Simpson’s index): Dominance is one of the most important concepts in the study of animal social behaviour. Dominance hierarchies in groups arise from dyadic relationships between dominant and subordinate individuals present in a social group. In concrete way, dominance is an important indicator of species composition in a habitat. The dominance of a species refers to its relative importance in its habitat, which determines the degree of influence of the species on the ecosystem. Ecologists have spent much effort and imagination to establish and quantify interrelationships among these components, and to identify the underlying biological or physical processes that influence them, e.g., extinction, immigration, colonization, niche segregation, competition, predation, environmental control, disturbances, and historical dynamics.

25. Example