BLOOD.pptx.pdf power point presentation physiology

blood

1. Essentials ofHuman Anatomy & Physiology
September 26, 2023
Blood

2. Blood
∙The only fluid tissue in the human body
∙Classified as a connective tissue
∙Living cells = formed elements
∙Non-living matrix = plasma

3. Composition of Blood

●Formed Elements
○Accounts for 45%



●Plasma
○Accounts for 55 %

4. Blood
Slide 10.1b

6. Physical Characteristics of Blood
∙Color range
∙Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
∙Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
∙pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
∙Blood temperature is slightly higher than
body temperature
∙Accounts 8% of body weight
∙5-6 liters (male); 4-5 liters (female)

7. Functions of Blood
●Transports gases and wastes products
○Carries oxygen from lungs to cells in the body; carbon dioxide from
cells to the lungs
○Nutrients, ions and water from the digestive tract to cells
○Waste products of cells to kidneys for elimination.

●Transport of processed molecules
○Example: Precursor of vitamin D is produced in the skin and
transported by the blood to the liver and then to the kidneys for
processing into active vitamin D. Blood transports active Vitamin D
to small intestines where it promotes uptake of calcium.
○Example: Lactate produced by skeletal muscle during anaerobic
respiration, then blood carries lactate to the liver for conversion
into glucose

8. Functions of Blood
●Transport of regulatory molecules
○Carries hormones and enzymes that regulate body
processes

●Regulation of PH and osmosis
○Carries buffers which keeps blood within normal
limits (7.35-7.45)
○Osmotic composition of blood maintains normal fluid
and ion balance.
●Maintenance of Body Temperature
○ blood flows through areas of the body that are metabolically
active, the heat generated by metabolism warms the blood.
Warm blood is transported from the interior of the body to
the surface, where heat is released from the blood.

9. Functions of Blood
●Protection against foreign substances

●Clot Formation

10. Blood Plasma
Slide 10.3
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
∙Composed of approximately 90 percent
water
∙Includes many dissolved substances
∙Nutrients
∙Salts (metal ions)
∙Respiratory gases
∙Hormones
∙Proteins
∙Waste products

11. Plasma Proteins
Slide 10.4
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
∙Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
∙Clotting proteins – help to stem blood
loss when a blood vessel is injured
∙Antibodies – help protect the body from
antigens

12. Formed Elements
∙Erythrocytes = red blood cells
∙Leukocytes = white blood cells
∙Platelets = cell fragments

13. Slide 10.5b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

14. Slide 10.5c
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

15. Production of Formed Elements
●Hematopoiesis
○hemato(blood) + poiesis(making)
○production/formation of formed elements

●Fetus
○Liver
○Thymus
○Spleen
○Lymph Nodes
○Red bone
●Adult
○Primarily red bone marrow
○some WBC are formed in lymphatic tissues.

16. Hematopoiesis
Slide 10.14
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
All blood cells are derived from a common
stem cell (hemocytoblast)
∙Hemocytoblast differentiation
∙Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
∙Myeloid stem cell produces other formed
elements

18. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
∙Biconcave disks
∙Essentially bags of hemoglobin
∙Anucleate (no nucleus)
∙Contain very few organelles
∙Pliable
∙Outnumber white blood cells
1000:1

19. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
∙Consequently unable to divide
∙Life span
∙Male= 120 days
∙Female= 110 days
∙⅓ of a red blood cell’s volumes
is the pigment protein called
Hemoglobin

20. Hemoglobin
∙Consists of 4 protein chains and
4 heme groups.
∙Protein chain - Globin
○each globin is bound to one
heme
∙Heme- a red pigment molecule
○each contains 1 iron atom
∙Iron- Necessary for
hemoglobin functions

21. Hemoglobin
∙Responsible for RBC’s red color
∙Iron-containing protein
∙Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
∙Each hemoglobin molecule has four
oxygen binding sites
∙Each erythrocyte has 250 million
hemoglobin molecules

22. Hemoglobin
∙98.5% of O2 transported in blood is bound to
hemoglobin; 1.5% O2 is dissolved in plasma
∙Iron- ⅔ is found in the hemoglobin
∙Other molecules can also bind into hemoglobin
○Carbon monoxide- bind to iron in hemoglobin about
210 times more readily than oxygen.
○as a result, hemoglobin bound to carbon monoxide
no longer carries oxygen.
■Nausea, headache, unconsciousness and death
are possible consequence of prolonged exposure
to carbon monoxide.

23. Functions of Red Blood Cells
∙Main function is to transport oxygen from
LUNGS to the various tissues of the body.
∙Transport CO2 from tissues to lungs

Accomplished when oxygen enters red
blood cells and binds to hemoglobin.

24. Functions of Red Blood Cells
●Carbon dioxide- produced in tissues and
transported in the blood to the lungs
○transport involves:
■Bicarbonate ions
●70% of CO2
●Carbonic anhydrase- found primarily
inside RBC; catalyzes a reaction that
converts CO2 and water into
hydrogen ion and a bicarbonate ion.
CO2+H2O= H+ +HCO3-

25. Functions of Red Blood Cells

■Hemoglobin
●23% of CO2 transported are bound
to hemoglobin
●Reversibly bind to the globin part
■Plasma
●7% is transported dissolved in
plasma

26. Formation of Red Blood Cells

27. Hemoglobin Breakdown

28. Fate of Erythrocytes
∙Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize
proteins
∙Wear out in 100 to 120 days
∙When worn out, are eliminated by
phagocytes in the spleen or liver
∙Lost cells are replaced by division of
hemocytoblasts

29. Control of Erythrocyte Production
Slide 10.16
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
∙Rate is controlled by a hormone
(erythropoietin)
∙Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as
a response to reduced oxygen levels in
the blood
∙Homeostasis is maintained by negative
feedback from blood oxygen levels

30. Control of Erythrocyte Production

31. Homeostatic Imbalances of RBC
∙Oxygen related Conditions
○Hypoxia- decreased oxygen in tissues
○Hypoxemia- decreased oxygen in the blood
○Anemia- decreased oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood

32. Homeostatic Imbalances of RBC

33. Homeostatic Imbalances of RBC
∙Polycythemia Vera
○increased RBC production
Primary Polycythemia Vera
-caused by bone marrow disease
Secondary Polycythemia Vera
-physiologic response (high altitude)

34. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
∙Crucial in the body’s defense against
disease
∙These are complete cells, with a
nucleus and organelles
∙Able to move into and out of blood
vessels (diapedesis)
∙Can move by ameboid motion
∙Can respond to chemicals released by
damaged tissues

37. Leukocyte Levels in the Blood
∙Normal levels are between 4,000 and
11,000 cells per millimeter
∙Abnormal leukocyte levels
∙Leukocytosis
∙Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
∙Generally indicates an infection
∙Leukopenia
∙Abnormally low leukocyte level
∙Commonly caused by certain drugs

38. Types of Leukocytes
∙Granulocytes
∙Granules in their cytoplasm
can be stained
∙Include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils
∙Lifespan: Blood= 4-8 hours
Tissues= 4-5 days

39. Types of Leukocytes
∙Agranulocytes
∙Lack visible cytoplasmic
granules
∙Include lymphocytes and
monocytes
∙Life Span: Blood= 10-20 days
Tissues= 3 months

40. Granulocytes
∙Neutrophils
∙Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
∙40-70% of WBCs (Most abundant)=
∙Cytoplasm stains pale pink and contains
fine granules which are difficult to see
∙Act as phagocytes at active sites of
infection
∙number increased rapidly during
short-term or acute infections
∙2nd Line of Defense

41. Granulocytes
Eosinophils
∙1-4% of WBCs
∙Large brick-red cytoplasmic
granules
∙Red coarse cytoplasmic granules;
figure-8 pr bilobed nucleus
∙Found in response to allergies and
parasitic worms
∙plays a complex role in allergy
attacks

42. Granulocytes
∙Basophils
∙0-1% of WBCs (Least Abundant)
∙Cytoplasm has few large blue-purple
granules
∙Have histamine-containing granules
∙Release histamine(vasodilator
chemical) at sites of inflammation
∙contains heparin(anticoagulant)
∙Initiate inflammation

43. Agranulocytes
∙Lymphocytes
∙Smallest WBC
∙2nd most abundant (20-45% of WBC)
∙Nucleus fills most of the cell
∙Cytoplasm pale blue and appears as thin
rim around nucleus
∙Play an important role in the immune
response
∙Types
■B Cells
■T Cells

44. Agranulocytes
∙B Cells
∙Origin: Bone Marrow
∙Humoral- Mediated Immunity
∙Produces Antibodies

●IgG
○smallest
○only immunoglobulin(Ig) to
cross placenta
○neutralizes bacteria and
viruses
●IgA
○responsible for fluid antigen
○neutralizes virus and
bacteria

45. Agranulocytes

●IgM
○involve in primary immune
response
○food antigen(gastrointestinal tract)
○present in surfaces of B cells
●IgE
○for allergic reaction
○binds to basophil and most cells to
liberate histamine and other
inflammatory substances
●IgD
○activates B cells/ immune
response
○antigen receptor on the surface of
B cells

46. Agranulocytes
●T cells
○Origin: Thymus Gland
○Cell- Mediated Immunity


●Types
○Helper T Cells (CD4)
■directs and regulates cytotoxic
T cells and B cells
■Absent or decreased in AIDS
○Killer/ Cytotoxic T Cells (CD8)
■directly destroys foreign
bodies/antigen
○Suppressor T Cells
■stops the activity of helper and
killer T cells
■Absent in Gullain Barre
Syndrome

47. Agranulocytes
Monocytes
∙4-8% of WBCs
∙Largest of the white blood cells
∙Abundant gray-blue
cytoplasm;dark-purple nucleus
∙Function as macrophages
∙if present in tissues, they swell and
become macrophages(first line of
defense)
∙Important in fighting chronic infection

48. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
∙

49. Formation of White Blood Cells
∙ Colony Stimulating Factors
∙Interleukins
-promt red bone marrow to produce WBC
-enhance the ability of mature leukocytes to protect
the body

50. Formation of White Blood Cells

51. Homeostatic Imbalance
●Leukemia
○Bone marrow becomes cancerous and huge numbers of
WBC are turned out rapidly
●Myelogenous Leukemia
■cancer of bone marrow
●Lymphogenous Leukemia
■cancer of lymphoid structures

53. Platelets
∙Derived from ruptured multinucleate
cells (megakaryocytes)
∙Needed for the clotting process
∙Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm
3
○
150,000- 450,000/mm
3
Lifespan: 8-10 days

54. Platelets Formation
●Thrombopoietin
○accelerates the production of platelets from
megakaryocytes.

55. Hemostasis
∙Stoppage of blood flow
∙Result of a break in a blood vessel
∙Hemostasis involves three phases
∙Vascular Spasms
∙Platelet plug Formation
∙Coagulation

56. Vascular Spasms
∙Anchored platelets release
serotonin
∙Serotonin causes blood muscles
to spasm
∙Spasms narrow the blood vessel,
decreasing blood loss
∙stimulated by chemicals released
by cells of damaged blood
vesselsand by platelets
○platelets release
thromboxane
○endothelial cell linings
release endothelin

57. Platelet Plug Formation
∙Collagen fibers are exposed by a
break in a blood vessel
∙Platelets become “sticky” and cling
to fibers
∙Anchored platelets release
chemicals to attract more platelets
∙Platelets pile up to form a platelet
plug

59. Coagulation
∙Injured tissues release
thromboplastin
∙PF
3
(a phospholipid) interacts with
thromboplastin, blood protein
clotting factors, and calcium ions to
trigger a clotting cascade
∙Prothrombin activator converts
prothrombin to thrombin (an
enzyme)
∙Thrombin joins fibrinogen
proteins into hair-like fibrin
∙Fibrin forms a meshwork
(the basis for a clot)

60. Blood Clotting
∙Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
∙The clot remains as endothelium
regenerates
∙The clot is broken down after tissue
repair

61. Clotting Factors
∙Vitamin K dependent
clotting factors
○2, 7, 9, 10

65. Undesirable Clotting
∙Thrombus
∙A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
∙Can be deadly in areas like the heart
∙Embolus
∙A thrombus that breaks away and floats
freely in the bloodstream
∙Can later clog vessels in critical areas such
as the brain

66. Bleeding Disorders
∙Thrombocytopenia
∙Platelet deficiency
∙Even normal movements can cause
bleeding from small blood vessels that
require platelets for clotting
∙Hemophilia
∙Hereditary bleeding disorder
∙Normal clotting factors are missing

67. Bleeding Disorders
∙Types of hemophilia
∙Type I/A: Classic Hemophilia
■most common type
■absent clotting factor 8
∙Type II/B: Christmas Disease
■absent clotting factor 9
∙Type III/C:
■absent clotting factor 11
∙Type IV/D:
■absent clotting factor 12

68. Blood Groups and Transfusions
∙Large losses of blood have serious
consequences
∙Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
∙Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
which can be fatal
∙Transfusions are the only way to
replace blood quickly
∙Transfused blood must be of the same
blood group

69. Human Blood Groups
∙Blood contains genetically determined
proteins
∙A foreign protein (antigen) may be
attacked by the immune system
∙Blood is “typed” by using antibodies that
will cause blood with certain proteins to
clump (agglutination)

70. Human Blood Groups
∙There are over 30 common red blood
cell antigens
∙The most vigorous transfusion reactions
are caused by ABO and Rh blood group
antigens

71. ABO Blood Groups
∙Based on the presence or absence of two
antigens
∙Type A
∙Type B
∙The lack of these antigens is called
type O

72. ABO Blood Groups
Slide 10.27b
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
∙The presence of both A and B is called
type AB
∙The presence of either A or B is called
types A and B, respectively

74. Rh Blood Groups
Slide 10.28
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
∙Named because of the presence or
absence of one of eight Rh antigens
(agglutinogen D)
∙Most Americans are Rh
+

∙Problems can occur in mixing Rh
+
blood
into a body with Rh
–
blood

75. Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
∙Danger is only when the mother is Rh
–

and the father is Rh
+
, and the child
inherits the Rh
+
factor

76. Rh Dangers During Pregnancy
∙The mismatch of an Rh
–
mother carrying
an Rh
+
baby can cause problems for the
unborn child
∙The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
problems
∙The immune system is sensitized after the first
pregnancy
∙In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immune
system produces antibodies to attack the Rh
+

blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)

78. Blood Typing
∙Blood samples are mixed with anti-A and
anti-B serum
∙Coagulation or no coagulation leads to
determining blood type
∙Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done in
the same manner
∙Cross matching – testing for agglutination
of donor RBCs by the recipient’s serum,
and vice versa

80. Developmental Aspects of Blood
∙Sites of blood cell formation
∙The fetal liver and spleen are early sites of
blood cell formation
∙Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis by
the seventh month
∙Fetal hemoglobin differs from
hemoglobin produced after birth