CARBOHYDRATES. Biology for Engineerinsg

Carbohydrates information

1. BIOMOLECULES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

2. BIOMOLECULES Biomolecule, also called biological molecule, any of numerous substances that are produced by cells and living organisms. They have a wide range of sizes and structures and perform a vast array of functions. The four major types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins. Among biomolecules, nucleic acids, namely DNA and RNA, have the unique function of storing an organism’s genetic code—the sequence of nucleotides that determines the amino acid sequence of proteins, which are of critical importance to life on Earth.

3. WHAT ARE CARBOHYDRATES ? The term Carbohydrate or hydrates of carbon is derived from its basic elemental formula in which carbon is joined to hydrogen and oxygen present in the same ratio as in water. Chemically carbohydrates are polyhydroxy  aldehydes or ketones . Examples- Dairy Products –  Yogurt, Milk, Ice cream Fruits –  Fruit juice or Whole fruit Grains –  Cereal, Bread, Wheat, Rice Legumes –  Plant-based proteins, Beans Starchy Vegetables –  Corn, Potatoes

4. Types o Carbohydrates

5. Properties of Carbohydrates PROPERTY DESCRIPTION Structure Consists of chains or rings of sugar molecules. Types Divided into three main groups: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Solubility Most carbohydrates are soluble in water due to their hydrophilic in nature, except for some larger polysaccharides sweetness Monosaccharides and disaccharides are generally sweet taste, while polysaccharides are not Energy source The primary source of energy for living organisms, and provides four calories per gm upon digestion Storage Stored as glycogen in animals and as starch in plants for energy reserves. Structural function Acts as building blocks for cell wall in plants Biological significance Essential for cellular processes such as metabolism, cell signaling and immune system function

6. Functions of Carbohydrates Functions Description Energy source Carbs serve as the primary source of energy for the body, providing fuel for various physiological processes. Glucose, derived from carbs, is particularly vital for brain function and muscle activity. Structural Support In organisms, carbs play a crucial role in providing structural support. cellulose, a complex carbohydrate found in plant cell walls, offers rigidity and strength. Storage of Energy Carbs are stored in the body as glycogen in the liver and muscles. When energy demand increases, it is broken down into glucose to meet the energy requirements Facilitate Digestion Dietary fibers, which found in plant-based foods, aid in digestion by promoting regular bowel movements, preventing constipation & supporting a healthy digestive system.

7. Cellular Communication They help cells identify and interact with each other, facilitating various physiological processes such as immune responses and tissue development. Flavor and texture They contribute to the taste, texture and appearance of foods and also enhance the flavor of foods by providing sweetness. Metabolic regulations Carbs participate in metabolic regulation by influencing insulin secretion and blood glucose levels Fuel for Exercise During physical activity, carbs provide the necessary energy to sustain muscle contractions and endurance.

8. What are Nucleic Acids? Nucleic acids are long-chain polymeric molecules, the monomer (the repeating unit) is known as the nucleotides and hence sometimes nucleic acids are referred to as polynucleotides. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two major types of nucleic acids. DNA and RNA are responsible for the inheritance and transmission of specific characteristics from one generation to the other. There are prominently two types of nucleic acids known to us.

9. TYPES OF NUCLIC ACID : DNA & RNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) Chemically, DNA is composed of a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and some cyclic bases containing nitrogen. The sugar moiety present in DNA molecules is β-D-2-deoxyribose. The cyclic bases that have nitrogen in them are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and thymine (T). These bases and their arrangement in the molecules of DNA play an important role in the storage of information from one generation to the next one. DNA has a double-strand helical structure in which the strands are complementary to each other.

10. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA): The RNA molecule is also composed of phosphoric acid, a pentose sugar and some cyclic bases containing  nitrogen . RNA has β-D-ribose in it as the sugar moiety. The heterocyclic bases present in RNA are adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine(C) and uracil (U). In RNA the fourth base is different from that of DNA. The RNA generally consists of a single strand which sometimes folds back; that results in a double helix structure. There are three types of RNA molecules, each having a specific function: messenger RNA (m-RNA) ribosomal RNA (r-RNA) transfer RNA (t-RNA)

11. The Functions of Nucleic Acids They are responsible for the synthesis of protein in our body. DNA fingerprinting is a method used by forensic experts to determine paternity. It is also used for the identification of criminals. It has also played a major role in studies regarding biological evolution and genetics. Nucleic acids   are responsible for the transmission of inherent characters from parent to offspring.

12. What is Protein? Proteins are very large molecules composed of basic units called amino acids. Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. Protein molecules are large, complex molecules formed by one or more twisted and folded strands of  amino acids . Proteins are highly complex molecules that are actively involved in the most basic and important aspects of life. These include metabolism, movement, defense , cellular communication, and molecular recognition.

13. Functions of Proteins Positive negative attractions between different atoms in the long amino acid strand cause it to coil on itself again and again to form its highly complex shape. Folded proteins may combine with other folded proteins to form even larger more complicated shapes. The folded shape of a protein molecule determines its role in body chemistry. Structural proteins are shaped in ways that allow them to form essential structures of the body. Collagen, a protein with a fibre shape, holds most of the body tissues together. Keratin, another structural protein forms a network of waterproof fibres in the outer layer of the skin. Functional proteins have shapes that enable them to participate in chemical processes of the body. Functional proteins include some of hormones, growth factors, cell membrane receptors, and enzymes.

14. Classification of Proteins Protein molecules are large, complex molecules formed by one or more twisted and folded strands of amino acids. Each amino acid is connected to the next amino acid by covalent bonds.  Primary (first level) –  Protein structure is a sequence of amino acids in a chain. Secondary (secondary level) –  Protein structure is formed by folding and twisting of the amino acid chain. Tertiary (third level) –  Protein structure is formed when the twists and folds of the secondary structure fold again to form a larger three dimensional structure. Quaternary (fourth level) –  Protein structure is a protein consisting of more than one folded amino acid chain. Proteins can bond with other organic compounds and form “mixed” molecules. For example, glycoproteins embedded in cell membranes are proteins with sugars attached. Lipoproteins are lipid-protein combinations.

15. Lipids Definition “Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen atoms, which form the framework for the structure and function of living cells.” These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule. In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats. .

16. Properties of Lipids Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body. Listed below are some important characteristics of Lipids. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the cell membrane.

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