Ch. 4 Cell Structures

Introduction Cells have a cytoskeleton that provides support and allows some cells to crawl and others to swim. Our understanding of nature often goes hand in hand with the invention and refinement of instruments that extend our senses. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Introduction In 1665, Hooke examined a piece of cork under a crude microscope and identified “little rooms” as cells. Leeuwenhoek, working at about the same time, used more refined lenses to describe living cells from blood, sperm, and pond water. Since the days of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, improved microscopes have vastly expanded our view of the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.0-1

Figure 4.0-2 Introduction to the Cell Chapter 4: Big Ideas The Nucleus and Ribosomes The Endomembrane System Energy-Converting Organelles The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell A variety of microscopes have been developed for a clearer view of cells and cellular structure. The first microscopes were light microscopes. In a light microscope ( LM ), visible light passes through a specimen, then through glass lenses, and finally is projected into the viewer’s eye. Specimens can be magnified by up to 1,000 times. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell Magnification is the increase in an object’s image size compared with its actual size. Resolution is a measure of the clarity of an image. In other words, it is the ability of an instrument to show two nearby objects as separate. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell Microscopes have limitations. The human eye and the microscope have limits of resolution—the ability to distinguish between small structures. Therefore, the light microscope cannot provide the details of a small cell’s structure. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell Using light microscopes, scientists studied microorganisms, animal and plant cells, and some structures within cells. In the 1800s, these studies led to cell theory , which states that all living things are composed of cells and all cells come from other cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.1a

Figure 4.1b

Figure 4.1c

Figure 4.1d

Figure 4.1e-0 Human height Length of some nerve and muscle cells Chicken egg Frog egg Paramecium Human egg Most plant and animal cells Nucleus Most bacteria Mitochondrion Smallest bacteria Viruses Ribosome Proteins Lipids Small molecules Atoms Unaided eye Light microscope Electron microscope 10 m 1 m 100 mm (10 cm) 10 mm (1 cm) 1 mm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm 100 μ m 10 μ m 1 μ m

Figure 4.1e-1 Human height Length of some nerve and muscle cells Chicken egg Frog egg Paramecium Human egg Unaided eye 10 m 1 m 100 mm (10 cm) 10 mm (1 cm) 1 mm 100 μ m

Figure 4.1e-2 Frog egg Paramecium Human egg Most plant and animal cells Nucleus Most bacteria Mitochondrion Smallest bacteria Viruses Ribosome Proteins Lipids Small molecules Atoms Light microscope Electron microscope 1 mm 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm 0.1 nm 100 μ m 10 μ m 1 μ m

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell Beginning in the 1950s, scientists started using a very powerful microscope called the electron microscope ( EM ) to view the ultrastructure of cells. Instead of light, EM uses a beam of electrons. Electron microscopes can resolve biological structures as small as 2 nanometers and magnify up to 100,000 times. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.1 Microscopes reveal the world of the cell Scanning electron microscopes ( SEMs ) study the detailed architecture of cell surfaces. Transmission electron microscopes ( TEMs ) study the details of internal cell structure. Differential interference light microscopes amplify differences in density so that structures in living cells appear almost three-dimensional. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane Cell size must be large enough to house DNA, proteins, and structures needed to survive and reproduce, but remain small enough to allow for a surface-to-volume ratio that will allow adequate exchange with the environment. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.2a Total volume 3 3 1 1 2 6 Total surface area Surface-to- volume ratio 27 units 3 27 units 3 54 units 2 162 units 2

4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane The plasma membrane forms a flexible boundary between the living cell and its surroundings. Phospholipids form a two-layer sheet called a phospholipid bilayer in which hydrophilic heads face outward, exposed to water, and hydrophobic tails point inward, shielded from water. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.2 The small size of cells relates to the need to exchange materials across the plasma membrane Membrane proteins are embedded in the lipid bilayer. Some proteins form channels (tunnels) that shield ions and other hydrophilic molecules as they pass through the hydrophobic center of the membrane. Other proteins serve as pumps, using energy to actively transport molecules into or out of the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.2b Outside cell Inside cell Hydrophilic heads Hydrophobic tails Phospholipid Channel protein Hydrophilic regions of a protein Hydrophobic regions of a protein

Figure 4.UN01

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic cells. All other forms of life are composed of eukaryotic cells. Eukaryotic cells are distinguished by having a membrane-enclosed nucleus and many membrane-enclosed organelles that perform specific functions. Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler in structure. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have a plasma membrane, an interior filled with a thick, jellylike fluid called the cytosol , one or more chromosomes , which carry genes made of DNA, and ribosomes , tiny structures that make proteins according to instructions from the genes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells The inside of both types of cells is called the cytoplasm . However, in eukaryotic cells, this term refers only to the region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is coiled into a region called the nucleoid (nucleus-like) and no membrane surrounds the DNA. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.3 Prokaryotic cells are structurally simpler than eukaryotic cells Outside the plasma membrane of most prokaryotes is a fairly rigid, chemically complex cell wall, which protects the cell and helps maintain its shape. Some prokaryotes have surface projections. Short projections help attach prokaryotes to each other or their substrate. Longer projections called flagella (singular, flagellum ) propel a prokaryotic cell through its liquid environment. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.3-0 Fimbriae Ribosomes Nucleoid Plasma membrane Cell wall Capsule Bacterial chromosome A typical rod-shaped bacterium A colorized TEM of the bacterium Escherichia coli Flagella

Figure 4.3-1 Fimbriae Ribosomes Nucleoid Plasma membrane Cell wall Capsule Bacterial chromosome A typical rod-shaped bacterium Flagella

Figure 4.3-2 A colorized TEM of the bacterium Escherichia coli

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments A eukaryotic cell contains a membrane-enclosed nucleus and various other organelles (“little organs”), which perform specific functions in the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments The structures and organelles of eukaryotic cells perform four basic functions. The nucleus and ribosomes are involved in the genetic control of the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and peroxisomes are involved in the manufacture, distribution, and breakdown of molecules. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments Mitochondria in all cells and chloroplasts in plant cells are involved in energy processing. Structural support, movement, and communication between cells are functions of the cytoskeleton, plasma membrane, and cell wall. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments The internal membranes of eukaryotic cells partition it into compartments. Cellular metabolism , the many chemical activities of cells, occurs within organelles. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments Almost all of the organelles and other structures of animals cells are present in plant cells. A few exceptions exist. Lysosomes and centrosomes containing centrioles are not found in plant cells. Only the sperm cells of a few plant species have flagella. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.4 Eukaryotic cells are partitioned into functional compartments Plant but not animal cells have a rigid cell wall that contains cellulose, plasmodesmata, cytoplasmic channels through cell walls that connect adjacent cells , chloroplasts, where photosynthesis occurs , and a central vacuole, a compartment that stores water and a variety of chemicals. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.4a Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosome Mitochondrion Centrosome with pair of centrioles Plasma membrane Peroxisome Intermediate filament Microfilament Microtubule CYTOSKELETON NUCLEUS Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin Ribosomes

Figure 4.4b Rough endoplasmic reticulum Smooth endoplasmic reticulum NUCLEUS Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromatin Ribosomes Plasma membrane Peroxisome Mitochondrion Microfilament Microtubule CYTOSKELETON Cell wall of adjacent cell Golgi apparatus Plasmodesma Cell wall Chloroplast Central vacuole

4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic instructions The nucleus contains most of the cell’s DNA and controls the cell’s activities by directing protein synthesis by making messenger RNA (mRNA). DNA is associated with many proteins and is organized into structures called chromosomes. When a cell is not dividing, this complex of proteins and DNA, called chromatin , appears as a diffuse mass within the nucleus . © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.5 The nucleus contains the cell’s genetic instructions The double membrane nuclear envelope has pores that regulate the entry and exit of large molecules and connect with the cell’s network of membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum . © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.5 Nucleolus Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Ribosome Pore Chromatin

4.6 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and export Ribosomes are involved in the cell’s protein synthesis. Ribosomes are the cellular components that use instructions from the nucleus, written in mRNA, to build proteins. Cells that make a lot of proteins have a large number of ribosomes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.6 Ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and export Some ribosomes are free ribosomes; others are bound. Free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol. Bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.6 Rough ER Bound ribosome Endoplasmic reticulum Protein Ribosome Free ribosome mRNA

4.7 Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system Many of the membranes within a eukaryotic cell are part of the endomembrane system . Some of these membranes are physically connected, and others are linked when tiny vesicles (sacs made of membrane) transfer membrane segments between them. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.7 Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system The endomembrane system includes the nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles, and plasma membrane. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.7 Many organelles are connected in the endomembrane system The largest component of the endomembrane system is the endoplasmic reticulum ( ER ), an extensive network of flattened sacs and tubules. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.8 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic workshop There are two kinds of endoplasmic reticulum, which differ in structure and function. Smooth ER lacks attached ribosomes. Rough ER has bound ribosomes that stud the outer surface of the membrane . © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.8a Rough ER Smooth ER Ribosomes Rough ER Smooth ER

Figure 4.8b mRNA 1 2 3 4 Bound ribosome Transport vesicle buds off Secretory protein inside trans- port vesicle Sugar chain Rough ER Glycoprotein Growing polypeptide

4.8 The endoplasmic reticulum is a biosynthetic workshop Smooth ER is involved in a variety of metabolic processes, including the production of enzymes important in the synthesis of lipids, oils, phospholipids, and steroids, the production of enzymes that help process drugs, alcohol, and other potentially harmful substances, and the storage of calcium ions. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.9 The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and ships cell products The Golgi apparatus serves as a molecular warehouse and processing station for products manufactured by the ER. Products travel in transport vesicles from the ER to the Golgi apparatus. One side of the Golgi stack serves as a receiving dock for transport vesicles produced by the ER. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.9 The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and ships cell products Products of the ER are modified as a Golgi sac progresses through the stack. The “shipping” side of the Golgi functions as a depot, where products in vesicles bud off and travel to other sites. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.9 Golgi apparatus 1 2 3 4 “Receiving” side of Golgi apparatus Transport vesicle from the ER Transport vesicle from the Golgi “Shipping” side of Golgi apparatus

4.10 Lysosomes are digestive compartments within a cell Lysosomes fuse with food vacuoles and digest food , destroy bacteria engulfed by white blood cells, or fuse with other vesicles containing damaged organelles or other materials to be recycled within a cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.10a-1 Digestive enzymes Lysosome Plasma membrane

Figure 4.10a-2 Digestive enzymes Lysosome Food vacuole Plasma membrane

Figure 4.10a-3 Digestive enzymes Lysosome Food vacuole Plasma membrane

Figure 4.10a-4 Digestive enzymes Lysosome Food vacuole Plasma membrane Digestion

Figure 4.10b-1 Lysosome Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion

Figure 4.10b-2 Lysosome Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion

Figure 4.10b-3 Lysosome Digestion Vesicle containing damaged mitochondrion

4.11 Vacuoles function in the general maintenance of the cell Vacuoles are large vesicles that have a variety of functions. Some protists have contractile vacuoles, which help to eliminate water from the protist . In plants, vacuoles may have digestive functions, contain pigments, or contain poisons that protect the plant. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.11a Contractile vacuoles Nucleus

Figure 4.11b Central vacuole Chloroplast Nucleus

4.12 A review of the structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown The following figure summarizes the relationships among the major organelles of the endomembrane system. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.12 Nucleus Smooth ER Rough ER Transport vesicle Lysosome Nuclear envelope Golgi apparatus Plasma membrane Transport vesicle

4.12 A review of the structures involved in manufacturing and breakdown Peroxisomes are metabolic compartments that do not originate from the endomembrane system. How they are related to other organelles is still unknown. Some peroxisomes break down fatty acids to be used as cellular fuel. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food Mitochondria are organelles that carry out cellular respiration in nearly all eukaryotic cells. Cellular respiration converts the chemical energy in foods to chemical energy in ATP (adenosine triphosphate). © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food Mitochondria have two internal compartments. The intermembrane space is the narrow region between the inner and outer membranes. The mitochondrial matrix contains the mitochondrial DNA, ribosomes, and many enzymes that catalyze some of the reactions of cellular respiration. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.13 Mitochondria harvest chemical energy from food Folds of the inner mitochondrial membrane, called cristae , increase the membrane’s surface area, enhancing the mitochondrion’s ability to produce ATP. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.13 Mitochondrion Intermembrane space Outer membrane Inner membrane Crista Matrix

4.14 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy from the sun to the chemical energy of sugar molecules. Chloroplasts are the photosynthesizing organelles of plants and algae. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.14 Chloroplasts convert solar energy to chemical energy Chloroplasts are partitioned into compartments. Between the outer and inner membrane is a thin intermembrane space. Inside the inner membrane is a thick fluid called stroma , which contains the chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, many enzymes, and a network of interconnected sacs called thylakoids , where green chlorophyll molecules trap solar energy . In some regions, thylakoids are stacked like poker chips. Each stack is called a granum . © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.14 Chloroplast Granum Stroma Inner and outer membranes Thylakoid

4.15 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. The structure of this DNA and these ribosomes is very similar to that found in prokaryotic cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.15 EVOLUTION CONNECTION: Mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis The endosymbiont theory states that mitochondria and chloroplasts were formerly small prokaryotes and they began living within larger cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.15 Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell) Mitochondrion Engulfing of photosynthetic prokaryote Mitochondrion Photosynthetic eukaryote Chloroplast Nonphotosynthetic eukaryote At least one cell Engulfing of oxygen- using prokaryote

Figure 4.15-1 Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell)

Figure 4.15-2 Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell) Mitochondrion Nonphotosynthetic eukaryote Engulfing of oxygen- using prokaryote

Figure 4.15-3 Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Ancestor of eukaryotic cells (host cell) Mitochondrion Engulfing of photosynthetic prokaryote Mitochondrion Photosynthetic eukaryote Chloroplast Nonphotosynthetic eukaryote At least one cell Engulfing of oxygen- using prokaryote

4.16 The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities Cells contain a network of protein fibers, called the cytoskeleton , which organize the structures and activities of the cell. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.16 The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities Microtubules (made of tubulin) shape and support the cell and act as tracks along which organelles equipped with motor proteins move. In animal cells, microtubules grow out from a region near the nucleus called the centrosome , which contains a pair of centrioles, each composed of a ring of microtubules. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.16 The cell’s internal skeleton helps organize its structure and activities Intermediate filaments are found in the cells of most animals , reinforce cell shape and anchor some organelles, and are often more permanent fixtures in the cell . © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.16-0 Nucleus Nucleus Microtubule 25 nm Intermediate filament 10 nm Microfilament 7 nm

Figure 4.16-1 Nucleus Microtubule 25 nm

Figure 4.16-2 Nucleus Intermediate filament 10 nm

Figure 4.16-3 Microfilament 7 nm

Figure 4.16-4 Nucleus

Figure 4.16-5 Nucleus

4.17 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Scientists discovered the cytoskeleton using the tools of biochemistry and microscopy In the 1940s, biochemists first isolated and identified the proteins actin and myosin from muscle cells. In 1954, scientists, using newly developed techniques of microscopy, established how filaments of actin and myosin interact in muscle contraction. In the next decade, researchers identified actin filaments in all types of cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.17 SCIENTIFIC THINKING: Scientists discovered the cytoskeleton using the tools of biochemistry and microscopy In the 1970s, scientists were able to visualize actin filaments using fluorescent tags and in living cells. In the 1980s, biologists were able to record the changing architecture of the cytoskeleton. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.17

4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend The short, numerous appendages that propel protists such as Paramecium are called cilia (singular, cilium ). Other protists may move using flagella, which are longer than cilia and usually limited to one or a few per cell. Some cells of multicellular organisms also have cilia or flagella. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.18a Cilia

Figure 4.18b Flagellum

4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend A flagellum, longer than cilia, propels a cell by an undulating, whiplike motion. Cilia work more like the oars of a boat. Although differences exist, flagella and cilia have a common structure and mechanism of movement. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend Both flagella and cilia are composed of microtubules wrapped in an extension of the plasma membrane. In nearly all eukaryotic cilia and flagella, a ring of nine microtubule doublets surrounds a central pair of microtubules. This arrangement is called the 9  2 pattern. The microtubule assembly is anchored in a basal body with nine microtubule triplets arranged in a ring. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.18c-0 Outer microtubule doublet Central microtubules Cross-linking proteins Motor proteins ( dyneins ) Plasma membrane

Figure 4.18c-1 Outer microtubule doublet Central microtubules Cross-linking proteins Motor proteins ( dyneins )

Figure 4.18c-2 Outer microtubule doublet Central microtubules Cross-linking proteins Motor proteins ( dyneins ) Plasma membrane

4.18 Cilia and flagella move when microtubules bend Cilia and flagella move by bending motor proteins called dynein feet. These feet attach to and exert a sliding force on an adjacent doublet. This “walking” causes the microtubules to bend. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells functions in support and regulation Animal cells synthesize and secrete an elaborate extracellular matrix ( ECM ), which helps hold cells together in tissues and protects and supports the plasma membrane. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

4.19 The extracellular matrix of animal cells functions in support and regulation The ECM may attach to the cell through other glycoproteins that then bind to membrane proteins called integrins . Integrins span the membrane and attach on the other side to proteins connected to microfilaments of the cytoskeleton. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.19 Collagen fiber E XTRACELLULAR FLUID C YTOPLASM Glycoprotein complex with long polysaccharide Connecting glycoprotein Integrin Plasma membrane Microfilaments of cytoskeleton

4.20 Three types of cell junctions are found in animal tissues Adjacent cells adhere, interact, and communicate through specialized junctions between them. Tight junctions prevent leakage of fluid across a layer of epithelial cells. Anchoring junctions fasten cells together into sheets. Gap junctions are channels that allow small molecules to flow through protein-lined pores between cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.20 Tight junction Anchoring junction Gap junction Plasma membranes of adjacent cells Ions or small molecules Extracellular matrix Tight junctions prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells

4.21 Cell walls enclose and support plant cells A plant cell, but not an animal cell, has a rigid cell wall that protects and provides skeletal support that helps keep the plant upright and is primarily composed of cellulose. Plant cells have cell junctions called plasmodesmata that allow plants tissues to share water, nourishment, and chemical messages. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 4.21 Vacuole Plant cell walls Plasmodesmata Primary cell wall Secondary cell wall Plasma membrane Cytosol

4.22 Review: Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four main functions Eukaryotic cell structures can be grouped on the basis of four functions: genetic control, manufacturing, distribution, and breakdown of materials, energy processing, and structural support, movement, and intercellular communication. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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You should now be able to Describe the importance of microscopes in understanding cell structure and function. Describe the two parts of cell theory. Distinguish between the structures of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Explain how cell size is limited. Describe the structure and functions of cell membranes. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to Explain why compartmentalization is important in eukaryotic cells. Compare the structures of plant and animal cells. Note the function of each cell part. Compare the structures and functions of chloroplasts and mitochondria. Describe the evidence that suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved by endosymbiosis. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to Compare the structures and functions of microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules. Relate the structure of cilia and flagella to their functions. Relate the structure of the extracellular matrix to its functions. Compare the structures and functions of tight junctions, anchoring junctions, and gap junctions. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

You should now be able to Relate the structures of plant cell walls and plasmodesmata to their functions. Describe the four functional categories of organelles in eukaryotic cells. © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.

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Figure 4.UN03 a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i . j. k. l.

Figure 4.UN04-0 Poles of dividing cell Mark

Figure 4.UN04-1 Poles of dividing cell Mark

Figure 4.UN04-2

Ch. 4 Cell Structures

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