Changing Images of Man

1. ChangingImagesofMan
Bythefollowingstaff of andconsultantsto
THECENTERFORTHESTUDYOF
SOCIALPOLICY/SRIINTERNATIONAL:
JosephCambell,DuaneElgin,Willis Harman,ArthurHastings,
o.W.Markley,FloydMatson, BrendanO'ReganandLeslieSchneider
Editedby
O. W.MARKLEY
ProjectDirector
and
WILLISW.HARMAN
ProjectSuPervisor
PERGAMON PRESS
OXFORD • NEWYORK. TORONTO . SYDNEY . PARIS •FRANKFURT

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FEDERALREPUBLIC
OFGERMANY
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Copyright©1982O. W.Markley
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First edition1982
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Changingimagesof man.- (Systems scienceandworld
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1.Civilization,
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3. I<10not wish to seemoverdramatic butI can onlyconclude
from theinformation
thatis available to me asSecretary-General
thattheMembersof theUnitedNationshave perhapsten years
left in which to
subordinatetheirancientquarrels andlauncha
global
partnershiptocurbthearmsrace, toimprovethe human
environment,todefusethepopulationexplosion, andtosupply
the
requiredmomentumtodevelopmentefforts.Ifsuch a global
partnershipisnotforgedwithinthenextdecade, thenI very
muchfear
thattheproblemsI have mentionedwill havereached
suchstaggering
proportionsthatthey will bebeyond ourcapacity
tocontrol.
V
Thant(1969)
Awarenessof ideal values is the first step in theconscious
creationof images of the
futureandthereforethecreationof
culture,for a value is bydefinition
thatwhichguidestowarda
"valued"future.....Anystudentof the riseandfall ofcultures
cannotfail to beimpressedby the role in thishistoricalsuccession
by theimageof the
future.Theriseandfall of images of the
futureprecedesoraccompaniesthe rise andfall ofcultures....
In theend,thefuturemay well bedecidedby the image which
carriesthegreatestspiritualpower.
FredPolak (1973)
Muchadvance,
bothin biologicalevolution andin psychosocial
evolution,includingadvancein science, is ofcourseobtainedby
addingminuteparticulars, butatintervalssomethinglike crys­
talizationfrom a
supersaturatedsolutionoccurs,aswhenscience
arrivesat anentirelynewconcept,which
thenunifies anenor­
mousamountoffactualdataandideas, as withNewtonor
Darwin.Majoradvancesoccurin a series oflargesteps,fromone
form oforganizationto
another.InourpsychosocialevolutionI
believe we are now in apositionto make a new
majoradvance.
SirJulianHuxley(1968)
v

4. Acknowledgements
ThisstudywasadministeredbytheUrbanandSocialSystemsDivision
of
StanfordResearchInstitute, HarveyL.Dixon,ExecutiveDirector.
Willis W.
Harman,DirectoroftheCenterfortheStudyof Social
Policy,
providedoverallguidanceando.W.Markleywas Project
Director.
AnAdvisoryPanelto
theproject,whichcontributedespeciallyhelp­
fulformativesuggestions
andconstructivecritiques,consistedof
Rene
Dubos,HenryMargenau,MargaretMead,andGeoffreyVickers.
Similarly
helpfuladvicewasgivenby KentCollinsandWinstonFrank­
lin oftheCharlesF.KetteringFoundation.
ThecoreresearchstaffforthestudywereDuaneElgin,Willis
Harman,ArthurHastings,O. W.Markley, DorothyMcKinney,and
BrendanO'Regan.MajorcontributionsweremadebyJosephCamp­
bellandFloydMatson, andlessextensiveonesbyMagorohMaruyama,
DonaldMichael,Leslie Schneider,BarbaraPillsbury,andJohnPlatt.
ThereportwaseditedbySusanTaylorandShirleyManning.
Numerouskeyinsights,acknowledgedin thetext,came fromin­
vestigatorsat
othercenters.Althoughtheprojectwasessentiallya team
effortwithvariousindividuals contributingto allchaptersofthereport,
specificchapterswereprincipally writtenas follows:Chapter2-0.W.
Markley,based
oncontributionsfromJosephCampbell,ArthurHastings
andFloydMatson; Chapter3-DuaneElgin;Chapter4-Brendan
O'Regan;Chapter5-0.W.Markley andWillisHarman;Chapter
6-0.W.Markley;Chapter7-DuaneElgin;Chapter8-WillisHarman.
Acknowledgmentisgratefullygivento thelateJohnMcHale(1970) for
callingattentionearlyontotheimportanceofthe"imageofman"asan
arearequiringstudy.Hisinsights, combinedwiththose ourstaff
developedduringanearlierstudy("ContemporarySocietalProblems,"
alsofundedbytheCharlesF. KetteringFoundation),led tothepresent
studybeingundertaken.
Adraftof thisreportwasreviewedbyselected expertstowhomwe
areverygrateful.Theyarelistedonpagexv.Finaleditorial respon­
sibility,however,restswith theSRI staff;thereforenoapprovalofthe
reportbyeithertheAdvisoryPanel ortheotherreviewersisimplied
beyondtheirstatementswhich arecontainedherein.
Vll

5. Contents
LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS Xlll
LISTOFTABLES XIV
REVIEWERS xv
INTRODUCTION TOTHEPERGAMON EDITION XVll
INTRODUCTION TOTHESRIREPORT XXI
1.IMAGESOF MAN IN A CHANGING SOCIETY 1
Images
andsocial policy 1
Aworkingdefinitionof"imageof man" 2
Therelevanceofimagesto modernsociety 3
2.SOMEFORMATIVE IMAGES OF MAN-IN-THE-
UNIVERSE . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Selectedhistorical andmodernimagesof man 17
Earlyimagesof man.... 17
ThehumanasseparatefromGodandNature-early
Near-Easternviews 22
TheKnower-Gnosticview . 23
Theindividual-Greekviews 24
EmpireandChristianity-theRomancatalyst 26
Theage offaith-andcontention 26
Manover things-theNewEmpire. 27
Thehumanasbeast-theDarwinian,Freudian,and
ethologicalviews . 28
Thehumanasmechanism-theview ofmodern
behaviorism.. 29
Thehumanasperson-theview ofhumanism
andhumanisticpsychology. 30
Thehumanasevolvingholon-theview ofmodern
systemstheory.. . . . 32
Thehumanasspirit-theVIewoftheperennial
philosophy. . 33
IX

6. x Contents
"TheAmericanCreed" 35
Underlyingissuesanddimensions 37
3.
ECONOMIC MAN:SERVANT TOINDUSTRIAL
METAPHORS 45
Sourcesof
theeconomicimageofman 45
Theimageofeconomic manintheconternporarysetting 49
Thepovertyof ourabundance 50
Thepresentmismatchbetweenpremisesandsocietal
realities 52
Goingbeyond:insearchofimage/societyresolution 56
Thepoweroftheindustrialstate 57
Thecontroloftheindustrialstate 58
Thegrowingimpotenceoftheeconomic image 62
Conclusion-prospectsforthefuture. 63
4.
INFLUENCE OFSCIENCEONTHE"IMAGEOF
MAN" 67
Characteristics
andlimitationsof classicalscience 68
Paradigmsintransmutation 68
Limitationsof
thescientificprocessitself 72
Crucialfrontiersinscientific
inquiry 75
Modernphysicsandcosmology 75
Otherphysical sciences 78
Consciousness
research 88
Parapsychology
andpsychicresearch 95
Generalsystemstheoryandcybernetics 100
Sources
andcharacteristicsof apossiblenew paradigm 103
Interactionsbetweenscience andsociety 103
Characteristicsof apossibly
emergentparadigm 108
5.
CHARACTERISTICS OFANADEQUATE IMAGEOF
HUMANKIND 113
Aholisticsenseofperspective 114
Ecologicalethic 114
Self-realizationethic 115
Multi-dimensional,multi-faceted,
andintegrative 117
Balancing
andcoordinatingsatisfactionsalongmany
dimensions. 119
Experimentalandopen-ended 120

7. Contents xi
6.THEFEASIBILITYOFANINTEGRATIVE, EVOLU-
TIONARYIMAGEOFMAN 125
Conceptualfeasibilityof a newimageof man 125
Elementsof a newimage 125
Thegradient 126
Theself 133
Examiningthenewimagefor conceptualfeasibility 138
Operationalfeasibilityof a newimageof man 141
Evolutionary
transformationinresponseto crisis 142
Culturaltransformations 142
Conceptualrevolutionsinscience. 144
Similaritiesbetweenscientific
andculturalrevitalization145
Mythic
transformations 146
Personal
transformations 147
Synthesis
andinference 148
Institutional
andpersonalchange 152
Imaginingmakesit so 152
New
paradigmsfromold 156
Considerationsof
operationalfeasibility 157
7.
SOCIETAL CHOICES ANDCONSEQUENCES OF
CHANGING IMAGES 163
Contrastingfuturetrendsandimages 164
Societalconsequencesof atechnological
extrapolationist
Image 166
Societalconsequencesof
anevolutionarytrans-
formationalistimage 171
Individualandsocial goals 173
Institutions 175
Summary 177
8.
GUIDELINES ANDSTRATEGIES FORTRANSFOR-
MATION 183
Somepremises
forthepresentdiscussion 183
Comparisonof basicstrategies 186
Salientcharacteristicsof
thetransformation 190
Natureofthefundamentalanomaly 190
Essentialconditions
forresolutionofthefundamental
anomaly. '. 191
Difficulty ofachievinga non-disruptivetransition 194
Elementsof astrategy
foranon-catastrophictransition 195

8. xu
SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Contents
201
205
207
A. Analternativeview ofhistory,
thespiritualdimensionof
thehumanperson,andathirdalternativeimageof
humanness(EliseBoulding) 219
B.
Informationsystemsandsocialethics(GeoffreyVickers) 223
c.A view ofmodified reductionism(HenryMargenau) 229
D.Scientificimagesof
manandthemaninthestreet
(Rene
DubosandDavidCahoon) . . . . . . 233
E.Someprojectssuitedto
governmentorfoundationsupport235
F.
Thebasicparadigmof afuturesocio-culturalsystem
(VirginiaH.Hine) 239
INDEX 249

9. ListofIllustrations
1.Hypothesizedtime/phaserelationshipbetweenimagesand
social/culturaldevelopment 5
2.
Thegrowthofhumannumbers 9
3.
UrbanizationintheUnitedStates 10
4.Selectedworld
population,wealth,andconsumptiontrends 11
5.
Depletionofworldreservesof commercialgradeoresif
world
populationhadU.S.livingstandard 12
6.
Twocontrastingepochsofhumanhistory 12
7. Levels of
descriptionusefulinanalyzingsocial change 14
8.
Hypothesizedinteractionbetweentheeconomicmanand
society 49
9.
Complementarityofvariousimagesasthey mightfit in a
proposedcompositeimageoftheperson 126
10.Variousaspectsofconsciousness/functionin
thepersonality130
11.Stagesof
moraldevelopment 131
12. A
metaphoricalimageofthepersonalandtranspersonal
aspectsofconsciousness 134
13. A
personal-transpersonalmind/bodymodel 135
14.
Twoof"N"possibledimensionsofanintegrativeimageof
theperson 136
15.
Transcendent-immanentaspectsaddedtothepersonal­
transpersonalaspectsof anintegrativeimageofthe
person 136
16.
Compositemetaphorofanintegrative,evolutionaryimage
ofthepersonforthefuture 137
17. U.S.
one-dollarbill 185
Xlll

10. xu
SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
REFERENCES
APPENDICES
Contents
201
205
207
A. Analternativeview ofhistory,
thespiritualdimensionof
thehumanperson,andathirdalternativeimageof
humanness(EliseBoulding) 219
B.
Informationsystemsandsocialethics(GeoffreyVickers) 223
C. A view ofmodified
reductionism(HenryMargenau) 229
D.Scientificimagesof
manandthemaninthestreet
(Rene
DubosandDavidCahoon) . . . . 233
E.Someprojectssuitedto governmentorfoundationsupport235
F.
Thebasicparadigmof afuturesocio-culturalsystem
(VirginiaH.
Hine) 239
INDEX 249

11. ListofIllustrations
1.Hypothesizedtime/phaserelationshipbetweenimagesand
social/culturaldevelopment 5
2.
Thegrowthofhumannumbers 9
3.
UrbanizationintheUnitedStates 10
4.Selected
worldpopulation,wealth,andconsumptiontrends 11
5.
Depletionofworldreservesof commercialgradeoresif
world
populationhadU.S.livingstandard 12
6.
Twocontrastingepochsofhumanhistory 12
7. Levels of
descriptionusefulinanalyzingsocialchange 14
8.
Hypothesizedinteractionbetweentheeconomicmanand
society 49
9.
Complementarityofvariousimagesas theymightfit in a
proposedcompositeimageoftheperson 126
10.
Variousaspectsof consciousness/functioninthepersonality130
11.Stagesof
moraldevelopment 131
12. A
metaphoricalimageofthepersonalandtranspersonal
aspectsofconsciousness 134
13. A
personal-transpersonalmind/bodymodel 135
14.
Twoof"N"possibledimensionsofanintegrativeimageof
theperson 136
15.
Transcendent-immanentaspectsaddedtothepersonal­
transpersonalaspectsof anintegrativeimageofthe
person 136
16.
Compositemetaphorofanintegrative,evolutionaryimage
ofthepersonforthefuture 137
17. U.S.
one-dollarbill 185
Xlll

12. ListofTables
1.Indicationsthatperceptionsandbehaviorareinfluencedby
~ag~ 4
2.Selectedsuccesses
andassociatedproblemsofthetech-
nological/industrial
era 6
3.
Dominantimagesof humankindthroughouthistory 18
4.
AttributesofthedominantimageincontemporaryUnited
States 39
5.
Elementsofanhistoricalanalogy forexploringthefeasi-
bility of a newscientific
paradigm 106
6.
Threedimensionsona"gradientofawareness" 128
7.Stagesof crisis
resolutioninmyth,culture,science,psy-
chotherapy,andessentialcreativity 149
8.Historicalrootsof
thetechnologicalextrapolationistimage 166
9.Historicalrootsof
theevolutionarytransformationalist
image 167
10.Illustrative
contrastsbetweenalternativeimages 168
XIV

13. Reuieuiers"
EliseBoulding
InstituteofBehavioralScience
Universityof
Colorado
G. DavidCahoon
DepartmentofSecondaryEducation
CaliforniaStateUniversity
SanFrancisco
JosephCampbell
New York, NewYork
ReneDubos'
RockefellerUniversity
EdgarS.Dunn,Jr.
Resourcesfor the
Future,Inc.
Washington,D.C.
James
Fadiman
CounselingCenter
StanfordUniversity
RolandFischer
MarylandPsychiatricResearch
Center
Baltimore,Maryland
LutherGerlach
DepartmentofAnthropology
UniversityofMinnesota
Charles
Hampden-Turner
Cambridge,Massachusetts
Stanley
Krippner
MaimonidesMedical Center,Brooklyn,
New York
ErvinLaszlo
DepartmentofPhilosophy
StateUniversityof New York
GeorgeC.Lodge
GraduateSchool ofBusinessAdministration
HarvardUniversity
HenryMargenau'
Departmentof Physics
YaleUniversity
MichaelMarien
World
Institute
New York, NewYork
MagorohMaruyama
DepartmentofSystemsScience
PortlandStateUniversity
Portland,Oregon
MargaretMead!
AmericanMuseumofNaturalHistory
New York, New York
RalphMetzner
LosAngeles StarCenter
CarlR.Rogers
CenterforStudiesof thePerson
La Jolla,California
B. F.
Skinner
DepartmentofPsychology
HarvardUniversity
RobertA.Smith,III
Huntsville,Alabama
SirGeoffreyVickers'
Reading,
Berkshire,England
AnthonyF. C.Wallace
DepartmentofAnthropology
UniversityofPennsylvania
JohnWhite
InstituteofNoeticSciences
Palo Alto,California
•Institutionalaffiliations of Reviewers are as of 1973, many of which have nowchanged.
tMember of the Advisory Panel.
Selectedcommentsof Reviewers areincludedasfootnotesandappendicesto the text
which follows.
xv

14. Introductionto the PergamonEdition
ChangingImages of Manisanunusualwork,onethatenthusessome,
displeases
others,andleaves fewneutral.
Itwasundertakenforaspecificpurpose:tochart,insofaraspossible,
whatchangesintheconceptualpremisesunderlyingWesternsociety
would
leadto adesirable future.Obviouslya researchobjectivecon­
tainingmanyvalue-ladenassumptions!
Thusit isperhapsnotsurprisingthatanumberofquestionsabout
thebackgroundofthisstudyhavebeenaskedbystudentsin classesat
thedozenorsocollegesanduniversitiesthathaveusedChangingImages of
Man
as atext.
Themostcommonquestionsconcernthestudy'sorigins.Whywas it
undertaken?Whosupportedit?Whatkindsof researcherswroteit?
Additionally,
mosthavewantedtoknow howit isviewednow, some7
yearslater,by
theresearcherswhowroteit.Andwhatitmayhaveled to
by way of social
change.
Thepurposeof thisintroductiontothePergamoneditionis to
answersomeofthesequestions.
In1968theU.S. Office ofEducationlaunchedtworesearchcentersin
anambitiousundertakingto"investigatealternativefuturepossibilities
forthesocietyandtheirimplicationsforeducationalpolicy."Oneof
theseEducationalPolicyResearchCenters,orEPRCsas theywere
called,wasestablishedatSyracuseUniversity, theotherat SRIInter­
national(thenknownastheStanfordResearchInstitute).TheSRI
center,afterassessingavailable methodologies,choseto developa
totallynew
approach.First,we attemptedtoidentifyandassessthe
plausibilityof a trulyvastnumberoffuturepossibilitiesforsociety.We
nextfolloweda methodofanalysisthatdeterminedwhichsequencesof
possible
futures(thatis,which"alternatefuturehistories")appearedto
be
mostplausiblein lightofhumanhistoryandtomostusefully
serve
theneedsofpolicyresearchanddevelopment.Lastly,
we
derivedavarietyofpolicyimplications, someofwhichdealtwith
howbestto
continuethistypeofinquiry(Harman,Markley,and
Rhyne,1973;Rhyne,1974).
Fromthisexercisea surprising-andverysobering-conclusion
emerged.Ofsomefiftyhighlyplausible futurehistories,onlyahandful
werebyusual standardsatalldesirable(Harman,1969).Thereasons
why this was soarenow,a decadelater,familartoseriousstudentsof
Cl M
_B XVll

15. XVlll Introductionto the PergamonEdition
thefuture.(Theyinvolvetheinterconnectedissuesandproblemsof
populationgrowth,resourcedepletion,pollution,andsoforth,
variouslytermed"theworldmacro-problem,""leproblernatique,"or
"thecrisesofcrises.") Otherinvestigatorssooncametosimilarcon­
clusions
usingdifferentmethodologicalapproaches(see,forexample,
Meadowset al., 1972;orSalk,1973).
Intheresearchonthe"worldmacro-problem"thatfollowed,a second
soberingconclusionemerged:thatanessentialrequirementforrealizing
anyofthemoredesirablealternativefuturepathswouldlikely require
fundamentalchangesinthewayourindustrialcultureisorganized.Laws,
attitudes,ethics-eventheveryway weconceptualizethenatureof
humankind-mayrequirereformiftheyareto "fitwith"andap­
propriatelyguidethecomplexinterrelatedpoliticalandsocialsystems that
havecometodominatemodernlife(Markley,CurryandRink,1971).As
theinimitablePogosaidin thecomics,"Wehavemettheenemyandhe is
us!"
Findingitdifficultto applytheimplicationsoffindings suchasthese,
theOffice ofEducationin1972shiftedthemissionof theEPRCs
towardinquiryintoeducational-policyproblemshavingmoreim­
mediateconcerntothem,suchasoneducationforthedisadvantaged,
competency-basedteachereducationandsoforth.Inordertocontinue
thelong-rangeimplicationsof thelineof inquirywehadbegun,we
createdasecondresearchactivityat SRI-theCenterfortheStudyof
Social Policy.
Inchoosingtheresearchagendaofthenewcenter,wereasoned
thatthejobofalertingsocietyto theworldmacro-problem
aheadwas wellunderway.Thepolicy-researchtask thatnow (in1972)
seemedmostinneedofdoing(althoughperhapsleastsusceptibleto
conventionalresearchmethods)wasthedevelopmentof aplausible
visionof
thefutureinwhichdemocraticmethodssurvive,majorprob­
lemsaremanagedsuccessfullyif notresolved,andtheunfoldingofthe
humanpotentialcontinuestoexpand.Inotherwords,thepostulation
of a"desirablefuture"includingfeasiblepathsto itsrealization-the
worldmacro-problemnotwithstanding.
AboutthissametimetheCharlesF.KetteringFoundationwas
lookingfor"highleverage"ideas-possiblyriskyapproachesto social
policy
researchanddevelopmentinwhicharelativelysmall amountof
supportmight,ifsuccessful,leadto abeneficialeffect onsocietythatis
relativelylarge.
Indiscussionwith WinstonO.FranklinandKent
CollinsatKetteringabouttheimplicationsof a studytheyhadearlier
commissionedus to dooncontemporarysocietalproblems,wecon­
sideredavarietyof ways inwhich furtherresearchondesirablefuture
pathsinvolvingtransformationoffundamentalculturalcharacteristics

16. Introductionto the PergamonEdition XIX
mightbeusefullydone.Althoughit wastempting,wedecidedthatit
wouldbe
prematuretoimmediatelyattemptanalysisanddescriptionof
the"transformedfuture"wehadby thistime cometobelievewas
urgentlyneedingto beenvisioned. Ratheritseemedamoreap­
propriatetaskto assessinsofarasfeasible,theconceptualfoundations
ofthinkinganddoingthatmightsupportabenigntransitiontosucha
future,choosingasourresearchfocusto concentrateon"imagesof
natureofmaninrelationshipwiththeuniverse;"howpastimageshave
led toourpresentindustrializedsocietywithitscrisis-level problems;
andwhattypesofimages appearto beneededas wemove intoa
post-industrial
future.Therestoftherationaleunderlyingthestudyis
set
forthinthe"IntroductiontotheSRIReport"thatfollows.
Theresearchstudyleadingto thisbookwasdoneby amultidis­
ciplinary
team,mostofwhomhadnotworkedtogetherbefore,in
about8months.Theresearcherscamefromavarietyof backgrounds
rangingfromthehumanitiesandsocialsciencesto engineeringand
physics.Most hadproficiencyin atleasttwospecializeddisciplinesas
well as
havingageneralistorientation-adefiniteadvantageinan
interdisciplinaryinquirysuchasthis-andallbroughtwiththema
deepappreciationfortheprofoundways inwhich mythsandimages
affect
theperceptionsandactionsof humankindintheuniversewhere
we now findourselves.
Fromtheoutset,all of usinvolvedin theprojectrealizedthatthe
subjectofourinquiry-thesocietalconsequencesofchangingimages
of
humankind-wasasensitiveone;further,thatnostudyofthistype
would
seemadequate,certainlynotonedoneintheshorttimewe had
available,andthatitwouldnotbepossibletocoverall thetopicsand
pointsof view thatwewouldlike.Nevertheless,we agreedthatdueto
thesubject-matterinvolved,we should
follo~wheretheinquiryled,
evenif itmeantgettingintoareasthatareunconventional,allowing
feedbackfromouradvisorypanelandfromotherreviewerstoserveas
acheck
onourresults.
As to how its
authorsnow viewChangingImages of Manandas to
whatthestudyhasled,severalgeneralizationswill haveto suffice.
Althoughtheauthorsarestill infundamentalagreementwith
whatwewrotealmostadecadeago,thereareseveralways in that
inretrospectwewouldlike to havedoneitdifferently.Onechange
wouldbe to presentouranalysisandfindingsin a moreobjectiveway.
Althoughwecontinuetobelievethatinquiriesofthis sortshouldavoid
theappearanceof"valueneutrality,"muchofthestudyhas acertain
toneofpreachingthatalthoughrepresentativeoftheearnestnessin
which
theresearchwasundertaken,we now find lessthandesirablein
a
researchreport.Anotherchangewouldhavebeentoexploremore

17. xx Introductionto the PergamonEdition
deeplytheenormoussignificancethatemergingchangesinpsychosexual
normsandpremiseshaveforthefuturesociety.
Itisdifficult-perhapseveninappropriate-toassessthedirectim­
pactthattheresearchreportChangingImages of Manmayhavehadon
society.Onereasonisthatthestudywasnotpublishedpromptly,hence
itdidnotenterthestandardbibliographicreferencesystemsthatcan
beusedforsuchassessments.(Interestingly,untilErvinLaszloand
PergamonPressinitiated theirExplorationsofWorldOrder Series,the
studywasjudgedunsuitableforcommercialpublicationbecauseit did
notfallintoanyofthemarketingcategoriesthatpublisherscon­
ventionallyuse.)A
second,andmoresignificant,obstacletoassessing
theimpactofthebookstemsfromanincreasingrecognitionsinceit
was first
released-thattheemergingtransformationofsocietyseems
to be
proceedingby way of adiffuse networkofinterrelatedinfluences,
no
oneofwhichseeksto be a "centralproject"(see,forexample,the
article"TheBasicParadigmofaFutureSocio-culturalSystem"by
Virginia
HineincludedhereasAppendixF).Certainlymanyofthe
ideascontainedinChangingImages ofManarebeingdebatedand
extendedin avarietyof settingsthroughoutthesociety.Tworecent
books,NewAgePolitics(Satin,1978) andtheAquarianConspiracy
(Ferguson,1980),describemuchofthisactivity fromaproponent's
pointof view.
Withvery
fewchanges,thePergamoneditionisessentiallythesame
asChangingImages ofMan, ResearchReportNo.4,issuedMay 1974 by
theCenterfortheStudyofSocialPolicy, SRIInternational.Forthose
who
wanttocomparethePergamoneditionwiththeSRIreport,
specificchanges(otherthanminorediting)are(1)thereorderingof
materialsinChapter1,addingbackin asectionontherole-ofmythin
societyby
JosephCampbellthatwascontainedintheoriginaldraftbut
notinthefinalversionofthereport;(2)themodificationof Chapter
2,page23 toreflect SirGeoffreyVickers'commentsregardingthe
ChristianImageofMankindas abrotherhood,membersoneofan­
other;(3)theadditionof ashortsectionin Chapter2,page30 in
responsetoCarlRogers'urgingthatthecontributionofhumanistic
psychologybe acknowledgedashavingpositivecharacteristics needed
bythefutureimageofmankind,andfinally(4) theadditionof a
cartoonattheendofeachchapter.
TheglossaryandtheindexarealsoadditionsofthePergamon
report.
O. W.Markley
StudiesoftheFutureProgram
Universityof HoustonatClearLakeCity
Willis W.
Harman
InstituteofNoeticSciences
andSRIInternational

18. Introductionto the SRIReport
Howdoesonestudya prioriconceptionswhich,by definition,are
fundamentaltoandliebeyondtherulesofinquiryofany.particular
discipline?Thereis aprinciplethatismadeexplicitinGestaltpsy­
chologywhichstates
that"withoutcontrast,therecanbe noper­
ception;withoutperceivedsimilarity,therecanbenocommon
meaning."
Inthisstudyweattempttodiscernfundamentalandusuallyun­
recognizedinfluencesonoursocietalproblems,onoursocialpolicies,
andonourhopesforthefuture.Sinceouraim is tobreakoutof set
patternsofthinking(andhencerecognizeusefulnewways ofthinking
andimaging),we havenotattemptedto followtheresearchmethods
associatedwith anyparticularacademicorappliedmethodology.
Ratherwehavetriedto followthecourseofinquirywhereveritwould
lead-withindefinitelimitationoftime,resources,andthenatureof
conclusionswhich
wererequiredofthestudy-contrastingdifferent
conceptionsheldatdifferenttimesin differentplaces,recognizing
patternsandsimilaritiesbetweendivergentmodesofthought,and
seekingcreativesyntheses whereverpossible.
Theapproachusedinthisstudyisperhapsbestdescribedbythe
anthropologistLevi-Strauss'sterm"bricolage:"
Thisis aworkfor which we have noproperEnglishequivalent. The"bricoleur"is a
do-it-yourself
man,whodraws onastockofmiscellaneousmaterials andwhatever
toolscometo
handto do hisoddjobs.Heisnotthemeticulouscraftsmanwho insists
on
theprecisetool for theprecisejob.
(Dorothy
Emmet,1969, p. 47)
InLevi-Strauss'conception,bricolagethinkingconveysamessage,
butthemessageis notsomuchtheconclusionofastory(thougha
story,aswith
myths,isgenerallybeingtold);ratherbricolagethinking
isprimarilytoexhibitrelationshipswhichareimportanttorecognize,
althoughit isnecessaryto makerecoursetothelevel ofmetaphorin
orderto do so.
'*'
• "I find thebricolage approachveryuseful...necessaryto getoutof themode-lock our
thinkingusuallyfallswithin. Howeveritseemsto me thatyourreportismoreanalogical
thanmetaphorical,seeking (andfinding)usefulisomorphicrelationshipsbetweendiverse
areasofknowledgewhich
somehowneedtobebroughttogether-although,as you
suggest,the task in itsinitialstages
cannotbeveryprecise."-LutherGerlach
XXI

19. XXll Introductionto the SRIReport
Imagesandfundamentalconceptionsofhumannatureandpoten­
tialitiescanhaveenormouspowerinshapingthevaluesandactionsin
asociety.We
haveattemptedin thisstudyto:
1.Illuminateways ourpresentsociety, its citizens,andinstitutionshave beenshapedby
theunderlyingmyths
andimages of thepast andpresent.
2.Explorethedeficienciesof
currentlyheldimagesof humankindandtoidentifyneeded
characteristicsof futureimages.
3.Identifyhigh-leverageactivities
thatcouldfacilitate theemergenceof new images
andnew policyapproachesto theresolutionof keyproblemsin society.
Inseekingto fulfilltheabovethreeobjectiveswithin thepractical
constraintsofthestudy,wechosetofocus onthechallengesand
opportunitiesfacingWesternman,andparticularlyAmericanman.
Whilewe triedto viewtheAmericansituationin aplanetarycontext,it
was
notpossibleto dealadequatelywiththeverydifferentsituations
facing
differentpeoplesofthemodernworld.Also we hadtoomita
numberofimportantandrelevanttopics.Mostnotable aremodernart,
literature,theology,andmassmovementsasactivitieswhichwill con­
tinuetoinfluencestronglytheimagehumanbeingsholdofthemselves
andtheirworld.·Wehaveinsteadchosentofocusonthoseaspects
mostinvolvedin
theriseandpotentialtransformationofindustrialism
asthedominantwayoflife inmodernWesternculture.Inparticular
wefocusonthelimitationsof currenteconomicsandscience,andon
thepotentialthatanintegrativeandevolutionaryimageof manmight
haveto reunitewhatC. P.Snow termed"thetwocultures"(the
sciences
andthehumanities)inordertoforgeamoreappropriate
policyparadigmforoursociety.
Inadditiontothethreemaingoalsabove,this projectis also a
somewhatinformalexperimentin"networkdevelopment,"thepur­
poseofwhichis to demonstratetherelevanceandinterrelatednessof
conclusions
reachedbyworkersindifferentareasofspecialized
researchvis-a-visthesegoals; andalso tofoster anincreasein inter­
disciplinarycommunicationbetweentheseworkers,agencystaffswhich
supportsuchresearch,andothermembersofthepublic.
•"TheonlythingI miss in the documentis arecognitionof the possible role of thearts,
not simply asagents'depictinga positive
future,'butasopenersof the way todelight
anda sense offulfillment,not in some future,butnow. Idon'trecallthatweever
talked
aboutthe artsexceptintermsof the historyofart.Theirrole in theenrichment
andharmonizationof life, andthepartthattheymightplay, in this role in the
enrichmentandharmonizationof life, andthepartthattheymightplay, in this role, in
the
structuringof anyfuturecivilization, is a topic, Ithink, thatcould be given
consideration.
"-JosephCampbell
Inretrospect,we alsooverlookedthe
enormousimplicationsthatthemodernfeminist
movementhas for a new,
andhopefullyless sexist image. of humankind.

20. Introductionto the SRIReport XXlll
Thus,asnotedintheAcknowledgments,adiscussiondraftofthis
reportwascirculatedto a widevariety oflearnedandexpertpersons
fortheircritiqueandoriginalcontributions.Theirbriefercomments
arepresentedinfootnotesthroughoutthereport,andseveral,more
inclusivestatementsarepresentedintheappendices.Ingeneral,com­
mentsofpraisefromsuchreviewersarenotpresentedinthisreport
unlesstheyhappentobalancerelated,butlesshappyremarks.
ORGANIZATION OFTHISSTUDY
InChapter1 wesurveytheroleofimagesincontemporarysociety.
Anyimageofhumankindimpliesnormativevaluesandgoals,which
areturnedbythesocietyintooperatingrulesforsocialpolicies. This
"conversion"isillustratedthroughoutChapter2whichis aselective
historical
surveyofimagesandsocietiesthathaveparticularrelevance
tothecurrentandpossiblefutureimagesheldbyoursociety.
Chapter3thenexploresindetailthedevelopmentof"economic
man,"animagethathasprevailedthroughouttheindustrialerabut
nowmustbequestionedintermsof itsinadequaciesforasociety
passingbeyondthatera.
InChapter4,ourparticularconcerniswiththeconceptual-empirical
inputfromscientificresearchanditsinfluenceonourimagesof
humankind.Atvarioustimesinhistory, man'simageofhimselfwas
shapedbymythology,philosophy,andreligion.Inourcontemporary
culture,sciencehasaddedadominantformativecontributiontoour
conceptionofthenatureofthehumanbeing-throughbiologyandlife
sciences,physics,psychology,
brainresearch,evolutionarytheory,and
thegrowinginvestigationofconsciousnessstates andparapsychological
phenomena.
'*'
Theheartofthestudyis to befoundinChapter5-"Characteristics
ofanAdequateImageofHumankind."Whetherthesecharacteristics
provetobeattractiveorasadequateas webelieve themto beand
whetherthey(orotherslikethem)emergeinourcultureremainsto be
seen.Atthistime,we canonlyexplorethefeasibility(Chapter6) ofthe
integrative,evolutionaryimageofhumankindthatwepostulateasan
adequateimage.
InChapter7, weexploresomeofthepossiblemethods,stresses,and
consequencesofchangingimagesas oursocietymoves intothepost-
•ReneDubosdoes notagreethattheimagesof manhavebeenprofoundlyinfluenced
byscience.See his
commentinAppendixD.

21. XXIV Introductionto the SRIReport
industrialera.Thischapterconcludesthat:
We caneitherinvolveourselvesin therecreativeself- andsocietal-discoveryof an
imageof
humankindappropriateforourfuture,withattendantsocietalandpersonal
consequences,or we
canchoosenottomakeanychoice, and,instead,adaptto
whateverfate, andthe choices ofothers,bringalong.
Finally,in Chapter8, weattempttoderiveguidelinesforactionby
foundations,corporations,governmentagencies,andvoluntaryasso­
ciations.
Theseguidelinesarepredicatedonthedesirabilityof the
transformationdefinedinprecedingportionsofthereport,which
involves
boththedominantimageofmaninthesociety,andmajor
socialinstitutions.
Appendicespresentlongercommentsfromreviewersandmore
specificprojectsuggestions.

22. CHAPTER 1
ImagesofMan'InaChangingSociety
Man is asymbol-formingorganism.He has constantneedof ameaningfulinner
formulationof selfandworldin which his ownactions, andevenhisimpulses,have
somekindof
"fit"with the"outside"as heperceivesit.
RobertJayLifton,in TheDevelopmentandAcquisitionof Values (1968)
Symbolicthinkingisnottheexclusiveprivilegeof thechild,of the poetorof the
unbalancedmind;it isconsubstantialwith humanexistence,itcomes beforelan­
guageanddiscursivereason. Thesymbolreveals certainaspectsof reality-the
deepestaspects-whichdefyany othermeansofknowledge.Images,symbols, and
mythsarenotirresponsiblecreationsof thepsyche;they respondto aneedand
fulfill afunction, thatofbringingtolightthemost hiddenmodalitiesofbeing.
Consequently,the
studyofthemenablesus to
reachabetterunderstandingofman.
MirceaEliade,in Myths and Symbols (1952)
IMAGESANDSOCIALPOLICY
Inthisstudyweattempttoidentifyandassessthe"imagesofman"
thatarefundamentalorganizingprinciplesof(1)oursocietyand/or(2)
of keycivilizations
thathavecontributedto it. Allpublicandprivate
policydecisionsnecessarily embodysomeview (orcompromiseof
views)
aboutthenatureofman,society,anduniverse.Thekindsof
educationalsystemsandgoalsasocietysets up,theways inwhichit
approachestheproblemsofmaterialdistribution(povertyandwealth),
how it
treatsthewelfareof itscitizens, theprioritiesit gives tovarious
humanneeds-alltheseaspectsandmanymoreareaffectedby the
imageofhumankindthatdominatesthesociety.Precisely howwe
cannotsaywith detailedaccuracy-whichis whymetaphors,myths,
allegories,theories(all ofwhich attempttoexpressanimage)are
useful.Butin averyrealway, allpolicyissues areissuesrelatingto
fundamentalassumptionsaboutthenatureofmanandhisconcerns:"
•"All policy issuesarealso issuesrelatingtofundamentalassumptionsaboutthenature
ofman'sinstitutionsandhowthey interactwithman."-MichaelMarien

23. 2 ChangingImagesofMan
•Ifwe seeourselvesasseparatefrom or superiortonature,thenanexploitationethic
can befostered
moreeasily.
•Ifwe seeourselvesas a partof or one withnature,thenan ecologicalethiccan be
fostered
moreeasily.
•Ifwe viewhumanbeings (e.g. inmedicine,employment,architecture)asanimated
machinesof physicalparts,
thennon-physicalaspects of ourexistenceare likely to be
ignored.
•Ifwe viewhumansas solelyspiritual ratherthanphysicalbeings, thenmaterial
aspects of
ourexistenceare likely to be ignored,e.g. in publichealth,employment
opportunities,housing.
•Ifhumannatureis seen ascomplete andfixed,thenourtask is toadaptourselves
andourinstitutionsto enhancethatdevelopment.
AWORKING DEFINITIONOF"IMAGEOF
MAN"·
We use"imageofman"(orofhumankind-in-the-universe)toreferto
the set ofassumptionsheld about the humanbeing'sorigin,nature, abilities
and characteristics, relationships with others, and place in the universe.
A
coherentimagemightbeheldbyanyindividualorgroup,apolitical
system,a
church,oracivilization.Itwouldconsistofbeliefsas to
whetherwearebasicallygoodorevil,whetherourwill isfreeoris
determinedbyexternalforces,whetherwearecooperativeorcom­
petitive,
whetherweareessentiallyequal,andsoon.Itincludesboth
whatman(woman)"is"andwhathe(she)"oughttobe."tMost
societieshavea
reasonablycoherentimageofwhatitmeanstobe
"human,"defining,forexample,theidealsocial natureofaperson.
Butdifferentsocietiesmayassumeexactlyoppositesocialcharac­
teristics.Hopiculture,forinstance,seespeopleasideallycooperative
while"mainstream"Americancultureusuallyseescompetitive
•"Byusing'man, mankind,men,he, andhis' allthrough,youunconsciouslyconvey
the old image of the noblemasterfulmale once
moreouttorescuethe humanrace....
Hereis thevocabularyyou mustuse if the new image ofmanis not tobesexist as the
old:
'humankind,humanity,humanbeing,humans,persons,individuals',etc. For this
century,at least,until
ourthoughthabits havebeen reformed,the use of'man'as an
inclusivetermis
out.." Youcan'tstick in asentenceonwomen'slib andadequately
transformtheconcept
'human'thereby."-EliseBoulding
In the
presentversionof this report,we have followed Dr.Boulding'sadvice with which
we fullyagree,wheneverthe
structureof thephrase andthoughtallow it, onlyadding
"we"or "our"tohersuggestedvocabulary, andputtingthephrase"imageof man"in
quoteswhereits useseemednot feasible to avoid.
tWhatwemeanby"imageof man"or by thepreferable butmoreawkwardphrase"image
of
humankindintheuniverse"issomething thatbydefinitionlies at the boundary
betweentheconscious, andunconsciouspartofourminds.Becausesuchimageryexists at
apreverballevel ofconsciousness,it is
hardtodefinesatisfactorily.Readerswho still feel
uncertainorconfusedwhatwe meanbythose(andrelated)phrases afterreadingthis
sectionmay want to
readtheglossaryandpage 69(startingwith paragraph3)before
continuing.

24. Images of Man in a ChangingSociety 3
achievementastheideal.Ifthesuccessfuloridealadultisassumedto
becompetitive,
thenchildrenastheygrowupareencouragedto be
competitive,
gamesarebasedoncompetition,successin competitionis
rewarded,andcompetitionbecomesa dominantmotive,thusvalidating
theassumptioncontainedintheimage.Thesameistrue,in asimilar
manner,if asociety'simagedefinestheidealpersonascooperative,as
independent,orashavinganyotherofthemanypossiblesocialattitudes.
An"imageof(thenatureof)man"isthusaGestaltperceptionof
humankind,bothindividualandcollective,in relationtotheself,
others,society,andthecosmos.Itmaycontainmanylevelsandface
contradictions
andparadoxes-asdoesthelivinghumanbeing-and
still beexperiencedasanorganicwhole.
However,anyimageisnecessarilyselective, notonlyas to what
categoriesofhumanattributesareincluded,butalso as tothefacts
whichareassertedto betrueofthem.Someimagesarenarrow,
ignoringmanypossibilities;othersaremorecomprehensive,embracing
moreoftheperson'spotentialbeing.Each,however,selectswhich
attributesandqualitiesareto beconsideredrealandwhicharetobe
developed,admired,accepted,despisedorotherwiseattendedto.
Theseimagesareheldatvaryingdegreesofanawarenessby persons
andbysocieties.Forsome(e.g. the"TrueBelievers"describedby Eric
Hoffer,1951),images
arelikely to be intheforefrontofawareness,
seenasrealityandusedconsciouslyin perceivingtheworldandin
makingdecisions.Formost,however, assumptionsaboutthenatureof
humanbeingsareheldbeneaththeconsciouslevel ofawareness.Only
whenthesehiddenassumptionsarerecognizedandbroughtinto
awarenessis
an"imageofman"discoveredand/orconstructed.Then
theimagecanbeexaminedcarefullyandwithperspective,to be
retained,discarded,orchanged.
Furthermore,nooneknowsthetotalpotentialityof humankind.Our
awarenessof human"nature"isselective,shapedbyoursymbolicand
presymbolicimages. Fromthetotalpossibilities-nature,abilities,and
characteristicsthatmakeupthehumanpotential-ourimagesof
humankindreflectthoseaspectswe are"intouch"with,orthatare
definedasrealby theknowledge,social norms,culturalassumptions,
andmyths.
THERELEVANCE OF IMAGES TOMODERNSOCIETY
Thepowerofanimagetobringaboutchangeisnoteasilydemon­
stratedfortworeasons:first,because oftheintangibilityofimages
themselves
and,second,because theprevailingviews insciencehave

25. 4 ChangingImages of Man
notyetreadilyacceptedtheevidencesuggestingthepowerofimages.
However,therearenumerousindicationsthataperson'sorasociety's
images
canstronglyaffectperceptions,andthereforeactions(see Table
1).
Whileit isobviously importantthatourunderlyingimagesand
beliefsbe goodmapsoftherealityinwhichwe live, we probablydo
wellnottopaythemovermuchattentionaslongasthecontinuing
welfareofsociety anditscitizensseemssecure. Manyofourpresent
imagesappeartohavebecomedangerouslyobsolescent,however.
Animagemaybeappropriateforonephaseinthedevelopmentof a
TableI
INDICATIONSTHATPERCEPTIONS ANDBEHAVIOR
AREINFLUENCED BYIMAGES
•Clinical
datafrompsychotherapyindicatingthelife-shapingeffect of anindividual's
self-image
•Anecdotal
datarelatingtobehaviorchangesinducedbyself-imagechangefollowing
plastic
surgery
•Studiesof effects of experimenterexpectationsin researchwithbothanimaland
humansubjects
•Studiesof effects of
teacherexpectationson studentperformance
•Researchonexpectancyset, experimenterbeliefs,andplaceboeffectinstudiesof
hypnotic
phenomena,psychotropicdrugs,sensorydeprivation,etc.
•Anthropologicalstudiesindicating
thatperceptionsof self,others,andthe
environmentarehighlyinfluencedbyculturalimages andexpectations
•Researchon visual
perceptionindicatingthe extentto whichwhatisperceived
dependsonpastorderingsofperceptions(e.g. the Amesdemonstrations),on felt
needs,onexpectations,
andontheinfluenceof importantothers(e.g. the Asch
experiments)
•Studiesof authoritarianismandprejudice,indicatingthe extentto whichother
personsareseenintermsofstereotypes
•Examplesfromthehistoryofscienceindicatinghow newconceptualizationshave
resultedin new ways ofperceivingtheworld
•Researchon the role ofself-expectationsinlimitingacademic
achievementof
underperformingchildren
•Hypnosisresearchdemonstratingtheinfluenceofsuggestion-inducedimages and
expectations
•Athleticcoachingpracticesutilizing
deliberatealterationofexpectations andself­
image
•
Expectation-performancerelationshipsinstudiesof conqueredpeoples,prison­
camppopulations,etc.
•Anecdotal
datafromexecutivedevelopmentcoursesbasedon thealterationof
self-image
andself-expectationsthroughautosuggestion
•
Thesociologicaltheoremof W.I.Thomas:"Ifmendefinesituationsas real,they
arerealin theirconsequences."
•Researchof theNancyschoolofpsychology(EmileCoue,C. Baudouin,C. H.
Brooks
etat.)on thepowerofimagining
•Esotericreligiousteachings,East andWest, on thepowerofbelief,images, and
prayer,e.g.Matthew17: 20: "Fortruly,I say to you, if you havefaithas a grainof
mustardseed,you will say to thismountain,'Movehencetoanotherplace,'andit
will
move."

26. Images ofManin aChangingSociety 5
society,butoncethatstageis accomplished,theuse oftheimageas a
continuingguidetoactionwilllikely createmoreproblemsthanit
solves.
(Figure1illustrates,in ahighlysimplifiedway thatwill be
furtherdevelopedinChapter3,theinteractionbetween"changing
imagesof man"andachangingsociety.)While earliersocieties'most
difficultproblemsarosefromnaturaldisasterssuchaspestilence,
famine,andfloods(duetoaninabilityto manipulatethehuman's
environmentandourselvesin unprecedentedways,andfromour
failureto ensurewiseexercisingofthese"Faustian"powers-asSpengler
termedtheterm).
Science,technology, andeconomicshavemadepossiblereally
significantstrides
towardachievingsuchbasichumangoalsasphysical
development
/-
/'
/
/
/
I
-......-~e log"crisisof
directionresults
New imager--£
emerges------.JII
/
/
/
/
-\-"
SociaIIcuIturaI
II>
II>
e
o
0
>.
II>
~ ~
.~
Q)
o
0
0
II>
"0
Q)
01
C
C
0
0
~
s:
o
:J-:!::
0
:JII>
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-
II>
0
0
s:
+-
a.
c
Q)
~
E
ea.
E
o
II>
Q)
"5
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Q)
0
Time
Fig.1.Hypothesizedtime/phaserelationshipbetweenimages andsocial/culturaldevelop­
ment.
Whenimages"lead"socialdevelopmenttheyareanticipatory, andprovidedirectionfor
socialchange.
Whenimagesarein thisrelationto societythey exertwhatPolak (1973) has
termeda"magneticpull"towardthe future.Bytheirattractivenessandmeaningthey
reinforceeach
movementwhich takes the societytoward them,andthustheyinfluencethe
socialdecisionswhich will
bringthemtorealization.
As society movestowardachievementof the goals
inherentin theimage,the congruence
increasesbetweentheimage andthedevelopmentofmanandsociety: thepromiseof the
imageis
explored,needsaresatisfied. Then,as withparadigmsandmyths,theremay come a
periodin which theevolutionof the society goesbeyondtheadequaciesof theimage.Policies
basedon the
dominantimagethenbecomeconsequentlyfaulty,even counterproductive,
precipitatingaperiodoffrustration,cultural disruption,or social crisisandthestageis set
for basicchangesin
eithertheimageof manor theorganizationof society.

27. 6 ChangingImagesofMan
safetyandsecurity,materialcomfort,andbetterhealth.ButasTable2
illustrates,
manyofthesesuccesses havebroughtwiththemproblems
ofbeing"toosuccessful"-problemsthatthemselvesseeminsoluble
within
thesetofsocietalvalue premisesthatled totheiremergence.
>II:
Improvedhealth,forexample,hascausedpopulationincreaseswhich
exacerbate problemsof socialorganization,fooddistribution,and
resourcedepletion.Ourhighlydevelopedsystemof technologyleadsto
a
highervulnerabilityto breakdowns.Indeed,therangeandinter­
connectedimpactofsocietalproblemsthatarenowemergingposea
seriousthreattoourcivilization.
Table2
SELECTEDSUCCESSESANDASSOCIATED PROBLEMS
OFTHETECHNOLOGICAL/INDUSTRIAL ERA
Successes
Reducinginfantandadult
mortalityrates
Highly
developedscienceand
technology
Machine
replacementofmanual
androutinelabor
Advancesin communicationand
transportation
Efficientproductionsystems
Affluence,material
growth
Satisfactionof basic needs
Expandedpowerofhuman
choice
Expandedwealthof developed
nations;pocketsofaffluence
Problemsresulting
from
being"toosuccessful"
Regional
overpopulation;problemsof
the
aged
Hazardof massdestructionthrough
nuclearandbiologicalweapons;vul­
nerabilityofspecialization;
threats
toprivacyandfreedoms(e.g.sur­
veillancetechnology,bioengineering)
Exacerbatedunemployment
Increasingair,noise,andlandpollu­
tion;
"informationoverload;"vulner­
ability of acomplexsociety tobreak­
down;disruptionofhumanbiological
rhythms
Dehumanizationofordinarywork
Increasedpercapitaconsumptionof
energyandgoods,leadingtopollution
anddepletionof theearth'sresources
Worldwiderevolutionsof
"risingex-
pectations;"rebellionagainst
non
meaningfulwork
Unanticipatedconsequenceoftechnolog­
icalapplications;
managementbreak­
downasregardscontrolofthese
Increasinggapbetween "have"and
"have-not"nations;frustrationof the
revolutionsofrisingexpectations;
exploitation;pocketsofpoverty
• "Istronglydisagreewith the last
foursocietalpremisesin thisgreatlyover-simplified
table.We
aremovingfromaneraofperceivedaffluenceto an eraof scarcity.Whenthe
qualityofgoodsis
considered,inadditionto the coststhatwe donotincludein our
GNPcalculations,we arenotasaffluentas wethink.Moreover,basicneedshave not
beensatisfiedforsome, andthisproblemmayworsenverysoon. Theexpandedpower
ofhumanchoiceisproblematic,as is the expandedwealthofdeveloped nations-it
simplydependsondefinition."-MichaelMarien

28. Images of Man in a ChangingSociety 7
Additionally,it appearsthatalthoughsomeof ourimagesandneeds
havecometo beserved mostadequatelybywhatwe nowtermthe
industrialstate,othershavefaredmorepoorly.Fromstudiesof
mythology
andpastcivilizationsdonebyJosephCampbell,atleastfive
functions
standoutasneedingtosomehowbefulfilledbyimages,
rituals,
andinstitutionsof asociety. Theyarethemystical,thecos­
mological,
thesociological,thepedagogicalorpsychological,andthe
editorialfunctions.
Themysticalfunctioninspiresin theindividualasenseof themystery,
theprofoundmeaningoftheuniverseandof hisownexistencein it. What
aretheoriginsandthedensityof humankind?Howisexistencemaintained
andwhy?Thesearequestionswhose answers-howeveradequatethey
mayormaynotbe-asexperientiallyrealizedby anindividualserve the
mysticalfunction.
Thecosmologicalfunctionis toformandpresentimagesof the
universeandworldinaccordwithlocal knowledgeandexperience.The
structureoftheuniverseisdescribedandtheforcesof natureidentified,
suchthathumansmaymoreadequatelypicturewhattheirworldis like.
Thesociologicalfunctionis tovalidate,support,andenforcethelocal
social
order,representingit as inaccordwith thesensednatureofthe
universe.Forexample,myths,rituals, andsocialstructurefromhunt­
ingculturesemphasizemenasthebearersofpowerwhereasthose
fromplanterculturesusuallyemphasizewomenasbearersof life.
Medieval
Europeancultureemphasizedthecentralimportanceofthe
Church,andourown,thelegitimacyof themodifiedfree-market
economyandpluralisticbody-politic.
Thepedagogicalorpsychologicalfunctionisthatofguidingeach
memberoftheculturethroughthestagesof life, teachingways of
understandingoneselfandothers,andpresentingdesirableresponses
tolife'schallenges andtrials.Rites ofpassage,councilsof elders,
psychotherapy,andeducationallservethisfunction.
Initseditorialfunction,themythsandimagesof a culturedefine
someaspectsofrealityas importantandcredible,henceto beattended
to, whileotheraspectsareseenasunimportantorincredible,henceto
be
ignoredandculturallynotseen.Forexample,theanthropologist
MalinowskireportedthattheTrobriandIslandersbelievethatachild
inheritshisphysicalcharacteristics onlyfromhisfather.Hence,the
Trobriandssimplydo notobserveornoticeanyresemblancebetween
thechildandhismother,althoughtoMalinowski,suchsimilarities
were
quiteevident.
Twoadditionalfunctions-thepoliticalandthemagical-arealso
noteworth.Thepolitical,asdistinctfromthestrictlysociological,func­
tionappearswhereveramythorinstitutionofsocietyisdeliberately
employed
torepresenttheclaimtoprivilege andauthorityofsome

29. 8 ChangingImages of Man
specialperson,race,social class,nationorcivilization;andthemagical,
whereverprayers,ritualsorother"extraordinary"techniquesareused
forspecialbenefit, suchasforrain,goodcrops,war-winning.
Howwelldoourcurrent"myths"fulfillthesefunctionswhich stand
outinimportancefromtheperspectiveofhistory?Mythology,atleast
amongmost"educated"people,is nowrelegatedtothestatusofmere
superstition,as isanythingthatsounds"mystical."Themystical
functionofinspiringintheindividualasenseof theprofoundmeaning
oftheuniversehas beenneglectedalmostentirely,assynagogues and
churches,thetraditionalservantsof thisrole,havebecomeincreasingly
concernedwithsocialjustice.Sciencenow performsthecosmological
function,
butitssuccessesin this regardhavebecomeso complexthat
theaveragepersonhaslittlecomprehensionofhowscientificknow­
ledgedefinestheworld,otherthanbyconsumingtheproductsthat
scienceandtechnologyhavemadepossible.Bureaucratsandothercivil
servants,
whomakenoclaimto understandingorevenseekingany
largerpictureofreality,now carryoutthesociologicalfunctionof
enforcingthelocal socialorder.Thepedagogicalfunctionofguiding
eachindividualthroughlife'sstageshas been-exceptforthosewho
canaffortpsychotherapy-takenoverbyaninstitutionof education
which(atleast untilveryrecently)dealsalmostsolely with preparation
forworkinanindustrializedsociety. TheeditorialfunctioninWestern
Culturewasdominatedfirst bytheChurch(whichemphasizedavery
specific
imageofmanandassociatedideology) andmorerecentlyby
science(which
emphasizesanotherlimitedimage). Itappearsnow in
theprocessof beingtakenoverbythefundingagencies(government
legislaturesanddepartmentsofprogramplanning,foundations,andso
forth)who alsorepresentspecialinterestsin theselectionofwhich
aspectsofreality
shouldbecollectivelyignoredandwhichattendedto.
Furthermore,thereis noindicationthatoursociety,operatingunder
itscurrentlydominantguidingimagesandvaluespremises,will not
continuetocreatevexingproblemsatanincreasingrate. Researchers
attheHudsonInstitutehaveidentifiedwhattheycall "TheBasic
Long-termMultifoldTrendofWesternCulture"thatrepresentsa
clusterof socialforcessimilartothose causingthe"successes"notedin
Table2.TheMultifoldTrendincludesdevelopmentssuchas:
1.Increasingsensate(empirical,this-wordly,secular,humanistic,pragmatic, manipu­
lative,explicitlyrational,utilitarian, contractual,empicurean,hedonistic,etc.) cul­
tures.
2.Bourgeois,
bureaucratic,andmeritocraticelites.
3.Centralization
andconcentrationofeconomicandpoliticalpower.
4.Accumulationofscientific
andtechnicalknowledge.
5.Institutionalizationoftechnological
change,especiallyresearch, development,in­
novation,
anddiffusion.

30. Images of Man in aChangingSociety 9
6.Increasingmilitarycapability.
7.Westernization,modernization,
andindustrialization.
8.Increasingaffluence
and(recently)leisure.
9.Populationgrowth.
10.Urbanization,recentlysuburbanization
and"urbansprawl"-soonthegrowthof
megalopolises.
11.Decreasingimportanceof
primaryand(recently)secondary andtertiaryoccupations;
increasingimportanceoftertiary
and(recently)quaternaryoccupations.
12.Increasingliteracy
andeducationand(recently)"knowledge industry"anain­
creasingrole ofintellectuals.
13.Innovative
andmanipulativesocial engineering-i.e.rationalityincreasinglyap­
plied to social, political,cultural,
andeconomicworldsas well as to shapingand
exploitingthematerial world-increasingproblemsofritualistic,incomplete,or
pseudorationality.
14.Increasinglyuniversalityof themultifold
trend.
15.Increasingtempoofchangein all the above.(Kahn andBruce-Briggs,1972)
Theimpactandlikelyconsequences(for betterandforworse)of
continuingwith thissocietal trajectorycanbeinferredfromastudyof
Fig. 2
through5.Ifsuchprojectionsofthefutureprovecorrect,wecan
expecttheproblemsassociatedwith themultifoldtrendwillbecome
moreserious,moreuniversal,andoccurmuchmorerapidlythanwill
growthofthetrenditself."
6
Stone5000 2000 I AD
Age
.62 mil 125 250 16501850
~
,om ll mil mil 05bill.lblllion.. 1960
2bilttonrbillio"2000~
6.1billion
Hundredsofthousands • 40years
ofyears .
Modern:
times:
New Stone Age Bronze
Age
OldStone Age
6000 5000 4000 3000 2000
IronAge
Fig. 2.Thegrowthof humannumbers.(Source:McHale,1972.)
•"Itshouldbenoted thatthose (1972) figuresreflect trendsthatprecededthe OPEC oil
blockade,
energypriceincreases,andthe host oftrend-changingeventsthathave since
occurred.
Thesefigures areincludedin this 1980edition, bothforhistoricalreasons
(since they led tostudieslike this one)
andsince they stillillustratethe policy
implicationsof thetraditionalimages
andpremisesofWestern Culture."-O.W.
Markley
CIM- C

31. 10 ChangingImages of Man
300Mi IIionpeople Acresper0.21
andacres person
\
0.20
\,...."
\/,lXbanacres per
v
" ur banperson
200 0.19
\ Urban
\
population\
'\.
'\ 0.18
"
\
\ """\,..............
100
-,
0.17
-,
'\.
"
"-
<,
0.16
o ---==='-....-.--'----&...---&...-.1.----''---'---00.-''''--.....0...-....-......0 .15
1850 1870 1890 1910 19~1950 1980 2000
Fig. 3.Urbanizationin theUnitedStates.(Source:McHale,1972.)
Butthemultifoldtrend(essentially,rampantindustrializationand
consumption),withall itsassociated problems,neednotproveto bethe
dominantcharacteristicof ourfuturesociety.As Fig. 2 through5
imply,
formostofhumanhistorythegrowthofman'spopulationwas
slow
anditsimpactonEarthecologyrelativelysmall. Humanslived close
to
thesoil inwidely dispersedcommunities,suchthattheactionsofone
communityhadrelativelylittle impactonmostothersnotnearby.But
nowsocietygrows evermorecomplex,specializedandinterconnected,
andtheproductionanddistributionofessentialgoodsandservicesis
increasingly
dependentonthecontinuedintegrityofhumanin­
stitutionalsystems.Humansystems,however,dependontrust,
agreement,andpoliticallaw ratherthanonunchanging"natural"law,
hencetheyareinherentlylessstableintimesof rapidculturalchange
thanare"natural"systems.Theyareparticularlysensitiveto break­
downscausedbywar, terrorismandsimplisticattemptsatsocietal
reform.

32. Images ofManin aChangingSociety 11
World popu lation and wealth
10..-----------------,10,------------------,
-
I I
199019952000
Popu lotio n \
I I I
1975 1980 1985
1
1970
I!='"
81-
41-
Developedcountries
5-
21-
0L-_--I....-_--L_----l__..L-_-'-_--'-_~
1965
6-
91-
7-
9
8
GNP\_------
------------
6
Underdeve loped countries
OL..-_--I....-_--L_---JL....-_...L-_-'-_---'_----'
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 199019952000
'0
II>
c:
~
E
.!lI
0­
o
CI>
0-
'0
II>
c:
g
iii
World energyconsumptionandpopulation Ene rgyconsumptionand liv ing
standards
o 2000 4000 6000 800010,000
Energyconsumption, kilogramsof coal
equivalentpercapita
....usti6lia
"'estGermany
'/~'"
E;;;;UK
ther lands
.g\R1f~ ~~~:n
1000 ;..fj.~~~.~~ntina
:~~I~~'r~~~ ico
y::.Brazll
..lnd la
4000
2000
3000
CI)
a.
a:
z
o
~
a.
o
'-'
CIl
.S!
.g
1990198019701950
------
_------~opulatlon
oL-__L.-_---J__---'__---' _
1950
2000
6
8
10
12
14
18
16
22
20
1Il
II>
c:
.2
Fig. 4.Selectedworld population,wealth,andconsumptiontrends.(Source:McHale,
1972.)
Salk (1973) hassuggestedasimplegraphicalway ofcomprehending
thesechangesandthecorrespondinglevel ofchangesthatneedtotake
place
duringthedecadestocome.As portrayedonFig. 6,thepastand
futurehistoryof mankindcanberepresentedascomprisingtwo
phases.Salk calls
thefirstphase,whichincludesall mankind'spast

33. 12 ChangingImages of Man
Abundance
in earth's
crust
Iron
Aluminum
Parts permillion
81,300
50,000
20,900
200
80
69
70
16
220
40
15
0.5
0.1
Tinplatefor cans
Stainlesssteel
Stainlesssteel
Abrasion resistance
Hardeningsteel
Ch lorine
producti
Storagebatteries
Galvanizedsteel
Electrical
wire
Zinc
Tin
Tungsten
Copper
Lead
Molybdenu
Mercury
Si Iver
Nickel
rvlagnesrum••••••••••••••••••
Chromium
12 24 36 48 60 72
Yea r s to depletion
Fig. 5.Depletionofworldreservesofcommercial gradeores if worldpopulationhad
U.S. living
standard.(Source:GoughandEastland,1969,basedon datafromU.S.
Bureauof Mines.)
---­
.,......"..-----
/
I,
.~
III -
.8-~
:c:
Q)Q)
:E.;:
.....
o~
III0
+-.....
c::+=
g~
a.
E E
o~
o~
U I
Q)0>
+-c:
~~
n;
CJ)
Epoch"A"
Past Present
Epoch"B"
Future
Fig. 6. Twocontrastingepochsof humanhistory(Jonas Salk).
history,EpochA-anepochinwhich (fortheabovereasons) the
survivalof thehumanspeciesdependedonessentiallyindividual
actions,onthesurvivalof thefittest,andonsuccessfulcompetitionwith
otherlifeforms.Hecallsthesecondphase,whichmustcharacterize
anydesirablefuture,EpochB-afutureinwhichhumankindlimitsthe

34. ImagesofManinaChangingSociety 13
growthofthoseactivitiesthatunderminethewelfareof theecology;
hencewherethesurvivalof thespecieswill dependmoreonthe
behaviorofthewholespecies thanof itsindividuals, oncooperation
ratherthancompetition,andemphasizingthesurvival,notofthe
physicallyfittest, butofthewisest.
Whileit is perhapsunrealisticto expectthattheUnitedStatesand
otherindustrialnationswouldvoluntarilylimittheirownconsumption
ofphysicalresourcesandsharetheirwealthmoreequitablywithless
affluent
nations,itmaybeequallyunrealisticto thinkthatwe willnotbe
forcedintomakingjustthatchoice.Withonly6percentoftheworld's
population,theUnitedStatescurrentlyusesabouthalfoftheworld's
resourceoutput.Andthisstandardoflivingthatweenjoyisthegrowth
goalofmostdevelopingnations-mostofwhosecitizens areunder­
nourishedandundereducated.
AsthelatePrimeMinisterofCanada,LesterPearson,observed,
Noplanetcansurvivehalfslave,halffree;halfengulfedinmisery,half careening
alongtowardthesupposedjoys of analmostunlimited consumption.....Neither
ecologynorourmoralitycouldsurvivesuchcontrasts .....
Whilenotallresearchersagreethatsuchanepochaltransitionis
facing
mankind,mostagreethatthedevelopednationsofEarthnow
face aseriesof
fundamentaldilemmas.Bymoreadequatelyunder­
standingthenatureofthesedilemmas,howtheyhaveemerged,and
howtheymightberesolved,itshouldbepossibleto see newpos­
sibilities
forabetterfuture.As aconcise statementof whytheroleof
imagesiscrucialto
suchanunderstanding,fourdifferenttypesor
"levels"ofsocietal problemsaredelineatedbelow(Markley et al., 1971):
1.Substantiveproblemslie at anappliedoroperationallevel,andareusuallyidentified
as
immediatetargetsforcorrectiveattentionorincreasedallocationof moneyor
otherresources.
2.Process(orProcedural)problemsarethosethatimpedetheprocessofcollectively
settingpriorities
andstrategiesto solve thesubstantiveproblems.
3.Normativeproblemsconcerntheappropriatenessandeffectivenessof apeople's
values,
preferences,goals,andsoforth,thatarethe basis ofplanningandpriority
setting.
4. Conceptualproblemsaredifficultiesthatseemto beintrinsicto the way wethink,the
wordswe
use-inshort,to theparticularvision orunderstandingofrealitythatis
dominantin aculture-thusaffectingourways ofperceiving anddoing,andalso
affecting
theformationofournormativevalues.
Thesefourcategoriescanbethoughtof asreferringtofourlevels of
(1)thestateofsociety,(2) behavior,(3)motivations,and(4)basicvalues
andperceptions(see Fig. 7).

35. 14 ChangingImages of Man
Stateof society
~
Behavior
Motivations
~ .
Levels of
description
Basic values
Perceptions
..............&..........AA4....",£..A......""'......4.-A,
q -......J'•••••••,••••~
~o•••.•• • • •..•••• ••••••.•••
o0
Fig. 7. Levels ofdescriptionusefulinanalyzingsocialchange.
Theimportanceofdistinguishingtheabovefouraspectsis evidenced
bythefactthatmostinformedpersonsagreeonwhatthecrucial
substantive
problemsofourtimeare:inflation,unemployment,pollu­
tions,world
hunger,threatofwar,andsoforth.Mostof thevisible
disagreement-atleastin theUnitedStates-occursattheprocesslevel,
in
theassignmentofprioritiesandinthechoiceofstrategies: for
example,inthesupposedtradeoffbetween"environmentandjobs,"or
inthechoicewhethertodevelopsocialpolicies thatarefuture-oriented
ratherthanthosethatarepoliticallyexpedient,butshort-sighted.But
thethirdandfourthcategories,normativeandconceptualsocialprob­
lems,havebeenalmosttotallyignoredtodate."Withtheextensive
changesbroughtbytheaccelerating"manifoldtrend"discussedear­
lier,however,obsolescentvalues andinappropriateconceptionsmaybe
precisely
thatwhichkeepsusfromfindingsatisfactoryresolutionsto
thegrippingsocialproblemsthatincreasinglyconfrontus.
Ourimageofourselfandouruniversehasbecomefragmentedand
wehavelosttheguiding"senseofthewhole"thatearliercivilizations
seemtohavehad.Atpresentoursocietygoes fromcrisis to crisis,with
piecemeal
responsesbeingmadetoameliorateeach,andwiththe
measurestakentorelieveonecrisisinvariably makinganotherproblem
worse,so interwovenisoursocialsystem. Therehasbeenlittleeffort,
•"Duringtheeightyears since the firstreleaseof this reportin 1973, a small,butincreasing
amountofattentionhasbeenandcontinuesto befocusedonnormative andconceptual
concerns.Forexample,theNational
Endowmentfor theHumanitiesandtheNational
Science
Foundationhavejointlysponsoredacontinuingextramuralresearchprogramon
'Valuesin Science
andTechnology';amajorresearchinstitute,theHastings Centerhas
beenestablishedto examinequestionsinvolvingsocialethics; andavarietyof books and
reportsareappearingthatexaminethepossibilityofconceptual andorganizational
transformationinvariouslevels of society."-O.W.Markley

36. Images ofManin aChangingSociety 15
andlesssuccess,in searchingoutdeeperstrataof socialforces-the
basicimagesof ournatureandourfuture,andtheassociatedpremises
which
underliethebehaviorsthatleadtosocietalproblems. Mightit be
possible
thatamoreadequateimageof humankindcouldleadto a
renewedsenseofwholeness andtobetterbehavior-bothindividual
andcollective?
By
addressingourselvestosuchquestionswe hopetohelpelevate
thelevel ofdebateregardingthefutureofournationandfutureof
humankindgenerally,therebycreatingnewunderstandingsthrough
whichsocietal problemsthatpreviouslylookedirresolvable may
becomeincreasinglytractable.

37. .....
0')
I '~ 'l
-;::-I>~J
--iI:;",~:.i~·~X~\;/: ..:::~, ~.:dl:Ii~I;/~..<.'.,.....
.....I_h...r...-••J.t"": ;,.,;.(I(0·.•••.~:
, ... • _ .,c:"71I1rIl(."....~~_u.s~o-.ITe"\ tM'\
ReproducedbypermissionofNewspaperEnterprisesAssociation,Inc., New York.

38. CHAPTER 2
SomeFormativeImagesofMan-in-the-Universe*
Asinterculturalcommerce,warfare,"forcedconversion,"andother
modesofculturaldiffusionhaveoperatedthroughthemillenniaof
humanhistory,anincrediblevarietyofimages onmanhave
developed-someremainingrelativelypure,mostblendingwithothers.
We donotattemptanexhaustivesurveyof thisdiversity, butrather
focusonlyonaselectfew of therelatively"purer"typesof imagethat
fulfilloneormoreofthefollowingthreecriteria:
1.Itshows how theimageof humankind-inrelationtootherforces-caninfluence
the way in which a
culturedevelops.
2.
Theimagehassignificantly shapedoraffectedthe developmentofourculturein
directions
thatneedreexamination.
3.Itoffersunrealizedpotentialfor moderatingtheproblemsthatareuniquetoour
time.
Thisbriefsurveyshouldthereforenotbereadas acompletehistory
of
humanimages.Certainlymostoftheimagesportrayedareneces­
sarilyoversimplified,
buttheymayneverthelessprovideusefulinsights
forourtime.TheseimagesaresummarizedinTable3.
Afterthebriefsurveywenotesomeunderlyingdimensionsalong
whichthevariousimagesof humankindcanbecompared.Wethen
estimatewhatimagesseemcurrentlydominantintheUnitedStates,
andportraywhatthe"centerofgravity"orcompositeimageofmanin
this
countryseemsto be.
SELECTEDHISTORICALANDMODERN IMAGESOF MAN
EarlyImagesofMan
Itissignificantthatwehavecometoequatetherise ofcivilizationin
theOldWorldwiththeemergenceofthefirstliteratesocietiesinwhich
smallelitist
groupsholdthekeys to akindofesotericknowledgewhich
•Amuchmorescholarlyandcompletesurveyof theimagesthathaveshapedWestern
civilization(especiallyof judeo-Christiancontributions)is containedinFredPolak's
classictreatise
DieTeokomstIsVerledonTijd(W.Haan,1958).TranslatedfromtheDutch
intoEnglishby Elise
BouldingasThe Image of theFuture,it isavailable bothin a
two-volume
unabridgedversion(OceanaPublications,1961) andanabridgedvolume
(Elsevier,1973).
Botharecurrentlyoutofprint,butcanoftenbeborrowedthroughan
inter-libraryloan.
17

39. Table3 -
DOMINANT IMAGES OFHUMANKIND THROUGHOUT HISTORY
00
Culturesin which
Source
Approximate imageis at Significancefor
period date Dominantimage presentactive post-industrial era
Middle 250,000- Thehunter,focus of the male- Fewculturesin itsJeopardizescross-
Paleolithic40,000 B.C.
dominatedculturefield of the pureform;most culturalpeace;may be
"GreatHunt" in itsmilitaristic necessaryfor police
equivalent operations,however
Upper 30,000- Includingsense ofspiritualaffin-VariousAmerican Hasrelevancefor a
Paleolithic15,000 B.C.itybetweenbeasts
andman,of Indiancultures renewedsense of part-
Q
whichtotemismis anexpression withtraditions nershipwith otherlife
~
intact formson the planet
~
~
Neolithic After Theplanter,the child of theGod- HinduandcertainHas possiblerelevance ;.
9000 B.C. dess; womanthe giver of life othercultures forbalancingmale-~
emphasisofWestern
~
culture
~
Sumerian 3500 B.C. Thehumancivilizedthroughsub- Most cultures Hasrelevanceas his-
~
mission toseasonalvariations and toricalanalogy:shows
c..,
rulingelites "political function"of~
new images
~Semite 2350 B.C. Thehumanas amerecreaturefash-OrthodoxJewish, Standsin its present
ionedof clay to serve the gods,Christian,Islamic formas an obstacle to
~
or some god, as a slave;but faiths emergenceof new eco-
superiortoandhavingdominion logicalunderstandings
overnature.Notionof "chosen
people"
Zoroastrian1200 B.C. Thehumanhavingfree will,havingAllWesterncul- Presentsa basicpolar-
tochoosebetweengood
andevil, tures,in a secu- ity needingto be dia-
mythologyofindividualsalvationlarform lecticallytranscended/
synthesized
Age of the 500 B.C. India:
onedeludedby
maya;theHindu/Buddhist Couldcontributeto a
Polis
Buddharepresentingtheabsolute new"self-realization
fulfillmentof the
Indianimageof ethic"forourculture

40. ~
~
('::>
~
~
a
~.
('::>
~
~
~
<;"
~
~
~
I
;;.
I
So
('::>
I
....-
c.o
~
~.
('::>
~
('::>
ifincorporatedintoa
largersynthesis
Hasrelevanceto
coun­
terbalancingthe "tech­
nologicalethic"
(1) Adominantimagethat
needsto be incorporated
into alargersynthesis;
(2)Could
contributeto
a new"self-realization
ethic"forourculture
ifincorporatedintoa
largersynthesis
Couldcontributeto a
new"ecological
ethic"
forourcultureif in­
corporatedintoa larger
synthesis
Possible to seeecologi-
cal
requirementsin this
light
Couldprovidea guiding
imageforpersonal!
societal
transformation
in time of crisis
Couldcontributeto de­
emphasizingmaterial
overconsum
ptionand
ecologicalunderstand­
ing
Nonein which
dominant
(1)Traditional(1)
Judeo/Christian/
Muslimcultures;
(2) Mostcultures
as
anunderground
view
All
cultures,but
neververy visible
Orientalcultures
Some
formsof
Islam, Christian­
ity
Most
Westerncul­
turesto some
degree
Levant:as aslave,submissiveto
God in theimageof a
despot
Greece:Mysteryreligions,the
personbecomesso attachedto the
materialthingsof thisworld
that
he/shehas losttouchwithhis/her
owntruenaturewhich isnotofthese
things,
butofspirit-himselfthe
very
beingandmodelof thatSpirit
of whicheachis
butaparticle
Greece:science
andobjective
knowledgeasaesthetic
ratherthan
utilitarianactivity;naturalistic
emphasisinscience,
art,and
philosophy
Twocontraryimages/(1)following
theSemiteandZoroastriantradi­
tions,
God'sservant-obeyor be
dammed;(2)thatof theGnostics
similarto theimageof the
Greek
mysteryreligions,the person
"saved"byself-knowledge
Greece:Aeschylus
andimageof
humanastragic hero
manasyogireleased fromthe
wheelof karma,deathandrebirth.
Intrinsicdivinityof humankind
realizablethroughownefforts
China:
Confuciusandtheparadigm
of the"superiorman"aspoliti­
cally
andsociallyconcernedsage
Early 100 A.D.
Christian
(andMuslim) 622 A.D.

41. Table3(Cont.)
DOMINANT IMAGESOF HUMANKIND THROUGHOUT HISTORY
t..o
o
Source
period
Approximate
date Dominantimage
Culturesin which
imageis at
presentactive
Significancefor
post-industrial era
Industrial 1500 A.D.
Revolution/
Enlighten­
ment
Modern 1900 A.D.
Social
Science
Modern 1913 A.D.
Behavioral
Science
Modern 1945 A.D.
Transdis­
ciplinary
Science
Various
times
and
placesfrom
circa 1500
B.C. to the
present
"Economicman"-individualistic,
materialistic,rationalistic;
objectiveknowledge,utilitarian/
economicvalues
cominginto
dominance
Humanas"beast"-instinctualdrives
predominant,a"creatureofevolu­
tion"whosesurvival dependson
competitive
adaptationand/orsup­
pressionof baseinstincts
Humanas"mechanism"-tobeunder­
stoodin ways foundsuccessfulby
nineteenth-centuryphysics
Humanas a"goal-directed,adaptive
learningsystem"
Humanas"Spirit"-the"philosophia
perennis"view ofmanandthe
universeasessentiallyconscious­
ness in
manifestform
Mostmodernin­
dustrialnations
Most
modernindus­
trialnations
PrimarilyUnited
States
Imagehasnotyet
reached"takeoff
point"
Mostcultures,in
various
degreesof
purity
Likelyinappropriatefor
transitionto post­
industrialera
Animage needingto be
incorporatedintoa
largersynthesis
Promotedasproviding
themostappropriate
basis for'man'snext
era,perhapsnow itself
needingto beincorpora­
tedintolargersynthesis
Providesapossiblecon­
ceptualbasis forinte­
gratingmostotherimages
of
manin anevolutionary
frameofreference
Couldcontributeto
neededsynthesisof
"opposing"imagesas it
sees
apparentopposites
asdifferingaspectsof
thesame
underlying
reality
9
~
~
~
;.
~
~
~
~
~
~
~

42. SomeFormativeImages ofMan-in-the-Universe 21
gave
thempowerovertheirfellowmen.Asfaras weknow,thisfirst
occurredintheMesopotamianvalleyabout3500 B.C.
Fromtheirobservationsofrepeatedheavenlymovementswhichwere
correlatedwithtimesof planting,reaping,etc.,a professionalpriest­
hooddiscoveredtheartsofpreciseastronomicalobservation,mathe­
maticalreckoning,andwriting.Thepriestlywatchersof theskieshad
becomeawareofsomethingmostremarkableandexciting,completely
unknownbefore,namely,themathematicalregularity,precisely
measurable,ofthepassagesof themoon,thesun,andthefive visible
planets.
Withthatdiscoverycameacompletelynewconceptionofthe
universeandofthehumanplacewithinit. No longerwerethe
determinantsoftheimageofone'sself intheworldto betheanimals
whichonehuntedortheplantsof alushenvironmentself-renewed
throughdeath,butanever-increasingfactualknowledgeofthenatural
orderoftheuniverse.Moreover-andpossiblybecausethisnewtypeof
knowledgecouldnotbeextendedtotheentirecommunity-there
developedabruptlyatthistimeacleardistinctionbetweengoverning
andgovernedclasses.
Althoughtheideasandformsof aliteratecivilizationprobablytook
rootinIndiaandChinaasearlyas 2500 B.C.and1500 B.C.respec­
tively,
theirimpactonthesesocieties,andhenceonthe"imageofman"
inrelationtotheuniverse,tookaverydifferentformfromthe
developmentswestof theIndusValley.Perhapsas aresultoftheir
geographicalisolationbothfromeachotherandtherestofthecivilized
world,
theyretainedundamagedtheoldBronzeAgeimageofan
impersonalprincipleorpowerimmanentin auniverseofformsever
disappearingandreturningthroughmeasuredcycles ofinfinitetime.
Accordingtothisimage, nothingis to begained,eitherfortheuniverse
orforman,throughindividualoriginalityandeffort.Theindividual,
rather,is toplay theroleintowhichhe hasbeenborn-asdothesun
andthemoon,thevariousplantandanimalspecies,thewaters,rocks
andstars.Also, he shouldtrytoorderhismindso as toidentifyits
consciousnesswith
theinhabitingprincipleofthewhole.InIndiathis
aspirationcameto besymbolizedby themysticseer,Yogi,whoabove
all else
practicedthedisciplineof renunciationfromthe"maya"­
illusoryentrapment-ofworldlyconcern;inChina,adifferentview
developedwiththeConfuciansymbolof thepoliticallyengagedwisesage,
whoseeksto actinaccordwiththeTao,bothinwardlyandoutwardly.
*
.."Theunspokenassumptionhereseems to bethat'spiritual'is opposedto'physical'
and'material';andfurthermore,to be'spiritual'meansadenialof the flesh, a flight
fromsocialactivities
andengagementin socialaffairs,practiceof painfulausterities,
etc.
Thereallyreveredreligiousteachers andenlightenedmasters-Jesus,Buddha,
etc were deeplyinvolvedin theaffairsof theworld...Ithinkthatthealleged
opposition
between'spiritual'and'material'is a falsedichotomy-notthe viewheldby
thosespiritualmasterstowhomyou tacitly
refer."-JohnWhite(cont. onp.22)

43. 22 ChangingImagesof Man
AlthoughbothIndiaandChinaaretodaywellintodifferingmodes
ofmodernization,andhaveeachatleastpartially overthrowntheir
traditionalimagesof humankind(ChinaapparentlymorethanIndia),
theseimages holdpotentialrelevancefortheethicalneedsofour
presentculture.Aspectsof theimageofthesageandTaoisticphiloso­
phygenerallycouldgreatlycontributetoan"ecologicalethic;"theyogi
imageandphilosophyofVendantacouldequallycontributeto a
"self-realization
ethic,"asthesearesetforthinChapter5.Bothwould
bringawelcomecontrasttotheexploitativetendenciesof acivilization
drivenbytheprofitmotive.
TheHumanasSeparatefromGodandNature-EarlyNear-EasternViews
FromtheNear-Eastcametwosystemsof thought-thoseofthe
SemitesandtheZoroastrians-whoseimagesofman-in-the-universe
havesignificantlyshapedthisculture.
ThefirstdistinguishingcharacteristicofSemiticmythology,which
aroseafter3000B.C.,was its radicalseparationofManfromGod,the
firststepof a"mythicdissociation"thathasperhapsbeencompleted
onlywiththefullfloweringofobjectivesciencein moderntimes.The
SemiticGodwasseenas amaleBeing"outthere,"animagethatcloses
theinwardway ofmysticism,since whatis to befoundwithinoneselfis
notdivinity(as in IndiaandtheFarEast)butonlyone's"soul,"which
mayormaynotbefoundin aproperrelationshiptoGod.Aproper
relationshipcanbeachievedonlybyobediencetoGod'scommand­
mentsandmembershipinGod'sfavoredtribe.Notas afreeindividual,
butonlyas a memberoftheHighGod's"chosenrace"(orchurch,in
laterversions)is oneeffectivelyin God'scare.Inthis viewthehuman
wasseenas aservant,createdtoserve theOneGodbyhaving
dominionoverallotherformsofearthlycreation.
IfallhumankindwastheservantoftheOneGod,so also,according
toSemiticmythology,was oneracetheservantoftheothers.Genesis,
chapter9,recountsthestoryofHam,thesonofNoahandfatherof
Canaan,whobecausehe hadseenhisfather'snakednessandlefthim
uncoveredwascursedbyNoah:
CursedbyCanaan-aservantofservantsshall he be to his brothers....Blessed be the
LordGod ofShem, andCanaanshall be hisservant.God shall enlargeJapheth,andhe
shall dwell in thetentsof
Shem-andCanaanshall betheirservant.(Genesis 9: 25-27)
(Cont. fromp.21)
Thecontrasthereisnotbetween"spiritual"and"material"butratherbetweentwo
"ideal
types"which havebeenextensivelyexploredin the past. In the lastsectionof
Chapter4andinChapter6 we try to show howthesetwo may beusefullysynthesizedin
ourownculturalmatrix.

44. SomeFormativeImages ofMan-in-the-Universe 23
Traditionalinterpretationofthesescripturesseesthedescendantsof
HamascomprisingofblackpeoplesofAfricannationstothesouthof
Egypt.Thustheracistimageofpeoplesofcolorbeingthe"proper"
servantsofotherironicallyarosefromthemythologyoftheJews-one
ofthemostpersecutedpeoplesofhistory.
Complementingthemaster/servantaspectsoftheSemiticimageof
humankindwasthenotionof"manasthebrotherofothermen"by
virtueoftheircommoncreation;asrequiredandable,bythis created
naturetocarryresponsibilityforeachother.
Thisimageofbrotherhoodwas a keyelementinthelaterChristian
imageofpersonsas"membersoneofanother"-ametaphysicalreality
thatwilllaterbeelaboratedasbeinganimageneedingto berevitalized
ratherthanscrapped.
WeknownexttonothingofthelifeofZarathustra(Greekform,
Zoroaster)whoseteachingsofthegreatLordofTruthandLight,
AhuraMazda,markthebeginningofacompletelynewdirectionin
Occidentalreligionandtheassociatedimageryofhumankind.The
noveltyofhisteachinglay in itstreatmentinpurelyethicaltermsofthe
ultimatenatureanddestinyofboththeworldandhumankind;itattri­
butedabsolutevaluesto thecontraryprinciplesofGoodandEvil,
personifiedas twocontendinguniversalgods-AhuraMazda,"first
fatheroftheRighteousOrder,"andAngraMainyu,theDeceiver,
Antagonist,andprincipleoftheLie.Inthisteaching,timewas im­
aginednotasanever-cyclinground(as inmostoftheconceptions
beforeapproximately1200B.C.), butas alineartrendtovictory,which
was toculminatein aseasonofprodigiouswarsandtheappearance,
finally,ofasecondSavior,Saoshyant,throughwhomtheLordofthe
Lieandall hisworkswereto beannihilated.Thedeadwerethento be
resurrectedandallwoulddwellforeverinlightandtruth.
Anotherinnovationofthisdoctrine,settingitapartespeciallyfrom
neighboringIndia,istheresponsibilityit placedoneveryindividualto
chooseofhisownfree willwhetherandhow tostandfortheTruthand
Light,inthought,word,anddeed.Finally,theZoroastrianviewholds
thatengagementinthebattleforsalvationis theultimategoalof"man,"
a viewdiametricallyopposedtotheIndianimageofyogicself-release.
Judgedevil,theworldcouldneverthelessbesaved.
The
Knower-GnosticView
TheinfluenceoftheSemiticandtheZoroastrianVISIonsonboth
traditionalandcontemporaryJewish,Christian,andIslamicthoughtis
obvious.
Itseemsclearthatbothformsofapocalypticmessianismwere
incorporated,ifnotbyJesushimself,thenatleastby theEarlyChurch.

45. 24 ChangingImages of Man
ButtheGnostics,whosebeliefs appeartohavebeenasynthesisof
Babylonian,
Indian,andEgyptian,as well asSemitic andZoroastrian
thought,tookanotherview.AgreeingwiththeSemiticbeliefin one
EternalandSupremeBeing,andtheZoroastrianview oftheWorld
anditsunredeemedcitizensassavable, theGnosticstookascentral
"saving"powerofgnosis-extraordinaryandexperientiallyintimate
knowledgeofthemysteriesofexistence.
Theimportofthisview, as contrastedwiththeviewwhichultimately
cameto bethe"official"one,isportrayedbytheGospelaccordingto
Thomas:
Hisdisciplessaid to Him:Whenwill theKingdomcome?Jesussaid: Itwillnotcome
byexpectation;theywill
notsay: "Seethere."ButtheKingdomof the Fatheris
spreadupontheearthandmendonotsee it.
(Saying113)
ThistensionbetweentheGnosticunderstandingofapocalyptic
symbolism
andthatoftheEarlyChurchwhichcondemnedit as
hereticalistheessenceof whatissometimescalled"theJudeo-Chris­
tianProblem."IsanapocalypticMessiahto come(orcomeagain)and
thusgrandlysavetheelectfromevil,oristhe"Kingdomofthe
Father"alreadyherewithinus,withinourselvesandourworld-asis
"Buddha-consciousness"andthe"MotherLight"-onlywaitingto be
recognizedandfulfilled?Theconundrumwasinheritedalso byIslam,
andsuppliedthewholesenseofthecontentionbetweentheSufis ofthe
mysticway andtheorthodoxSunnaofthelaw.
Because
theGnosticpathwascondemnedasheretical,ofnecessityit
wentunderground,andhenceitsinfluenceonourcultureismuchless
visible
thanaretheeffectsof theorthodoxviews.Itandviews like it,
however,havebeenkeptalive bysecretsocietiessuchastheSufis,
Freemasons,andRosicrucians,whose influenceonthefoundingofthe
UnitedStatesis attestedto bythesymbolismof theGreatSeal ofthe
UnitedStates,onthebackofthedollarbill.TheSemitic/Zoroas­
trian/orthodoxChristianimagemeanwhilecameintodominancein
WesternEurope.Thisimageofthe"humanasseparate"laidthe
groundworkfortheindustrialrevolutiontocome.
TheIndividual-GreekViews
TheidealizedimageofthepersonintheclassicalphaseofGreece
providedtherootsofthelaterEuropeanemphasisonindividualism
andindividuality.TheGreeksportrayedtheHeroasonewho acts

46. SomeFormativeImages ofMan-in-the-Universe 25
fromasecularsenseof duty-nottowardothersbutrathertoward
himself-strivingafterwhatwetranslateas"virtue"butwhichin
Greekisarete,excellence.Significantly, Greektheologywasformulated
notbypriestsorevenbyprophets,butbyartists,poets,andphiloso­
phers.TheGreekswereprobablythefirstculturetodevelopanimage
ofthehumannotprimarilyas amemberofthisraceoftribeorof
that,butasanindividualbeing.Furthermore,whenthecity-state
emergedfullydevelopedinthelaterperiodofSocrates,Plato, and
Aristotle,laws andethicalrulesweresoughtbeyondindividualismfor
theregulationofconduct;butit wasnottoanysupernaturalauthority
thattheGreekslooked,buttonature,andspecifically,humannature.
Theysawvirtueas anaturalpropertyoftheperson,whosenaturewas
notaninstinctualone(aswiththeloweranimals),buttheperfectionof
divineintelligence
(sharedwiththegodsabove-godswhowerenotthe
"creators"ofmankind,butthemselves,also, childrenofthemysteryof
creation,havingcomeintotheworldas itsgoverningpowers).Their
artisticimages ofhumankindwerethusnaturalistic,as was their
philosophy,andtheirpolitics.
Itisnecessarytorecognize, however,thatthedominant"imageof
man"wasfortheGreeks,asforsomanyotherslave-basedeconomies,a
dichotomousone-theimageofthecitizendifferingsignificantlyfrom
thatoftheslave.Thus,althoughtheGreekshadbythesecondcentury
B.C.developedthenecessaryknowledgetobuildapowerfulscience­
basedtechnology,theydidnotdo so.ForintheGreekviewthe
acquisitionof knowledgewasmainlyforaestheticorspiritualenjoy­
mentofthecitizens,therebeinglittlemotivationtoutilizetechnology
tomakeroutinelabormoreefficient.
Whileit is
commonlybelievedthatscience,orwhatwethinkof asthe
scientificmethod,originatedinpost-medievalWesternEurope,thisis
notthecase.Thescholarsofthis period,searchingformoreadequate
methodsofinquirythanthose"wornout"bymedievalscholasticism,
turnedtotranslatingmanuscriptsofdistanttimesandplaces.Only
whentheGreekscientificwritings weretranslatedintoaculturethat
wouldsupporta"technologicalethic"(aswouldfifteenth-century
EuropewithitsSemiticroots) didthewidespreadexploitationofthese
ideascometofruition.Althoughthemodernscholarshipbehindthis
findingissomewhatcontroversial,thedelayedapplicationofGreek
sciencelikely representsaninstancewhereoneimageofhumankind
hadaclear-cutinfluenceonculturaldevelopment.Weexplorethis
phenomenoninChapter4becauseitprovidesasuggestivehistorical
analogyforthepresent-dayapplicationofEasternthoughtinthe
developmentofascienceofconsciousness.
Of M - 0

47. 26 ChangingImages of Man
EmpireandChristianity-theRomanCatalyst
Intermsoftheimageofman,theRomansmadetwolasting
contributionstotheWesternheritage.First,theycodifiedtheearlier
Greeknotionsof lawandextendedthemthroughouttheknownworld.
Indeed,thelegalsystemsof mostEuropeannationsarestillbasedon
Romanlaw.TheGreekssawmanas apolitical animal;to thisthe
Romansaddedtheconceptsofuniversalorganizationandad­
ministration.ForthefirsttimeinWesterncivilization,therightsof
citizenship-evenSaintPaulofTarsusboasted,"civesRomanus sum"(I
am aRomanCitizen)-extendedbeyondtheboundsof a citystate,race,
color,
orcreed.ThustheRomans'uniquecontributionwasthatanyone
(except,of course,a slave)couldaspiretobecomeamemberofthe
bodypolitic,which theRomansdefinedas a set ofallegiances,laws, and
responsibilities.
ThesecondRomancontributiontotheWesternimageofmanwas
aninadvertentone.ItmaybetoomuchtoassertthatthelaterRoman
legatesleftbehindthema"legacy"ofChristianity-indeed,themis­
sionaries
sentoutbytheearlypopesmayhaveplayedagreaterrole.
Thefactremains,however,thattheRomansplantedtheseedsof
Christianitywhichwerekeptalive inthemonasteriesofWestern
Europethroughoutthe"DarkAges."
TheAgeofFaith-andContention
Followingthefall ofRomeinthefifthcenturyA.D.,thereensueda
periodofintermittentchaoswhichlasteduntil abouttheeleventh
centurywhentheRomanCatholicChurchemergedasthedominant
forcein WesternEurope.
Thehistoryofthe"AgeofFaith"isoneofcontentionbetween
competingimagesofhumankind.Forexample,theclassicJudeo­
Christianview ofmanasessentiallymasterovernaturewasoverlaid
with
therestrictivenotionsoftheMedievalChurchas tothe"proper"
pursuitsofmaninrelationtonature.Similarly,thestrivingsof the
ChurchforpoliticalhegemonyoverthetemporalrulersofWestern
Europeclashedwithits originalspiritualmissionandemphasisonthe
all-importanceofthelifehereafter.
EvenattheheightoftheChurch'spower,disruptiveforces-spiri­
tual,intellectual,andsocio-economic-wereconstantlyatwork.The
crusades,forexample,broughtEuropeansintocontactwithmore
advancedeconomiesandcreatedademandfornewgoodswhichwere
metbyanever-expandingmerchantclass.Thediscovery,duringthe
fifteenthcentury,of a searoutetoIndia,followedby Columbus'

48. SomeFormativeImages of Man-in-the-Universe 27
discoveryof theNewWorld,openedupvast newpossibilities for
economicexpansionandpersonalenrichment.Thus,despitethe
stricturesoftheChurch,a newnotionof"man"asaneconomicentity
begantoemerge.
Intellectuallyandspirituallytoo, theWesternChurchwaslosing
groundtowardtheendofthefourteenthcentury,whenthetidebegan
toturnagainstit in itslongbattleagainstheresy.Overacenturybefore
Lutherpinnedhisninetyfivethesesto thechurchdooratWittenberg,
in 1519, Wycliffe inEnglandandHussinBohemiahadalreadytriedto
bringaboutareformationoftheChurch.Atthesametime,in the
universitiesof WesternEurope,Arabastronomyandmathematics,
transmittedbyJewishscholars, werebeingstudiedsidebysidewith
AquinasandSaintAugustine.
Thus,gradually,thestrandsofsecularismwerebeingwovenintothe
Medievalfabricof life untilbythebeginningofthesixteenthcentury
wecanseethemdrawingtogethertoforma newpatternfromwhich
emergedourownsociety.
Man OverThings-theNew Empire*
Fromthewarpandwoofof new andrevivedideas fosteredduring
theRenaissanceandReformationcamenotionsofmanastheindivi­
dualist,
theempiricist,andtherationalist.Thesenotionsgainedirresis­
tible
powerwiththediscoveriesof CopernicusandGalileo,andbrought
aboutanessentiallynew imageofmanandhisroleintheuniverse.
Bytheseventeenthcenturytheimageofmanwhichemergedfrom
scientificstudieswasthatofmanasmechanism(Newton).Thegreat
searchfortheorderpermeatingtheuniversewassummedupin
Bacon'sphrase"theempireofmanoverthings."Thefundamental
realitieswerethehumanbeingandnature.Naturewasregardedasan
objectivereality-apartfromthehuman-observableineveryaspect
andunaffectedbyeitherobservationortheobserver.Theprimacyofthe
actofmeasurementmeantthatnewrulespredominatedformaking
knowledgeverifiableandpublic,andsoknowledgebecamebettersuited
to"makeourselvesmastersandpossessorsof nature"(Descartes).
Evolving
outofman'schangingimageofhimselfandhisrelationto
theexternalenvironmenthesoughttocontrolcamea newapplication
oftheoldZoroastrianconceptofprogress-nowofferingnewhopes
forhumanbettermentwhile atthesametimeexplainingandjustifying
• In thenextfewsectionsthe genericterm"man"wasnotchangedto"humankind"for
purposesofcontrastandemphasis.

49. 28 ChangingImagesofMan
thematerialisticpursuitsandexcessesof industrialsociety.Infact,the
ideaofprogressbecomeindistinguishablefromtheideaofscience
itself.As
thescientificpursuitbecamemoreobjectiveandreduc­
tionistic,theimagesofmankindthatithasfosteredhavealso become
morefragmentedandoutoftouchwiththemythicforcesthatthe
pre-scientificceremonies,rites,andritualshelpedmantoexperience.
TheHumanasBeast-theDarwinian,Freudian,andEthologicalViews
Inthenextchapterwenotethemoresalientcharacteristicsof the
economicimageofhumanbeingsthathasdominatedtheindustrialera.
Here,wediscusssomeoftheotherspecializedimages thatareim­
portanttoday.
Onesuchimageisthatofbestialman-mansubjectmostfun­
damentallyto hisanimalinstincts.Thisimageprovidesaunifying
themetotheotherwisedissimilarscientific theoriesofDarwinand
evolutionarythought,ofFreudandpsychoanalyticthought,andof
Lorenzandotherleadingthinkersontheethologyofaggression.In
eachofthesethreeschoolsthereseemto bealmostopposingemphases
whichrevealdivergentimagesofthehumanbeing.Ontheonehand
(usuallydominant)istheimageofNature-humanas well asanimal­
"redinfangandclaw"-thehumanasman-beast,predator,and
aggressor.OntheotherhandistheimageofNatureassymbiotic,
cooperative,andsocial-withanimageofthehumanashavingboth
aggressiveandaltruistictraits.
Darwinemphasizedthecompetitiveaspectsofnaturalselectionand
thestruggleforsurvivalbothintheanimalandinthehumanworld.
Fiftyyears latertheRussianPrinceKropotkin,withequally good
scientificmethodology,emphasizednaturalsolidarity,intrinsicsoci­
ability,
andtolerance-amonganimalsasamonghumans.Similarly
Freudemphasizedthepurelyinstinctualdrivesandinparticular(in his
lateryears)the"deathinstinct"(Thanatos).Theneo-Freudians,onthe
otherhand,emphasizedtheegoandman'ssociabilitydrives. Lorenz,
Ardreyetat.haveemphasizedthe"killerinstinct"andthe"territorial
imperative."Crookandothers,lookingatotherethologicalfindings,
deriveevidenceforinstinctuallydrivennon-aggressivebehaviorand
theimportanceoffrustrationandsocializationinaggressive behavior.
Herewehaveanillustrationofhowoneguidingimageofman-in­
the-universe(whichincludesnotonlyoneselfas ahuman,butthe
physical,social andconceptualworldonelives in) to alargeextentdeter­
minesone'sbehaviorinthecreationof anew"imageofman."Toillustrate:
Darwincomesupontheprincipleofnaturalselectionandthestruggle

50. SomeFormativeImages ofMan-in-the-Universe 29
forsurvival,notsomuchfromhismeticulousobservationsandcollec­
tionsas
fromreadingMalthus'Essay onPopulation, andfromliving
amidstasocietyinwhich laissez-faireeconomicsandtheethicsof
ruggedindividualismwerebeingchampioned.(Itisnoteworthythat
Darwin'scompetitor,AlfredWallace,workingindependently,also
happenedupontheinsightofnaturalselection-through-struggle
throughreadingMalthus;andthattheveryphrase"survivalof the
fittest,"whichfirst appearedinthesecondeditionof
OriginofSpecies,
wascontributedbyHerbertSpencer,thephilosopherof socialevolu­
tionvialaissez-faireeconomiccapitalismandruggedindividualism.)
PrinceKropotkin,ontheotherhand,was apolitical andphilosophi­
calanarchistwhoseideologyundoubtedlyintrudeduponhisobser­
vations
andinterpretationsno lessthanhadDarwin's.
Eachoftheaboveopposingimageemphases(thehumanas in­
trinsically
competitiveandviolentbutalso asintrinsicallyaltruisticas
well)
arecurrentlyappealedto intheformationof socialpolicies:
witness
thedebatesurroundingArdrey'sTheTerritorialImperative
(1966).Themostrelevantquestionto askwith regardtosuchissuesis
not"whichview ismosttrue?"butrather"whatarethelikelycon­
sequencesofactingfromoneortheotherview inactive contention?"
and"cana view befoundwhichcreativelysynthesizes themintoa
largerconception?"
TheHumanasMechanism-theViewofModernBehaviorism
Objectivepsychology becamebehaviorismin 1913whenJohnB.
Watsonled abreakwiththeoldertraditionofintrospection,atradition
thathadbroughtaboutlittleagreementaboutthenatureofcon­
sciousness.Moreimportant,fromtheutilitarianpointof viewthathas
typified
Americanthought,theintrospectionistapproachcouldnot
leadtopredictionandcontrolofdataascouldnineteenth-century
physics.Thus,forscientificreasons,consciousnesscameto bethought
of as a"construct"whosestudyleadsto no fruitfulresults-a"black
box"whoseunknownmechanisms(whichwouldbecomeknownby
physiology,biochemistry,etc.)
shouldproducebehaviorsthatwouldbe
regularandpredictableif webutstudythemtherightway.
Instinctivist
thought(endlesslists ofinstincts beingproposedto
explainman'sbehavior)cameintoscientificdisreputeataboutthis
sametime;henceit wasconvenientforthebehavioristschoolto
incorporateLocke'simageofthenewbornhumanas atabularasaon
whichis writtentheresultsofvariousprocessesofconditioning.
Thebranchofthisschoolof thoughtwhichhasprovedmostsue-

51. 30 ChangingImagesofMan
cessfulemphasizesthetechniqueofoperantconditioning, atermori­
ginatedby B. F.Skinnertodenoteasystematicprocedurewherebythe
actionsof anorganismarebroughtundercontrolbygivingit a reward
ifandonlyif itbehavesin aspecifiedmanner.Thistechniquehasbeen
successfullyused-ineducation,psychotherapy,andinprisonstoalter
wholebehaviorpatternsofindividuals.
A
ratherdifferentapproachtounderstanding(andcontrolling)
behavior,also ofproveneffectiveness,is throughtheimplementation
ofremotelyactivatedelectrodesinthebrain.
The"psycho-civilizationofsociety"has beenadvocatedbymeansof
various
techniquesofbehaviormodificationsuchasoperantcondition­
ing(Skinner,1971),electrocranialstimulation(Delgado,1969), and
psychochemicaldrugs(Clark,1971). Onlyifsuchmentalisticandpre­
scientificconceptsas will,freedom,consciousness,andsofortharecast
off,
Skinnerasserts,doesmanhaveachancetoattainatrulypeaceful,
rational,andhumanesocietyin thefuture."Certainly,thetechniques
thathavebeendevelopedwithintheview of"manasmechanism"are
powerfulandefficient.Theywork.Henceifintegratedandreconciled
with
otherviews ofman-viewswhichhavemoreadequateethicsand
metaphysics(bothtermsthatthebehavioristicscientistinsists arenot
partof hisconcern)onwhichto guidetheirapplication-thisviewand
itsproductscouldconceivablybe of greatbenefittomankind.
TheHumanasPerson-theViewofHumanismandHumanisticPsychology'
AlthoughitsrootsgobacktoGreekthinkerssuchasSocratesand
Plato,thetraditionknownashumanismfirstflowered duringthe
eighteenth-centuryperiodofEnlightenment.Thecentralthemeof
humanismhas alwaysbeentheaffirmation,perfection,andcelebration
of allthatisthoughtto beuniquelyhuman-especiallythereflective
andexpressivequalitiesof humankind.Thisis in vividcontrasttothe
repressivequalitiesof thepuritanethicthatsostronglyinfluencedthe
economicimageofhumankindinindustrializedsocieties.
Morerecently,humanismhassurfacedinnumerousforms,oftenas
explicitalternativesto
dehumanizingsocialforms.Forexample,the
«0"I amjustcompletingabookon Behaviorismin which Ianswera numberofmistaken
views
aboutit. I amnotsurethatI really 'cast off'conceptssuch as will, freedom,and
consciousness.Icertainly reinterpretthedata."-B.F.Skinner
tThissectionwaswritten forthe 1981PergamonEditioninresponseto CarlRogers's
suggestion
thatbyjumpingfromthe Freudianto thebehavioristicto the systems
theoryview ofman,theoriginalSRI reportgivesundulyshortshrifttohumanistic
psychology.-O.W.Markley

52. Some Formative Images ofMan-in-the-Universe 31
AmericanHumanistAssociationaroseinlargepartinordertoofferan
ethical(andlegal)alternativeto dogmaticreligion,andtheAssociation
forHumanisticPsychologywas createdas adeliberate"thirdforce"
alongsideoftheFreudianandbehavioristschools ofthoughtin
psychology.
Althoughtheleadingproponentsofmodernhumanism
differin a numberofrespects,theytendtoagreeontheimportanceof
propositionssuchasthefollowing,compiledbyKlapp(1973,pp.
279 ff.):
• Man isonespecies;races andotherbiologicalsubdivisions arerelativelyunim-
portant.
•Ifprogressexists,it is to bemeasuredbyimprovementinthelife ofallmankind.
• Killingoneanotherfornationalorideologicalreasonsis notjustified.
• Aworld
orderrepresentingallmankindshouldbecreatedassoonaspossible.
•
Certainweaponsandtechnologiesshouldbeprohibitediffornootherreasonthan
becausetheythreatenthefutureofmanonthisearth.
•Everycultureandstyle of lifethatdoesnotdestroyhumanrightsshouldbe
preserved.
•Customs,taboos,beliefs, andinstitutionswhich crampthedevelopmentofhuman
potentialshouldbereformedorabandoned.
• Socialsystemswhichrestrict freeactivity ofwriters,artists,thinkers, andscientists
aresuspect.
•
Thestandardswhichgovernmanshouldcomefrommanhimselfandbecutto his
measure.
•Concernfor thewell-beingof manin thisworldshould notbeobscuredbyconcernfor
thenext.
•
Muchworkis dehumanizingandshouldbe changedtomakeitmoresatisfactoryto
the
workerevenat some loss of"efficiency"orprofit.
• Many
moderncitiesareunfitforhumanhabitation.
• Many of
theactivities of the"counter-culture"todayareanimportantpartof
experimentationto find abetterlife styleforman.
Thebranchofexplicitlyhumanisticthoughtcurrentlymakingthe
mostpronouncedcontributionsto amoreadequateimageofhuman­
kindisundoubtedlythatwhichisorganizationally ledbytheAssociation
forHumanisticPsychologyandits("fourthforce")offspring,the
AssociationforTranspersonalPsychology.Bothbeingpartofthe
so-called"humanpotentialmovement,"theseorganizationstendtoput
moretrustintheintuitivewisdom andgoodwill ofpersonsthaninthe
formalizedtheoriesandrulesoforganizations,believingthatthereis
aninnatetendencytowardwholesomegrowthandgoodnessin all
personsthatwill beactualizedif notprematurelyfrustratedbysocietal
limitations.
Bothgroupsarerecentlyprogrammingmanyoftheir
activitieswith anexplicitfocus onthepossibleevolutionarytrans­
formationofhumankind,muchas isdescribedin(andpartiallyas a
resultof)thisstudy. Thus,to alargeextenttheiremergingimageis
thatdescribedinChapter5.

53. 32 ChangingImages ofMan
TheHumanasEvolvingHolon-theViewofModernSystemsTheory
Overthepastthreedecadesanamorphousdisciplinetermed"sys­
tems
theory"hasarisen-partlyas aprotesttooverlypositivistic and
reductionisticmethodsinthephysicalandbiologicalsciences; partly
as
a way toapplytothestudyofhumanssuchnewadvancesascyber­
netics,
informationandcommunicationtheory,andcomputer-based
simulationmodels;andpartlyas a way toreconcile andintegrate
concepts,laws,andmodelsfromdifferentdisciplinesintoaunified
understanding.Formanyof itsproponents,however,generalsystems
theorygoesbeyondtheseobjectives.Itprovidesanentireworldview,
fromwhichanimageofhumankindcanbeinferred.
Inthisview, theworld(anditsmanysubsystems)is notjusta
collectionofanalyzable
components,butanintegratedwholeof
organizedcomplexity,onestepbeyondtheNewtonianviewof
organizedsimplicity,andtwostepsbeyondtheclassicalworldview of
divinely
orderedorimaginativelyenvisagedcomplexity.
Althoughtheconceptofageneralsystemstheory(Chapter4) is by
no
meansuncriticallyacceptedinthescientificcommunity,itneverthe­
lessseems usefulheretoexaminetwoideasstemmingfromthis
approachbecausetheyhaveimportantimplicationsin termsofthe
"imagesofman."Theseare(1)thatallnaturalsystemsareopen,not
closed(thatis,properunderstandingofsystemfunctioncanonlybe
obtainedbymakingreferencetointeractionswithothersystemsout­
sideoftheboundariesofthegivensystemunderstudy;(2)thatall
naturalsystemshaveahierarchicalstructure(thatis,thesystemis made
uptocoordinated"subsystems,"andthesystemitselfis partof,or
coordinatedby,otherhigherlevel"supersystems")."Theterm"holon"
(fromtheGreekhoLos-whole-withthesuffixonsuggestingapart)has
beenusedtoincorporatethesesystemproperties.'Byusingideassuch
asthese,thesystemsapproachallowsstudyoftheseeminglypurposive
aspectsofliving organismswithoutmakingrecoursetovitalisticor
mysticalideas.
Thepersonis aspecialcaseinsystems thinkingbecauseof his
self-conscious
awarenessanduseofsymbolic-conceptualsystemsto
guidehisbehavior;he is agoal-directed,"adaptive"learningsystemor
•TheanthropologistandsystemstheoristMagorohMaruyamahasrecentlycriticizedthe
hierarchical
tendencyof
gener-alsystemsthinkingasbeinganunnecessaryandunthink­
ingapplicationof the dominantWesternimageof man-preferringwhathe calls a
"mutualistic
paradigm."-O.W.Markley
tSeefurtherdescriptionof this conceptinChapter4.

54. SomeFormativeImages ofMan-in-the-Universe 33
"holon."Thepropertiesofgeneralsystemsseemtoapplyevento
man'sconceptualactivity.Thatis,owingto his socialnature,his
conceptsmustincludetheconceptsheldbyothers;andtheymustbe
"Janus-faced,"incorporatingmorespecializedconcepts, justasthey
themselvesareincorporatedbymoregeneralizedones.""
Thesystemsview thusattemptstoincorporatethemorespecialized
imagesof
man(asmechanism,asbeast,asmystic,etc.) andemphasizes
howthese differentaspectsfittogetherholisticallyto makethehuman
beingacomplex,goal-orientedlearningsystem.Italsohasrecently
beenintegratedwithevolutionarytheorytoshowhow conceptual
reformulationscantakeplacewhich coordinatedpreviouslyexisting
ideasat a higherlevel oforderandcomplexity.
Thustheseideashave immediaterelevanceforafutureimageof
humankindthatcouldbemoreadequatethantheindustrial/economic
image.'
TheHumanas Spirit-theViewofthePerennialPhilosophy
Althoughmostoftheviews ofmanwehavesurveyedhavecomeinto
beingduringaparticularera,oftenborrowingandadaptingviews of
othercultures,thereisoneviewthathasremainedsurprisinglyun­
changedsinceit was firstformulatedintheVediceraofIndia,about
1500 B.C.Althoughthis view has alwaysremainedsomewhatunder­
groundinmostcultures,it hasbeenvisible,in almostunchangedform,
asanidentifiableimageofhumankindin somanytimesandplacesthat
Huxleyhastermeditthe"PerennialPhilosophy":
PhilosophiaPerennis-thephrasewascoinedbyLeibniz; butthething-the
metaphysicthatrecognizesadivineRealitysubstantialto theworldofthings and
livesandminds;thepsychology thatfinds inthesoulsomethingsimilarto, oreven
identicalwith,divineReality; theethic
thatplacesman'sfinalendin theknowledge
of
theimmanentandtranscendentGroundof allbeing-thethingisimmemorial
anduniversal.Rudimentsof thePerennialPhilosophymay be foundamongthe
traditionallore ofprimitivepeoplesinevery
regionof theworld, andin its fully
developed
formsit has a place ineveryoneofthehigherreligions.Aversionof this
HighestCommonFactorin all precedingandsubsequenttheologieswas first
committedtowriting
morethantwenty-fivecenturiesago,andsincethattime the
inexhaustible
themehasbeentreatedagainandagain,fromthe standpointofevery
religious
traditionandin alltheprinciplelanguagesof Asia andEurope.(Huxley,
1945,
p.iv)
•AppendixBrepresentscommentsby SirGeoffreyVickerson informationsystemsand
socialethics-commentsverypertinenthereandinlatersectionsof this report.
tSeeNoteA, p. 40.

55. 34 ChangingImages of Man
Thecentralcharacteristicsof this view maybesummarizedas fol­
lows.
1.Thosewhomostseemto belivingithavealwaysinsisted thatit is
notaphilosophyorametaphysic,notanideologyorareligiousbelief,
althoughonlookershavetypicallyconsideredit so.Ratherit isan
experiencethatisattestedto,ofteninparadoxicalform,becausethe
experienceissaidto be oneofoneness,suchthatitresolvesthe
polaritiesoftime andspace,yet thereportermusttell ofthe
experienceintermsoftimeandspace.
BeholdbutOnein allthings.(Kabir)
An invisible
andsubtleessencein theSpiritof the wholeuniverse. Thatis Reality.
ThatisTruth.Thouarethat.(Upanishads)
Truewordsalways seemparadoxical butnootherformofteachingcan take their
place.(Lao-Tse)
2.Thebasicnatureoftheuniverseisconsciousness,andthehuman
individualcanparticipatein this"cosmic"consciousness.Thisisthe
GroundofBeing.Forthehumanit is a"superconscious"ordivineaspect
ofone'sbeing,andone'sphysicalnatureis amanifestationofuniversal
consciousness,
3.
Althoughthehumancanexperienceorparticipatein thiscosmic
consciousness,he
orsheusuallychooses notto,goingthroughlife in asort
ofhypnoticsleep,feeling thathe ismakingdecisions,havingaccidents
occurtoher,etc.Ifhebeginsto"wakeup"andseemoreclearly,
however,hebecomes awareofthedirectionofthehigherSelf in this
process.
4.
Humanpotentialityislimitless.All knowledge,powerandaware­
nessareultimatelyaccessibleto one'sconsciousness.
5. As a
personbecomesawareof this basicnatureofreality,he orsheis
motivatedtowarddevelopment,creativity,andmovementtowardthat
"higherSelf,"andbecomesincreasinglydirectedby thishighercon­
sciousness.
Whatiscalled"inspiration"or"creativity"isessentiallya
breakingthroughtoordinaryawarenessofthesehigherprocesses.
Whenitbreathesthroughhisintellect,it isgenius; whenitbreathesthroughhis will,
it isvirtue;
whenit flowsthroughhisaffection,it is love.(RalphWaldo Emerson,
"TheOversoul")
6.Evolutionoccurs,physical andmental,andisdirectedby ahigher
consciousnessandischaracterizedbypurpose.Ashumankindincreases
its level ofconsciousness,it
participatesmorefullyin this evolutionary
purpose.

56. Some Formative ImagesofMan-in-the-Universe
R. M.Bucke(1901) hasdefinedcosmicconsciousnessindetail:
35
Theprimecharacteristicof cosmicconsciousnessis, as its nameimplies,a con­
sciousnessof thecosmos,
thatis, of the lifeandorderof theuniverse....Alongwith
theconsciousnessof the cosmos
thereoccursanintellectual enlightenmentor
illuminationwhichalonewouldplacetheindividualon a new
planeofexistence­
wouldmakehimalmosta memberof a newspecies. Tothis isaddedastateof moral
exaltation,andindescribablefeelingofelevation,elation, andjoyousness,anda
quickeningof
themoralsense,which is fullystriking andmoreimportantto the
individual
andto the racethanis theenhancedintellectualpower.Withthesecome
whatmay becalleda sense ofimmortality,aconsciousnessof eternallife,not
convictionthathe shall have this,buttheconsciousnessthathe has italready.
Thisview ofman,if itcanbeexperiencedbymorethanthesmall
minorityofpersonswhohaveapparentlyrealizedit throughthe
centuries,wouldseemtoprovidetheneededsenseof directionandthe
holisticperceptionandunderstandingdescribedwhichthefollowing
chaptersshow to beneeded."
"TheAmericanCreed"
Weconcludethishighlyselective surveyofimportantimagesof
humankindbyinquiringwhatimageorimagesweremostimportantin
theformationoftheUnitedStates.Inhis classicstudyofblack-white
relationsin theUnitedStates,AnAmericanDilemma, theSwedishsocial
scientist
GunnarMyrdal(1945) wasstruckparticularlybythenear­
unanimousnationalendorsementof acoherentbodyofbeliefsand
values,animageofhumankindwhosecharacteristicshe termed"the
AmericanCreed."
America,comparedtoeveryothercountryinWesternCivilization,largeor small,
hasthe most explicitly
expressedsystem ofgeneralideals inreferencetohuman
interrelations.Thisbodyof ideals ismorewidelyunderstoodandappreciatedthan
similarideals areanywhereelse. (p. 3,emphasisinoriginal)
Thebasiccharacterandpervasiveapplicationofthe"American
Creed"werespelledoutbyMyrdalinonesweepingparagraph:
Theseideas oftheessentialdignityof theindividual humanbeingof thefundamental
equalityof all men,andofcertaininalienablerightsto freedom,justice,anda fair
opportunityrepresentto theAmericanpeopletheessentialmeaningof thenation's
earlystruggle forindependence.In theclarity andintellectualboldnessof the
Enlightenmentperiodthesetenets werewrittenintotheDeclarationof Independence,
• SeeNoteB, p. 41.

57. 36 ChangingImages of Man
thePreambleof theConstitution,the Bill of Rights andinto theconstitutionsof the
severalstates.
Theideals of theAmerican Creedhavethusbecomethehighestlaw of the
land.
TheSupremeCourtpays itsreverencetothese generalprincipleswhenitdeclares
what isconstitutional
andwhatis not.Theyhavebeenelaborated uponby allnational
leaders,thinkers
andstatesmen.Americahas had,throughoutitshistory,acontinuous
discussionof theprinciples
andimplicationsofdemocracy,adiscussionwhich, inevery
epoch,measuredby anystandard,remainedhigh,not onlyquantitatively but
qualitatively.Theflow oflearnedtreatisesandpopulartracts on thesubjecthas not
ebbed,noris it likely to do so. In all wars,includingthe presentone,theAmerican
Creedhasbeentheideologicalfoundationofnationalmorale.(pp. 4-5)
ThekeynoteoftheAmericanCreedwouldseemto be thatof
emancipation-notjusttheemancipationof apeoplefromthebon­
dageoftyrannyandpoverty,buttheemancipationofhumankindfrom
thebondageofhistoryandheredity.
Thiscreedwasnotbornof asingle imageofthehumanbeingbut,
like somanyeventsin therealworld,wastheresultof a vastcom­
promise.Oneview wasthatenunciatedovertimeby Thrasymachus,
Machiavelli,Hobbes,andHamilton-apessimisticview thatsawmanas
essentially
irrationalandirresponsible,subjecttoblindinstinctual or
environmentalforces,whoselife was"solitary, poor,nasty,brutishand
short,"andwhowouldlive"inanimplicitstateof warof allagainstall"
untilheunequivocallysurrenderedhisdreadfulfreedomtothesovereign
ofanauthoritarianstate.A contrasting,andeventuallydominant,view
was
thatenunciatedbySocrates, Cicero,More,Erasmus,Locke,Rous­
seau,andJefferson-whostressedthefacultiesof reasonandpurpose,
themoralattributesofdignityandresponsibility,andtheexistenceof
sovereignindividualrightsflowingfromthesequalities.
ThesecontendingviewscontinuetopressforsupremacyinAmeri­
canpublicpolicy, thesystemofchecks andbalancesbeingdesignedto
preventexcessesoneitherside.Thissolutionrepresentedperhapsthe
firstpluralisticimageofmanas inactive confrontationwithanexplicit
assumptionofequalitybetweencontendingimages(as contrastedwith
thepluralisticimagesof maninIndiawheredetachmentfromactive
confrontationwastheideal).Itdefiedthegreattraditionwhichhad
assumedthattheregulationofconflictinginterests andthecapacityof
interpretingthegeneralwillmustlieeitherwithanenlighteneddespot
orwithanenlightenedelite.Althoughthisgrandexperimenthasnot
beenwithoutitsmomentsofdifficulty(andindeed,as thisstudy
attemptstoshow,we arelikelynow to be in themidstof thistradition's
greatestchallenge),nevertheless:
....takingthe broadhistoricalview, theAmerican Creedhastriumphed.Ithas
given the
maindirectionto changein thiscountry.Americahas hadgiftedcon­
servativestatesmen
andnationalleaders, andtheyhave oftendeterminedthecourse
ofpublicaffairs.
Butwith fewexceptions,only theliberalshavegone downinhistory

58. SomeFormativeImages of Man-in-the-Universe 37
asnationalheroes.Americais ...conservativein fundamentalprinciples,andin
muchmorethanthat...But the principlesconservedare liberalandsome,indeed,are
radical.(Myrdal,1945, p. 7,emphasisinoriginal)
UNDERLYING ISSUESANDDIMENSIONS
Byidentifyinganumberofunderlyingissuesanddimensionsalong
whichthevariousimagesthathavedominatedhumanhistoryhave
differed,wenotonlycanbetterportraythedominantimageof
humankindinoursociety,butwecancontrastthatimagewiththe
imagesofothercultures.Thismayproveofvitalimportanceinthe
coming"spaceshipearth"era,fornotonlywillvariousdissimilar
cultureshavetocoexistmoreinteractively,butthereisanincreased
possibilityforacreativesynthesisofdifferences-totheextentthat
thesedifferencesarehighlightedinanappropriatecontext.
Free Will.Doesthehumanhavefreewill,orarehisactions(includ­
inghischoices)determinedbyvariousinternalorexternalforces?
Many,ifnotmost,oftheancientimagessawmanasdeterminedby
magical,divine,ornaturalisticforces,athemethathasreturnedvia
biological
andbehavioralscience.Mostmodernimagesofman,
however,seehimasfree,restrainedonlybythenaturallawofthe
universeandthosearbitrarylawshehasconstructedforhisown
convenience.
Good versusEvil. Ishumannatureessentiallygoodorevil?Oristhe
humanneither,beingshapedforgoodorillby hischoices orby his
environment?Althoughmanycultureshavenotdealtwiththisissue,it
was
madeexplicitintheNearEastandhassignificantlyaffectedthe
developmentofWesternculture,havingbecomeanessentialpartof
theJudeo-Islamic-Christiantradition.MostWesternimagesof
humankindcanthereforebeclearlyevaluatedwithrespecttothis
question.
Man andNature. Isthehumanacompetitorin aruthlessnatural
world,orisheanagentin aharmoniouslybalancednaturalworld?Or
isheseparatefromandsuperiortonature,whichheis todominatefor
hisownends?Mostcultureshaveassumedthatthehumanbeingwas
intrinsically
partofnature.TheSemitictraditionwasthusuniquein
settinghimapartfromnature.Itwasthistraditionthathasexertedthe
strongestinfluenceonWesternimagesofhumankindand,indeed,may
havebeenanecessaryconditionforthedevelopmentofappliedscience
as we
knowittoday.

59. 38 ChangingImages of Man
Mindversus Matter.Areweessentiallymind,consciousness,spirit? Or
arewecomposedofphysicalmatteralone,a constructioninwhomlife
andthoughtisbutacharacteristicof thestateof organizationofthe
material?Most cultureshaveseenthehumanasessentiallyspiritual;
onlywith
therise ofobjectivesciencehas thematerialisticemphasis
developed.
Mortal versusImmortal. Someimageshave deathastheendof in­
dividualexistence
andexperience.Othersholdthatthepersonhas a
soul
orspiritwhich continuestoexistconsciously afterphysicaldeath,
eitherbyreincarnationintoanotherbodyorbymovingontosome
othernon-materialplaneofexistence.Virtuallyallimagesof mansee
himassomehowsurvivingphysical death.
DivinityofHumanBeings.Arethedivineandthehumanessentially
distinct,
orisGodthehuman'sexperienceofuniversalreality ata
profoundlevel?Thisistheissuewhich mostclearlyseparatesthe
imagesof themysticalcoreofmost"high"religionsfromtheimages
popularizedintheirtraditionalteachings.
Individualversus Society,"Istheindividualimportantforhisown
sake,oris heimportantprimarilyas amemberofthegroup?Similarly,
is hevalued
forhisintrinsicuniqueness,orforhisextrinsicqualities
andskills?Theimagesof maninmostancientandmoderncultures
haveemphasizedhimas amemberof asociety andhavevalued him
forhisextrinsicqualities. Onlyinthehistoryof GreekandEuropean
culturehaveindividualismandindividualitycometo bevalued. And
onlyin theFrenchandAmericanRevolutionsdidindividualidentity
cometo beidealizedas thesourceoftheequalworthofpersons.
Progress.Isthereapositivefuturetowardwhichmanandsocietyare
moving?Oristhenotionofprogressabsent,replacedbyanimageof
theessentialunchangeabilityoftheworld?Althoughtheideaoflinear
progressappearstohaveoriginatedwithZoroasterandfromthenceto
have
influencedWesternthoughtgenerally,thenotionofthecontinu­
ingriseandfallonahumanandcosmicscale predominatesinother
cultures,findingitsmostnotableexpressionintheVedasof India.
Morality, Ethics, andRegulation. Onwhatkindofethicalprinciples
shouldhumanbehaviorbebased? Nakedpower?Divinerevelation?
Traditionalmyths?Democraticagreements?Althoughtheethical
aspectsofvariousimagesof
humankindhavebeenbasedonall of
•"Thisshouldbe atrichotomy ratherthanadichotomy-individualversusinstitution
versus
society."-MichaelMarien

60. Some Formative Images ofMan-in-the-Universe 39
these,theredoesseemto be anevolutionaryorderingthattakesplace
bothinindividualsandacrossculturesatdifferingstatesof develop­
ment.ThisideaisexploredfurtherinChapters6and7.
Table4representsourestimateofthe"centerofgravity"or"main­
stream"imagedominantintheUnitedStatestoday.We offerthis
estimatenotwithanyillusionthatit isvery accurateorthatit islikelyto
please
theholderofanyparticularimage,butrathertogetasenseof
thedominantimageofmanheldintheUnitedStatestodaywhichour
futureimageofmanwillcertainlyhaveto incorporateifwidespread
chaosanddisruptionduringatransitionperiodareto beminimized."
Table4
ATTRIBUTES OFTHEDOMINANT IMAGEIN CONTEMPORARY UNITED
STATES
Has freedom.Thepersonisconsciousandrational,havingfreedomofchoicecon­
trolledonly by
naturallawandsocialconstraints.
Is good.Peoplearebasicallygoodandhavegoodintentions; therearesomeexceptions
butthesestem fromanunfortunatesituationin life; as unfortunatesituationsincrease,it
isreasonableto
trustothersless.
Separate from nature.Thepersonissuperiortonature.Natureis toservehim,in
accordancewith
thedesignsthathumansapplybymeansoftechnology.Thehumanis
thehighest
being(eitherofcreationorevolution)andthereforehas arighttodominate
nature.
Materialand mortal. Thepersonis aphysicalbeing, composedoflivingmatter.He has
abody
andamindthatarerelated,yetseparate.Material concernscountformorethan
mentalorspiritualones.Existencemay well continueafterdeath,butweshouldnot
behaveas if thatweretrue.
Not divine.Althoughthehighestbeingincreation,thehumanisnotinanywaythe
sameasGod;reportedmysticexperiencesorrelationswith higherspiritualentities are
viewed withsuspicionoralarm.
Individualistic.Exceptin times ofwarorothernationalemergencies, thepersonhas a
righttoindividualisticpursuitsbutwith some socialobligations. Themeaningof life is to
be
foundinindividualfulfillment,whichincludes one'sfamilyandchildrenwho
representone'sownprogressthroughtime.
Pro-progress.Materialprogressisimportant;theindividual'spurposeis to beproduc­
tive, tochangetheworldfor hisbenefit andin sodoing,tolearnmoreabouthimselfand
theworld.Whetherthisprogressdoesor shouldapplytoman'snature,however,is much
lessclear.
Ethicallyindividualistand pragmatic. Althoughthereis acontinuingconcernforethical
progressandfulfillmentof thehighestideals of the culture,"right"(inpracticalterms)is
thatwhich works to theadvantageoftheindividual.
• See
NoteC, p. 41.

61. 40 ChangingImages of Man
Preciselyhow theAmericanCreedhasfaredsinceMyrdal's(1945)
observationsisdifficultforus to seeandhencesay,livingas we areinthe
midstoftheforcesforreformationandcounter-reformation.
Publicpolls inwhich theprinciplesoftheu.s.Constitutionandthe
Bill ofRights weretranslatedintoattitudequestionshave repeatedly
drawnsuchresponsesas"tooliberal,""toomuchindividualfreedom."
Yetmovementslikelaborunionismintheearly1900s, civilrights(for
minorities)in the1960s,andwomen'sliberationinthepresentdecade
typifytherepeatedemergenceofcollectiveattemptstomakethe
AmericanCreedmoreoperational.Whethersomesortofscientistic
"psycho-civilization"of
oursociety,orsomesortoftotalitariancontrol,
orsomenewunderstandingof howdemocraticprinciplescanfunction
adequatelywillemergeintheyearsahead-yearsthatwilllikelybring
increasinglysevere challengestoourpresentsystem-isunclear.What
doesseemclearisthatournationisfacingacrucialexistential
choice*-whethertheAmericanCreedis toremainviableduringeven
thenext25years.Theimageofhumankindthatdevelopsis a fun­
damentalpartofthatchoice.']
NOTES
Note A
"Generalsystemstheorypurportstoofferan entireworldview; unfortunately,the
Society for
GeneralSystemsResearch(SGSR) is a hundredor soindividualseachoffering
theirworldview, withoutanyinterestormechanism forsynthesis.
"The1954dataformoderntransdisciplinaryscience[givenin Table2] isnoneother
thanthefoundingdateof SGSR. Well, see mycommentsbelow. Inanyevent,I am
surprisedthatyouhavenospeculationas to thepossible periodsof thefuture.Agood
candidatefor thiswouldbe the 'MethodologyofPattern'proposedbyJuliusStulmanin
FieldsWithinFields, 5: 1 (1972),whichgoes well beyondthelinearscientistfoundin
generalsystemsthinking. OrseeOliverReiser, CosmicHumanism (Schenkman,1966).
"Naturalsystemsareopen,butman-madesystems(physical andsocial)arenot
necessarilyso,despitewell-intentioned butnaiveattemptstoimposebiological metaphors
onthem.Mostpeoplein generalsystemstheory-includingvonBertalanffyandLaszlo­
donothave anadequateunderstandingof social systems.Contrasttheirsimplistic
attemptstoimposeuniformitywith theworkofBertramM. Gross, e.g.The State of the
Nation: Social SystemsAccounting
(availableseparatelyor as monographinBauer'sSocial
Indicator,
MIT,1966).
"Youracceptanceof themindlessconventionalwisdomof generalsystemstheory
reinforcesmy contentionthatyouareneglectingan entirescientificculture-another
stateof consciousness-socialsciences,managerialsciences,decisionsciences,policy
sciences,or
whatever."-MichaelMarien
•Thedifficultywith the'Ournationisfacing-'rhetoricisthat95% of thenationisnot
awareof this choice-oris it99%?"-MichaelMarien
tSeeNoteD. p. 41.

62. Note B
Some Formative Images ofMan-in-the-Universe 41
"Twoimportantadditionalcharacteristicsof thisphilosophy needto beemphasized:
"(1)Itisbased,notonobservationof externalevents,butoninnerexperiences,on
observationsof innerevents,events takingplaceinconsciousness. Thusit isbased on
directpreceptionandobservation,justas isphysicalscience, andinthesameway,these
observations
andpreceptionsaresubjecttodifferentinterpretations.However,the
perennialphilosophyso-called,isessentiallyadistillationof theobservationsofthous­
andsofgiftedobservers throughouttheages.
"2.
Theteachingthatmanis amicrocosmicreplicaof themacrocosmic creationofGod.
Hermeticphilosophysummarizedthis in thesaying-'asabove,sobelow.' TheVedantain
the
expression-'Thouarethat.'Jesusin the saying-TheKingdomofHeaveniswithin
you.'
Theconclusionis thatbyobservingenergy-eventsinconsciousness, withinthe
nature,onecanattainto anunderstandingequalto orgreaterthanthatwhichcan be
gainedby
externalobservations-whichfromthispointof view, look atsurfacemani­
festationsonly.
"-RalphMetzner
NoteC
"[Hereyou have] a lostopportunity:You failed toconsiderimagesofwoman,or to
putitdifferently,youfailedto considertheimageof man,ascontrastedwithwoman.[For
example],theAssociationfor
HumanisticPsychologyanditssympathizerssuffer from
beingdesignatedan 'effeminate'organization.We aresoftinsteadof hard,tender
insteadof tough,cooperativeinsteadofcompetitive,intuitiveinsteadofcognitive,
concernedwithprocessinsteadofanalysis,expressive ratherthaninstrumental,etc.
"Theproblemisnotthatoursociety fails toacknowledgethe morehumaneideals,but
ratherthatitfeminizes and
d~mesticates theseideals andconsignsthemtohome,church,
school,andsuburb.In themeantimemenfightall the moreferociouslyin orderto
protectwiththeir'realism'this'sweetidealism.'In Nixon'sfamous'I see achild'speech,
headds:
I see agentle
Quakermother,with apassionate concernforpeace,quietly weeping
whenhewenttowar,butunderstoodwhy hehadto go....
"Yousee,weepingandpassionandpeaceandunderstandingareallfor women.In fact
it is thefunctionofNixon's
motherandotherwomentoprovidesufficientemotional
supportsothathecan'makeit' in apolitical,commercial,legal, andinternationaljungle,
fromwhichfeminizedidealshave beenexcluded.
"Actuallyboth'male'and'female'imagessuffer throughthis'schizogenesis.'
Cooperationandpassionaretrivializedandsentimentalizedbyrestricting themtothe
nuclearfamily andthegardensuburb.Inthemeantimetheworldsofpolitics and
commercegrowbrutalforlack of (falselyfeminized) virtues."-CharlesHampden­
Turner
NoteD
"Theidea ofmanas astudent of life,or aseekerof wisdom,isonethathas thegreatest
relevanceto thetransitionsof society thatweareinvolvedin. Thecontemporary
Americanideal, while it has a placefortherole ofstudent,tendstothinkof it as
temporary.BycontrastthePerennialPhilosophythinksof manas always astudentof
life, or of
Tao,or of Reality, or of the'ActualDesign'as we call it inActualism.Laotse,
oneof thegreatestof theChinesesages,said Thewisemanseventyyears of age, in tune
withTao,doesnothesitateto ask achildofseven andlearnfromit.'
"Theseeker,orstudentof life, seeks togaininsight andunderstandingby(1)
exploringhis ownconsciousness and(2)studyingmanas amicrocosmiccreation.He may
also,
undercertaincircumstances, studyin aschool,oftenreferredto inancienttimesas a
'MysterySchool,'
orwith ateacherorguide.In suchaschoolhedoes notstudyacademic
Cl M
_E

63. 42 ChangingImages of Man
subjects;ratherhestudieshimself,in ordertoexpandhisawareness, sensrtizehis
perception,andenhancethecapabilityforexpressinghiscreativeself inaction.
"Theideaof manas astudentof life alsosuggestsa remedyforsomeof the
deficiencies
producedbyourideasof happinessasbeingequivalenttoeconomic
productionandconsumption.Thenwe havethedegradingspectacleof menandwomen
intheirfiftiesandsixties, nolongereconomicproducers,beingleft tovegetatein
retirementcommunities.Bycontrast, thereexistedin India,untilnottoolongago, the
conceptof thehouseholder,whoafterdischarginghisobligationsto society andfamily,
havingraisedhis
childrentoadulthood,retiredfromhisbusinessorprofession and
enteredameditationtrainingcenterorashram,orworkedwith aguru,todevotetherest
of his life
tothestudyofconsciousnessandself-understanding.
"Basedon thisconcept onecanenvisionolderpeoplerevitalizingtheirlife-goalsand
attitudesintoaspiritually oriented,creativenewdirection, thatwouldallow thetradi­
tional'wisdomof old
age'to bere-integratedintothecommunallife in aconstructive
manner.
"Theimageof manas aseekerorstudentof life fills all thecharacteristicsof an
adequatefutureimage,as postulatedinChapter5.Itemphasizesthecooperative
approachtonatureandtootherhumanbeingsratherthanthecompetitive,exploitative,
thustheecologicalperspective.
Anditfocuseshumanpotential,thustheevolutionary
perspective.
Anditundercutsthearroganceofdogmatism,whetherscientificor reli­
gious,whichshutsoffawarenessof theaspectsof lifeoutsidethe
currenttheoriesand
beliefsystems. "-RalphMetzner

64. "Theway Ilookat it,there'sapricetag
oneverything.You want a high standard ofliving,
you settle for a lowqualityoflife."
Reproducedbypermissionof J.B.Handelsman.
44

65. CHAPTER 3
EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors
Theimperativesoftechnology andorganization,nottheimagesofideology, are
whatdeterminetheshapeofeconomicsociety ....I am led totheconclusionthatwe
aretheservantsin thought,as inaction,of themachineswe have createdtoserveus.
J.K.Galbraith(1967)
Technology...hasbecomethe primesourceofmaterialchangeandsodetermines
thepatternof the total socialfabric.
R.
j.Forbes(1968)
Theabovequotationsreflecta prevailingsensethattechnologicaland
economicdevelopmentshavehadadominantinfluenceuponthe
patternofourtotalsocietalfabric. Indeed,industrialismisoneofthe
mostpotentandwidelyspreadcultural/societalsystemsin human
history.InAmerica,nomoderninstitutionhasescapeditsinfluence:
theschool,thefamily,thecommunityandcity,thechurch,allhave
beeninfluencedbythisprimarydrivingforceof themodernera
(MillerandForm,1967).Thus,theindustrialrevolutioninmodern
timesreferstomorethanmachinesandmarkets;itrefersalso tothe
peopleandinstitutionslocked intoanetworkofrelationships
dominatedbyeconomicandtechnologicalforces. Thepervasivenessof
economicforcessuggests thatwecannotanticipatetheimagesof
humankindthatmightemergewithoutgivingconsiderationtothetugs
andpullsof economicandtechnologicalinfluences.
SOURCESOF THEECONOMIC IMAGEOF MAN
Thesocialeffectsof theIndustrialRevolutionmarkedlytransformed
thelivesandactionsofindividualsinEurope,especiallyby themid­
nineteenthcentury.Forexample,theemergenceoftheconceptof
"factorsofproduction"(land,labor,andcapital)hadrevolutionary
implicationsfortheWesternimageofhumankind.Humans(thelabor
component)werenolongerapartoftheorganicwholeofsociety;
rather,theperson,thelaborer,becameanobjectifiedandstandardized
45

66. 46 ChangingImages of Man
componentoftheproductionprocess.Thetendencyto seepeopleas
mereunitsintheproductionprocess,boughtinanimpersonalmarket­
placeandforcedtosubmittothedictatesof thefactoryin orderto
survive,was
reinforcedbythepost-mercantilistsocio-economic
ideologyof
laissez-jaire,whichdiscouragedgovernmentinterventionin
economicactivities.Theimageinherentinthissettingcouldreasonably
bedescribedas"economicman":
• rationalistic(able tocalculate whatwas in his ownself-interest),
• mechanistic(afactorof production),
•individualistic(withgreatresponsibilityto take careofhimself),
• materialistic(witheconomicforcesactingas primaryifnotexclusiverewardand
controlmechanisms).
Inadditiontothechangesineconomicstructurethatlaidthe
groundworkforamarketeconomyandfactory-dominatedsociety,we
also
canidentifysomeofthebasicvalue premisesthatemergedduring
theperiodoftheRenaissance.Thisisimportantsincemanyelements
ofthedominantimagesof humankindcurrentlyheldbyoursociety
havetheiroriginsin theRenaissanceanditsaftermath,andcanbe
inferredfromthevaluepremisesofthatera.Thesevaluepremisesare
discussedbrieflybelow.
Rationalism.Reasonwaselevatedto apinnacleintheeighteenth­
centuryAgeofEnlightenment:"Reasonwoulddiscoverthenatural
lawsregulatingexistence,therebyinsuringtheprogressofthehuman
race"(Brintonet al.,1955, p. 47). Anumberofthreadsformedthe
intellectualfabricofrationalism.First, therewastherejectionof
revelationas asourceoftruth.Truthwas nolongersomethingthatwas
foundthroughareligiousintermediaryanddivinerevelation; rather,
truthwasdiscoverable throughempiricalobservationoftheworld.
Second,theredevelopedaninvidiousdistinction betweenreasonand
emotion.Therationalmodeofperceptionbecamedominantsincethat
wasthemodemostusefulindealingwithaphysicalworld. "Theway
was
pavedfortheincreasingpreoccupationinmoderntimeswith
phenomenathatweresusceptibleto mathematicalandmechanical
treatment,andfortheincreasingsuppressionofnon-mechanicaland
so-called'irrationalexperience'"(May, 1966, p. 59).Thissuppression
ofthenon-mechanicalwenthand-in-handwiththeindustrializing
process,forthatwhichcouldbecalculatedandmeasuredhadpractical
utilityin
theindustrialworldandwhatwasirrationaldidnot.
Individualism.Inearliersocieties,humansperceivedthemselvesas
inseparablecomponentsoftheseamlessweb of beingwhichextended

67. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 47
throughouttheirnaturalandsocialenvironments(Lovejoy,1939). For
example,
TotheGreek,the city-state was notmerelya legalstructure;it was a way of life.
Everyaspectof dailyexistencewasintimatelyconnectedwith it.
Theindividual
derivedhisimportancefrom hisrelationto thestate;he was viewed as a citizen who
dependson the stateandwho cancontributeto itswelfare.But it is thestate thatis
omnipotent.
(Rima, 1967, p. 4)
ManalsohadacollectivistimageofthepersonduringtheMiddle
Ages:
"Eachcitizen,serforpriestorknight,knewhisplacein the
hierarchyofchurchandfeudalism;andallemotionswerechanneledin
communityandreligiousceremonies"(May, 1966, p. 57).Withthe
RenaissanceandReformationcamea newbeliefin thepowerand
dignityoftheindividual.Therearosea newconfidencethataperson
couldovercomeproblemsandforgea life by hisorherowneffortsand
byfollowingthepromptingsofone'sownconscience.
SecularProgress. Astheemphasisshiftedfromcollectivismto in­
dividualism,so
thefocusof attentionto lifeonearthandattainmentsin
thehereandnow,ratherthanrewardsin lifehereafter.Peoplecameto
see
theirfutureinanoptimisticperspective.No longerwashappiness
somethingto begainedinanafterlife-happinesscouldbefoundin
this life.
Thisoptimismwasgroundedin afaiththatthefuturewould
proveto becongenialoratleastneutraltothestrivingsof the
individual(Heilbroner,1959, p. 27).Thiscorrespondedwithafaithin
thepowerofscience.
NaturalLaw. Theredevelopedabeliefin apre-established harmony
intheuniverse,a naturallaw ofexistence. Initseconomic.form,this
was
thebeliefthatifeverypersonpursuedtheirownself-interestfor
materialgain,thenthewell-beingofsocietyas awhole wouldbe
enhanced.
ManasMaster",Mancametothinkofhimselfas uniquelyapart
fromnaturesothatit was hisdestinyto masterthenaturalenviron­
ment.Therootsof this conceptofman'srelationshipto hisenviron­
mentcanbetraced,inpart,toJudeo-Christiantraditions."Especially
in its
Westernform,Christianityis themostanthropocentricreligion
theworldhasseen.Christianity ...notonlyestablisheda dualismof
• Forpurposesofemphasis,thegenericterm "man"wasnotchangedto"humankind"
as inothersections.

68. 48 ChangingImages of Man
manandnaturebutalsoinsistedthatit isGod'swillthatmanexploit
natureforhisproperends"(White,1967, p. 1205). Withtheindustrial
periodcametheconvergenceofoperationalimagesof manandtech­
nological
meanswherebymancouldmasterhisenvironment.
Materialism.Inthisperiod,thesatisfactionof theindividual's
materialwantsbecamenotonlyanecessaryactivity butadesirableone
as well.Where,inthepast,theacquisitionofwealthhadbeendisdain­
fully
regarded,atleasttheoretically,it now wasstronglyfavored.
Calvinism,as it
cameto beapplied,suggestedthatone'slifehereon
earthmighthintatone'sultimatedestinationintheafterlife-tobe
"called"toone'sworkandbediligentinworldlyendeavorswhile
maintainingaspiritofrectitudewasoutwardevidenceof dedicationto
areligiouslife.
Thus,"theenergeticmerchantwas, inCalvinisteyes,a
Godly
man,notanungodlyone;andfromthisidentificationof work
withworth,it wasnotlongbeforethenotiongrewupthatthemore
successfula man,themoreworthyhewas"(Heilbroner,1968, p. 60).
Althoughtheroleofthe"ProtestantEthic"intheindustrializing
processshouldnotbeoverlyemphasized,"itisstrikingthatwithout
exceptionit wastheProtestantcountrieswiththeir'Puritanstreak'of
workandthriftwhichforgedaheadintheeconomicrace"(Heilbroner,
ibid.).
Thecompatibilityamongthesevalue premisesisstrikingandit is
suggestiveof
theextenttowhichthese premisescollectivelyformedan
imageof manaspossessorofatremendousdynamismforalteringthe
conditionsof humanexistence.Thisis wellsummarizedbyWoodruff
(1966)whoexaminestheimpactofEuropeanideasupontheworldand
concludes:
No civilizationpriorto theEuropeanhadoccasion to believe in thesystematic
materialprogressof
thewholehumanrace; no civilization placed such stressupon
thequantityratherthanthequalityof life; no civilizationdroveitself sorelentlessly
to anever-recedinggoal; no civilization was sopassion-chargedtoreplacewhatis
with what could be; no civilization hadstrivenas the West has
donetodirectthe
worldaccordingto its will; no civilization hasknownso fewmomentsof peace
and
tranquility.(p. 16)
Althoughthesevalue premisesdidnotspecifytheexactformofsociety
thatwouldevolve, theydidarticulatethegroundrules,so tospeak,
fromwhichitwould emerge.Andin thisfunctiontheyformeda
resilient,
potent,andenduringbasefortheadventofthemodern
industrialera.Butastheindustrialsystemgives way to its socio­
economicsuccessor,so
shouldtheimagesofhumankind,thevalues,
andtheconceptualmilieuyield to theoffspringtheyhavehelped
create.

69. Economic Man:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 49
THEIMAGE OFECONOMIC MAN IN THE
CONTEMPORARY SETTING
Oursocietyseemsto havereachedthatpointinAmericanhistory
whereourdominantimageofeconomicmannolongerfitsthephysical
reality.Untilrecently,
thebasicvaluepremises ofindividualism,secular
progress,materialism,andsoon,havebeencommonplaceinAmerican
societyandgavesupporttosocietalchangeintheformoftheindustrial
system.Further,theseimagecomponents,growingoutoftheRenais­
sance,
weresufficientlyembracingintheirinterpretationandflexible in
theiradaptationtoencompassa widerangeofsocietalchangeswithout
themselvesfundamentallychanging-forexample,theoreticalnotions
oftheessentialequalityof all humankind,whichhaveonlyvery
recently,
andstillnotfully,beenincorporatedintosocietyas apractical
reality.
Butintheprocessofhistoricalevolution, merelyaslight
differencein
ratesofchangecaneventuallycreateasignificantdis­
paritybetweenimagesandsocietalexperience.This"lead-lag"
phenomenon-shownin itsgeneralversionearlieras Fig. 1andrelated
specificallyto theeconomicimageofmanin Fig.8-takesonadded
Post­
industrial
period
Transition
(present)
Livingenvironment
"" / Gop with
""/,J/image
II/logging
Industrial
period
Gapwith
image leading
"Pre-industrial"
Q)
0'
C
o
.c
u
'0
Q)
E
o,
Time
Fig. 8.Hypothesizedinteractionbetweentheeconomicmanandsociety."
•"Youhavemadesuperbuse ofPolak, andyourdiagramshaveaddedsignificantlyto
his
ownconceptualizationsof theprocessandingredientsofimagechange."-Elise
Boulding
"Thisdiagramis toosimplistic."-MargaretMead

70. 50 ChangingImages of Man
significancewhenappliedtotheparticularhistoricalperiodsincethe
IndustrialRevolution.
InFig. 8, aportrayalofthisperiod,theeconomicimageis at first
anticipatory;inotherwords,it isoperatingas a set of"groundrules"
providingdirectiontosocietalchangeasindustrialismemerges.The
gentleslopeof imagechangeinthelaterportionsoftheindustrial
periodsuggeststhattheeconomicimagecontinuestochange,butin a
slow
evolutionaryway as it isarticulatedto adegreethroughinter­
actionwiththechanginglivingenvironment.Alsoduringthisstage,the
livingenvironmentisgradually,andthenwithincreasingmomentum,
beingalteredso as toconformwiththerationaleoftheanticipatory,
economicimageofman.Thenfollows a"short"periodofrelative
congruenceormatchbetweenthisimageandthelivingenvironment.
Theperiodofcongruencedoesnotlastforlongsincetheeconomic
imageofman,whichhas becomefirmlyembeddedinthewholesocietal
framework,providesabaseforfurtherchangesinthelivingenviron­
ment.Amongthesechangesareincreasingurbanization,increasing
materialabundance,growingenergyutilization,andexpandingtrans­
portationandcommunicationnetworks.Changesin thisliving
environmentthenproceedrapidlyinaccordwithaninternaldynamic
thatcan"overshoot"theimagebasefromwhichtheinitialmomentum
derived.Inthislaterphase,theeconomicimageofmanmustincreas­
ingly
adaptitselfto therealitiesof thealteredlivingenvironmentif it is
to be a
supportiveimage.However,suchchangeintheunderlying
imageofmanisdifficultto securesincetheimageis so basic tothe
society's"worldview"thatitchangesonlyveryslowly andwithgreat
effort;thus,theimageincreasinglylags behindsocietalchangesanda
gapormismatchgrows.Whenthismismatchbetweentheimageand
therealitiesof theenvironmentbecomestoogreat,thereissocietal
disruption-arisingfromasevereloss of meaning,purpose,anddirec­
tion.
This,inturn,setsthestageforbasicreadjustmentbetweenthe
imageofhumankindandthesocietalcontext."
ThePovertyofOurAbundance
Therearetwousefulwaysofassessingwhethertheforegoinganaly­
sis is
relevanttochangingimagesin ourera.First,we cannotethatthe
economicimagewasbornat atimewhenscarcityandabjectpoverty
werefacts of life.Thequestionemerges,aretheystillsuchdominant
facts of lifethattheimageretainsappropriatenessfororganizingour
•Readersmay want to referback toTable2 (page 6) foradditionalillustrationsof
"overshoot."

71. Economic Man: Servant to IndustrialMetaphors 51
collective
andindividualbehavior?Second,wecannotetheoperational
valuepremisesthataccruefromthisimage-premisesthatareinferred
fromtheway inwhichpeoplebehaveratherthanwhattheysay.These
premises,inturn,canberelatedtothepresentsocietalenvironment
andtheircontinuedappropriatenessfororganizinganddirectingour
behaviorcanbeevaluated.Thesepointsarediscussedbelow.
JohnMaynardKeynes(1930) anticipatedtheprofounddisorientation
andlossofmeaningthatmightoccurwhenasocietyachieveda
conditionofrelativeaffluence butcontinuedtodealwithit as ifthere
werecontinuingscarcity.
Theeconomicproblem,thestruggleforsubsistence,always has beenhithertothe
primary,mostpressingproblemof thehumanrace.....Thuswe havebeen
expresslyevolvedby nature-withallourimpulsesanddeepestinstincts-forthe
purposeofsolvingtheeconomicproblem.Iftheeconomicproblemissolved,
humankindwill bedeprivedof itstraditional purpose.Thusforthefirst time since
his
creationmanwill be faced with hisreal,his permanentproblem-howto use his
freedomfrompressingeconomiccares ....Thereis nocountryandnopeople,I
think,who canlook forwardto the age ofleisure andofabundancewithoutadread.
Forwe havebeentrainedtoolongtostriveandnottoenjoy.(p. 211)
ThatwearerapidlyapproachingthispointinAmericaisdramatic­
allyillustratedbydatawhichshow changesinpovertylevelsand
medianfamilyincomelevelsoverthelast40years. Therehasbeena
veritable
revolutioninaffluence-bothinmagnitudeandintherapi­
ditywithwhichit was acquired.Inroughlythespaceofhalfalifetime,
from1929 to 1969,theproportionofthetotalU.S. populationin
povertyfellfrom60percentto 12percent(Allen,1952; CensusBureau,
1970).Medianfamilyincomesrose, in1969dollars,from$2100 (esti­
mated)in 1939 to $9433 in 1969andwillriseto anestimated$22,000 by
theyear2000(Census Bureau,1970;PopulationCommission,1972).
Therecanbe nodoubtthatthisunprecedentedmaterialwealth,
acquiredsorapidly,representsaquantumdeparturefrompastcon­
ditions.
Fromthisevidencealone,it isclearthatonecouldexpecta
disjunctionbetweenthefunctionalroleofourtraditionalimagesof
humankindandthenewmaterialrealitytheyconfront.Inthewordsof
thesocialpsychologist, KennethKeniston(1965):
Withtheage-oldgoal ofuniversal prosperitywithinsight,we mustquestionwhether
themethods-technologicalvaluesandvirtues,the instrumentalgoals ofouraffluent
society-thathelpusapproachthis goal will serve to take usbeyondit. (p. 428)
Obviously,theforegoingdataandcommentsshouldnotbeinter­
pretedas asuggestionthattherearenolongerseriousproblemsof
povertyinoursociety.Thiscannotbethecasewhen12percentofthe
U.S.populationinpovertytranslatesas 25million people.Whatcanbe
questionediswhetheracontinuationofscarcitynotionswillhelp

72. 52 ChangingImages of Man
peoplegetoutofpoverty.Inmanyrespects,thesocietalreforms
necessaryto copewithpoverty(e.g.redistributionofincome) have
muchincommonwiththereformsnecessaryto copewiththeproblems
ofaffluence.Therefore,thesearemorecomplementarythancompet­
ingconcerns.
Forthosewhonowexistinrelativeaffluence,scarcity premisesmay
stillseemappropriateforpsychologicalratherthanmaterialreasons.
Thenatureof thisperennialscarcityisdiscussedbyEasterlin(1973) in
hisarticle,
"Doesmoneybuyhappiness?":
Eachpersonactsontheassumptionthatmoremoneywillbringmorehappiness;
and,indeed,if hedoesget moremoney,andothersdonot(or get less), his
happinessincreases.
Butwheneveryoneacts on thisassumptionandincomes
generallyincrease,no
one,ontheaverage,feels betteroff. Yeteach persongoes on,
generationaftergeneration,unawareof theself-defeatingprocessinwhichhe is
caughtup. (p. 10)
Thus,thepurchaseofhappinessisanillusoryphenomenon,"adistant,
urgentlysought,butneverattainedgoal"(Easterlin,1973, p. 10).
Despite
thecontemporarysuccessin creatingscarcitywhichis in­
creasinglypsychological,
therearereasonstobelievethat"manufac­
turedwant"willnotlongendureinoursociety.First,we aredestined
torun,soonerorlater,againstthelimitsofworld resources.For
example,weareseeingtheselimitsreachedinfood andenergy
shortages.Second,ourmaterialabundanceseemsto havebeenac­
companiedby adisturbingspiritual,personal,andsocialpoverty.
Etzionisuggests
thatthehedonisticthrustofthemorerecentperiodof
industrialismariseswhen"oldpatternsofmeaningerodewithout
beingreplacedby a newset"(1972, p. 6).Thus,wehave foundonly
ephemeralandtransientmeaningthroughourconsumptionbehavior.
However,humanneedsarehierarchicallyorderedsuchthathigher
needsemergewhenlowerneedsaresatisfied(Maslow,1962;Graves,
1967).
Thisimpliesthatas webecomerelativelysatiatedmaterially,
otherneedswillarise-friendship,love,self-actualization,community
withothers-toassumeaplaceofprimaryimportanceinpeople'slives.
Inturn,thissuggeststhatprofounddisorientationmayoccurwhenour
underlyingimageofeconomicmancontinuestoexhortus tobehave
andfindmeaningin a way of lifethatisinimicalto thefulfillmentof
thesenewlyemergentneeds.
ThePresentMismatchbetweenPremisesandSocietalRealities
Thereareanumberofinferablevaluepremisesthatcharacterizethe
workingsof oursociety.Theymayneverhavebeendeclaredasguiding

73. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 53
premises,butthebehaviorsandpoliciesduringtheindustrialperiod
suggestthatthey,ortheircloserelatives, musthavebeenatwork.
Belowwe list a
numberofsuchpremiseswhichseempossibly
obsolescent.Since
thesearetoomanytodiscussin anydetail,seventhat
haveparticularrelevancetotheimageofeconomicmanareamplifiedin
thediscussion.
POSSIBLYOBSOLESCENT PREMISES THAT
TYPIFYTHERECENTINDUSTRIALERA
(1)Thatprogressissynonymouswithgrowthof GNP,that quality of life isfurtheredby a
system of economics based onever-increasingconsumption.
(2)
Thattheindividualshouldbe free to make his own choice of "thegood,"and that the
choices he makes inpursuitof
self-interestwill somehowaddup todesirableoverallsocietal
choices.
Thatpeopleareessentiallyseparate,so that littleintrinsicresponsibilityis felt for the effect
ofpresentactions onremoteindividualsorfuturegenerations.
(3)
Thathumankindisseparatefromnature,and hence it isourdestinyto masternature.
(4)
The"technologicalimperative"thatanytechnologythatcan bedeveloped,and any
knowledgethatcan
beapplied,should be.
Thatthesearchforknowledgeisappropriatelydominatedby utilitarianvalues­
sciencesupportedto theextent thatitpromisesnewmanipulativetechnologies.
Thattheaggregateknowledgeof specializedexpertsconstituteswisdom.
Thatboth societalgrowthandprotectionofone'sowninterestsare best served by
competitiveaggressivebehaviors.
(5)Thatmanisrationaland thatreductionismin positivistic scientificthinkingis the
approachto knowledge most to
betrusted.
(6)
Thatindividualidentityis tobeequatedwithmaterialpossessionsacquired and/or
occupationalstatus achieved.
(7)
Thatthereis freedominaffluence,thatit is possible forpeopleto earn"enough"money,
andsimultaneouslyhave fullfreedomof choice.
Thatthefutureof theplanetcan safely be left toautonomous nation-states,operating
essentiallyindependently.
The"politicalpremise" that"whatoughttobe"is not ameaningfulconceptbecause it
is not achievable.
Thateconomicefficiencyshouldbepursuedindefinitelythroughtheorganizationand
division of labor and thereplacementofhumansby machines.
PremiseOne:thatprogress is synonymous with growth ofGNPandthat
growthisinherentlygood.Itis now wellacceptedthatgrossmeasures
ofgrowthsuchasGNPdonottell us agreatdealaboutoursociety's
welfare.
Forexample,thelevel ofpollutioniscorrelatedwiththelevel
of
GNP:thequestionarises,whatisgrowing-pollutionorsocial
well-being?Given
thedestructiveas well asbenevolentpotentialofour
powerfuleconomy,wecannolongeraffordblindlyto acceptthe
premisethat"biggerisbetter"and"growthisgood."Themomentum
ofsuchanideologymaybesuicidal.
Whenwecombineourgrowthethicwitha passionforhard,
numericalevidenceofgrowth,we findthatwetendtomaximizemost
whatwecanmeasurebest:theGNP,therateofemployment,yearsof

74. 54 ChangingImagesof Man
educationreceived,thenumberofcarsproduced,andsoon.While
theseindicesofsuccess areuseful,theytendtorelegatemoresub­
jective
measuresofsuccess(aesthetic maturity,capacityforlove,
environmentalquality)to aninferiorstatus.Further,"hard"measures
ofgrowthsuchasGNPgive a falsesenseofsecurity,as longastheyare
goingup,becausetheysidestepthecrucialquestion:abundancefor
what?
PremiseTwo:thatthereis anaturallaw ofbeneficial self-interest
whichassuresusthatwhenpersonsact intheirowncompetitive,
materialself-interest,thepublicgoodis wellserved.Initseconomic
form,thisbeliefin a harmonybetweenindividualself-interestandthe
welfareofsocietyas awholewas theessenceof thelaissez-faireconcept.
Thereareseveralproblemswiththis premise.Adifferentdescription
ofthis"natural"law isthat:if we setupa socialframeworkinwhich
peopleareencouragedto begenerous,mostofthemwill rise tothe
occasion;set uponewhichencouragesthemto beselfish,andmostwill
sinktothatlevel.Thus,theassumptionthathumankindismotivated
onlyby immediateself-interestmaywell beanotheroftheself-fulfilling
hypothesesofsociety.Havinghelpedcreateaworldinwhich human
relationshipsareincreasinglyforcedintothemarketplace,we find
superbconfirmationoftheinitialdogma,thathumankindisgoverned
bymarketplacemotives(Claiborne,1971).Theincompatibilityof this
motivationwithhumanactualizationis summarizedbyMelvinTumin
(1964):
...onemay fairly saythatwhatbusinessstandsfor,ideologicallyinsists uponand
triesto getadoptedasgeneralprinciplesof conduct,rundirectlyagainst andreduce
thechancesofevokingaffection andlove asprinciplesofrelationship ...inpromot­
ingthemesquiteinimicaltoidentification,affection, andsignificantmembership,
businesstherebyandtothatextenttendstobringout,standardize,andrewardthe
mostunsocialimpulsesin man.(p. 130)
Notonlydoesthisdiminishedconceptionofpersonsexistin therealm
ofbusinesspractice,it is supportedbyeconomictheorywhichhas
"still
anunmistakableauraofeighteenth-centurypleasure-pain
psychology..."(Rima,1967).
PremiseThree:thathumankindis separatefromnature andit is its
obligationto
conquernature.Humankind,solongsubservientto
nature,nowfindsitselfin anincreasinglypowerfulroleas thecreator
of itsownenvironmentalcontext.However,giventhehighlyinter­
dependentlinksin theecologicalchain,ourcapacityformanipulation
oftheenvironmentmustgive way toanenlargedsenseofsymbiotic
responsibility.
PremiseFour:thatthetechnologicalimperative, theincreasingability

75. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 55
andhencerequirementtoshapeandcontroltheenvironment,includ­
ingpeople,isanunqualifiedgood.Thisisrelatedtotheutilitarianbias
in
thesearchforknowledge,sothatonlythatknowledgeispursued
whichpromisesnewmanipulativetechnologies.The"technological
imperative"-thatanytechnologywhichispossibleis, ipso facto,neces­
sary
anddesirabletoapply-isnowconflictingonoccasionwith what
maybecome"socialimperatives."Forexample,becausetheSSTwas
possibleit was
presentedtotheAmericanpublicasnecessaryand
desirable.Thepublic,however,decidedthatit wasneither,andafter
anextendednationalfuror,theprojecthadto beabandoned.Weare
beginningtoweighthesocial,psychological, andenvironmentalcosts
againsttheworthofsuchproductsoftechnology.
PremiseFive:thatwearefirstandforemostrationalbeings and
feelingshouldbesubordinatedasaninferioraspectofournature.
Thillisanunderstandablepremiseinthatitsupporteddevelopmentof
thecognitiveskills neededintheindustrializingprocess.However,this
empiricalviewrelegates thespeculativeworldofart,music,poetry,and
religionto apositionoflesserreality. Howthenarewe to givemeaning
to life inanaffluentsocietyif the"higher"pursuitsofpeoplemustbe
subordinatedas"lower"inordertoproducethataffluence?We must
realizethedehumanizinginfluenceinthesuppressionofthenon­
rationalhumanpotentials.
PremiseSix:thatindividualidentityandsuccessin life areto be
measuredbymaterialpossessionsacquiredand/oroccupationalstatus
achieved.
Thebiblicalinjunctionagainstthiskindofthinkingis to
inquirewhatitprofitsa persontogaintheworldbutto lose hissoul.
However,one'ssoulhas becomeredundantin aworldsecularizedby
affluence;
"themosteffectiveway toestablish[identify]distinctionsis
throughstyles ofconsumption"(Downs,p. 64). Fortunemagazine
recentlyreportedthatintheconsumermarketofthe1970sthereis
anincreasinginsistenceby the customersonusingconsumptiontoexpressthem­
selves, tohelpinfashioningtheirownidentities....Forincreasingnumbersof
Americans,
theclothestheywear arenotsimplymaterialobjects; onthecontrary,
theyareviewed...as themostbasicexpressionof life style,indeedofidentityitself.
(Silberman,1971)
PremiseSeven:thatthereisfreedom in affluence.Wehavetraditionally
assumedthatifpeoplecansimultaneouslyearn"enough"moneyand
begiven"freedom"ofchoice,theycantakecareofthemselves.The
fallacyof this view lies inbelieving thereis noconflict betweenearning
themoneyandthefreedomofchoicethatisthenavailable.Thevery
act of
earning"enough"moneyconstrainsthenumberof social,

76. 56 ChangingImages of Man
psychological,political, andphysicalchoices thatonecanmake.Mar­
garetMeadhaspointedoutthattointroduceclothgarments
(effectively)intoagrass-orbark-cladpopulation,onemustsimul­
taneouslyintroduceclosets,soap,sewing,andfurniture.Clothispart
of acomplexculturalpatternthatincludesstoring,cleaning,mending,
andprotecting(Slater,1970). Imagine,then,theculturalconstraints
implicitin oursocietywhichis so ladenwithgoodsandservices.Thus,
therealphilosophyunderlying"freedominaffluence"is thatonceyou
haveenoughmoneyto befreefromwant,thenallfurtherincomegives
youthefreedomtowant-aslongasyouwantonlymorematerial
goodsandservices.Thispremiserunsafoulifwantsarise thatcannot
belargelysatisfiedby materialmeans.
Theprecedingdiscussionis onlysuggestiveof thepotentialmis­
matchbetweenourinferablevaluepremisesandthesocietalcontextin
which
theyareoperable.Thislack ofcongruencecallsintoquestion,at
a
deeperlevel,theutilityanddesirabilityof theeconomic"imageof
man."Itisdifficultto tell whenandhowcongruence-andthereby
meaninganddirection-willbereestablishedinoursocialorder.There
are,however,severalforces forresolutionthatwill likely beinvolvedas
a
higherlevel ofreintegrationemerges.
GOINGBEYOND: INSEARCHOFIMAGE/SOCIETY RESOLUTION
Therearetwodistinguishablemethodsbywhichcongruencemightbe
reestablished:
1.Thetrajectoryoftheindustrialstatedynamicmaybesustained
andtheimageofhumankindadaptedto fitthatdynamic.
2.
Theindustrialstatedynamicmaybeeitherself-limitingorlimited
bysocietyso as to
conformtotheguidinginfluenceof anewly
emergentimageofman.
Ineitherevent,theeconomicimageishypothesizedtorequire
change;however,thenatureofthatchangeisquitedifferentforthe
tworesponses.Althoughthesetwoalternatives areanoversim­
plificationof
theinterdependentprocessofsocietal evolutionwhich
inevitablyimplies
thedialecticalinteractionbetweenimagesand
environment,nonethelesstheydoalertus tothefollowingquestions:
• Howpowerfulistheindustrialdynamic?
•
Canwecontrolthatpower?
• Do we have
emergingimagesof mantodirectit?

77. Economic Man:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors
ThePoweroftheIndustrialState
57
Technologicalchangehasanunquestionedprimacyinvirtuallyevery
areaofourcollectiveexistence. Itprovidesthemotorforthecontinual
socialchangetowhichwe mustsomehowadapt(Keniston,1965).
Duringtheindustrialperiod,theforcesof economic/technological
changewereunleashedbuttheagenciesforthecontrolorguidanceof
technologywerestillrudimentary(Heilbroner,1967).Thustech­
nological
advancebecameanear-autonomousdrivingforce,bringing
aboutmajorchangesinthetotalsocialfabric. Thesocietyis under
pressuretoreviseits underlying"metaphorsofmeaning"orimages
of
manso as toconformtothenewconditionstechnologyhascreated.
Thepowerfulstructuringinfluenceofeconomicforcesupon
developedsocietiesis dramaticallyillustratedbythefactthatin­
dustrialismcreatesstandardizedsocietalformswhicharestrongenough
totranscendtraditionallydistinctive culturalboundariesand
differences.Alex Inkeles,whohasdoneextensiveanddetailedcross­
culturalstudiesof this phenomenon,writesthat:
Thereissubstantialevidence, overa wideattitudinalandexperimentalrange,that
perceptions,opinionsandvaluesaresystematicallyorderedinmodernsocieties....
Modernsociety...ismoreorlessuniqueintheextenttowhichit produces
standardizedcontextsof experience.
(Inkeles,1969, p. 2)
Otherextensivecross-cultural studieshavereachedsimilarconclusions.
AdelmanandMorris(1967), in astudyofeconomicgrowthand
socio-politicalchangeinseventy-fourcountries,statethat:
Duringthisprocessof successivedifferentiation[whichaccompanieseconomic
development],theeconomicaspectsof thesocietybecomeincreasingly
moreim­
portantandmoreexplicituntil,at thefullydevelopedstage,economiccon­
siderationshavebecomea
powerfulforcein shapingnationalbehavior.(p. 267)
Thus,itdoesseemplausibleto concludethateconomicprocessesand
productsarecreatinganinterlockingnetworkofvalues,institutions,
incentives,physical
structures,andsocialstructuresthatexactcon­
formityasthepriceforinhabitingthissocietalenvironment.Oncewe
havecreatedalivingenvironment,wearedestinedto beproductsof
thatwhichwe havecreated.Wecannotstartafresh.
ReneDubosmakes
thepointthat:
Theenvironmentmencreatethroughtheirwantsbecomesa mirrorthatreflects
theircivilization;moreimportantlyit alsoconstitutesa bookinwhichiswritten the
Cf M - F

78. 58 ChangingImages of Man
formulaof lifethattheycommunicatetoothersandtransmittosucceedinggenera­
tions.Thecharacteristicsof the environmentarethereforeofimportancenotonly
becausetheyaffect
thecomfortandqualityof present-daylife,butevenmore
becausethey conditionthedevelopmentofyoungpeopleandtherebyof society.
(Dubos,1968,
pp.170-171)
Althoughit isclearthatthe"imprinting"forceof theindustrialstate
is
strong,itseemsby no meanscertainthattheindustrialdynamicis
sustainable.
Theindustrialdynamicmaybeself-limitingas it runsup
againstthelimitsof worldresources,as it nolongerprovidespeople
withasenseofself-identity andmeaning,as itsstructurereachesa
pointofincreasinginstabilityandvulnerability.
Theself-limitingcharactermayalreadybereflectedin ourapparent
needtomakemajormodificationofoureconomicinstitutions.Itmight
seemquiteunrealisticto thinkofdrasticchangeinthemassiveand
powerfulbusinessorganizationswereitnotforahistoricalparallel.
Probablyitwould
haveseemedquitepreposterousinthemid-eigh­
teenthcenturytoimaginethat,overmajorportionsoftheglobe,
governmentswouldsoonbeconsideredlegitimateonlyif theyderived
"theirjustpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned,"iftheybecame
"governmentsofthepeople,bythepeople,andforthepeople."The
socialpowerofgrantingorwithholdinglegitimacy,thoughits
mechanismsaresubtleandlittleunderstood,hasimpressiveforce-as
monarchiesandcolonialpowerscametorealize.
Ananalogouschallengetolegitimacyappearsto bebuildingupwith
respecttobusinessinstitutions. Thelegitimacywhichin thepastwas
grantedonthebasis ofownershipandmanagerialexpertiseisbeing
attacked.Consumers,environmentalists,civil-rightsgroups,and
modernfeministsareplacingnewrequirementsonbusinessforsocial
responsibility.
Workersaredemandingnotonlya voice in thepolicy­
makinganddecisionprocesses hithertoreservedformanagement,but
alsoimprovedworkenvironmentsand"meaningfulwork."The
emergenceofhugemultinationalcorporationswitheconomicpowers
comparabletothoseof nationshasbroughtawarenessthatthese
private-sectorinstitutions
haveimpactsonhumanlivescomparableto
theimpactsofpoliticalgovernments,andhenceshouldbesubjectto
thedemandmadeofgovernmentstoassumeresponsibilityforthe
welfareofthoseoverwhomtheywieldpower.
TheControl oftheIndustrialState
Althoughtheindustrializingprocesshasaverypowerfulimpact
upontherestofsociety,it isitselflargely dependentupontech-

79. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 59
nological
change,whichtendsto beanuncontrolledandundirected
process.Thereasoningbehindthiscontentionis asfollows:
•Economicgrowthdependslargelyupontechnologicalchange-economicstudies
typically
attributebetween60 percentand90percentofeconomic growthto the
forces oftechnological
change(Hollander,1965;Kuznets,1966).
•
Thedirectionoftechnological changein theshortrundependslargelyuponprofit
potentialsand,therefore,technologicalchangeoccursas an unplannedandun­
governedprocessin the unrelatedprofitpursuitsofmanyindependentfirms
(Schmookler,1966;Rogers,1962).
•
Thedirectionoftechnological changein thelong rundependslargelyuponthestate
of scientificknowledge,whichdevelops
haphazardlythroughtheaccretionof many
small bits ofknowledgefrom manyindependentsources(Mesthene,1970).
Inboththelongandshortruns,theregulationoftechnological
changeispeculiarlydifficult owingtosystemicshortcomings.Control
overitsdirectionrequiresagreatdealofexpertise;however,the
demandsforspecializationinherentinthedevelopmentofexpertise
necessarilynarrowthefocusof regulatingagenciesat thesametime
thattheconsequencesofourtechnologiesarehavinganincreasingly
broadimpact.Therefore,fromasystemicperspective,thepossibilityof
effective
regulationoftechnologicalchangewouldseemto bedeclining
atthesametimethattheneedforguidanceisincreasing.
Thereareforcesbeyondtheratheraccidentalconvergenceand
impactoftechnologywhichreinforcethefeelingthat"thecourseof
social
changeisquitebeyondourcapacityto controloreveninfluence"
(Keniston,1965). Forexample,themarketmechanismlargelyreactsto
short-termprofitpotentialsandsubstantiallydiscounts thedysfunc­
tionalconsequencesthatmightaccruefromdecisionsbasedupon
short-timehorizons.Also,theresultofusingsuchcriteriaasnetprofits,
unitsproduced,andattendancelevels asmeasuresofsocietalprogress
isthat:
...eachsub-componentof societytendstodefineits values andgoals,notintermsof
quality,
innersatisfactionsorfulfillments, butwithrespecttopositionrelativeto
otherlikecomponentswithinthecompetitivecontext,irrespectiveof thestateor
directionof
movementofthatcontext.
(Wilson, 1970, p. 21)
Inaddition,theremaybefundamental,systemic"controldeficien­
cies"
thatinevitablyemergeas asocietybecomeshighlydeveloped(e.g.
with
increasingurbanization,growthoftheeconomy,growthofpoliti­
calinstitutions,
interlockedtransportationandcommunicationsnet­
works,andsoon).Itappearsthat"industrialman"hascreatedan

80. 60 ChangingImages ofMan
Complexity
interdependentsocietalenvironmentofsuchproportionsthatit has
inadvertentlyreachedacritical,systemicmasswhichis beyondhis
directcontrol.Wehaveaggregatedwhatwerecomprehensiblesmaller
systems
intolargerandoftentimesincomprehensiblesupersystems:
[thereis a]...growingrelianceonsupersystemsthatwereperhapsdesignedtohelp
peoplemakeanalysesanddecisions,butwhichhavesince surpassedtheunderstand­
ingoftheiruserswhile at thesametimebecomingindispensableto them....
(Weizenbaum,1972)
Thesimultaneousneedforandlack ofcontroloversocietalchanges
atthemacro-systemiclevel canbevisualizedas follows:
!
Interdependence
Indu.stria~ization 1 1
implies
needforRegulation~(conflict)~needforExpertise
Thisschematicsuggeststhatas asocietybecomesincreasingly developed,
alogicalconsequenceisforthesystemto becomeincreasinglycomplex
andinterdependent.Anincreasinglycomplexsystem-givenbiological,
learning,andmechanicallimitationsto humandecision-making
capacity-impliestheneedfordivisionof laborandincreasingspeci­
alization,i.e.
theneedforexpertise.Further,anincreasinglyinter­
dependentsystemrequiresincreasingregulationtoinsuresmooth
functioningandtopreventdamagingperturbations.Severalcon­
clusionsfollow
fromthesecharacteristicsof largesocietalsystems:
•Increasinginterdependenceimpliesincreasingvulnerabilityof thesystem:one
hijackercantakeoveramultimilliondollarairliner;alocalizedpowergridfailure
can
plungethewholeU.S. easternseaboardintodarkness;theshutdownof abrake
plantcanstopproductionatmajorautoassemblyplants andalso at"upstream"
plants.Theentiresystem,then,is nostrongerthanitsweakestor mostvulnerable
component.Thisweakness,whichbecomes morepronouncedasinterdependence
increases,necessitates increasingpredictability,order,control,andregulationof
societalprocesses
(humanandmechanical).As DonaldMichaelhas pointedout,this
weaknessis
furtheraggravatedbythefactthatasthesize ofthepopulation
increases,"evenifthepercentofdisturbingeventsthatoccurdoesn'tincrease,the
numberofeventsthatoccurwillincrease"(1968).Further,asmorepeopleand
processesaregroupedtogether,thenumberoflinkages(vulnerabilitypoints)in­
creases
morethanproportionately-perhapsexponentially.
•
Increasingcomplexityrequiresincreasingexpertiseinordertocopewiththat
complexity.However,thistrendmayseriouslycompromiseourmuchprizeddemo­
cratic
processes.Ifpeopledonothavethecapacityto makeinformeddecisions,they
may feelobligedto
defertotheexpert.We seeevidenceof this in the commonbelief
that"thePresidenthas allthefactsandknowsmanythingsthatwe donot-

81. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors 61
therefore,trustin hisdecisions." Anotherway ofstatingthis is thatthe viability of a
democracy
dependsupontheinformeddecision-makingcapacityof itscitizenry,i.e.
the
"relativepoliticalmaturity"of thepeoplemustat leastmaintainparitywiththe
complexityof the issues confrontingthepublic.Iftheacquisitionof relevantknow­
ledgedoes
notproceedataboutthesamepace atwhichthedecisionsbecome
complex,
thenrelativepolitical maturitywilldecline. Thismayhavetwo con­
sequences:
(1)increasingrelianceplaced uponthe"expert"tomaintainorderand
control,with aresulting compromiseofourdemocraticprocesses,or (2)reluctance
to give
controltothe"expert"but,with anincreasinginability tomakeinformed
decisions,the resultisthatthesystem maytrulygo "outofcontrol."
•Increasinginterdependencerequiresthatthe whole system beguided-toallowany
elementtoexistoutsideof thedomainofguidanceis tothreatentheentire,
intertwinednetwork.An increasingscopeof control,inturn,impliesgovernanceby
thatbodywhosepowers extendovertheentiresystem-thenationalgovernment.
Thus,apredictableconsequenceofeconomicgrowth(with itssystemicconcomitants)
is anincreasingly
broadfocus offederalinvolvement. Increasingexpertise,on the
otherhand,impliesanincreasingly narrowfocus ofspecialization anddivisionof
labor(whetherintellectualorphysical).A disturbingthoughtarises:Who is the overall
expert with overall
control?Canweexpectanysingleperson,suchas thePresident, or
group,suchas theDomesticCouncil,tohavethe humancapacityto aggregateall
relevantexpertise
andmaintaintheirownrelativepoliticalmaturity? Aretheynot
subjectto the same humanlimitationsthathavenecessitatedthedemiseof the
"Renaissance
man"for the sake ofdevelopingmanynarrowifdeeperextensionsof
knowledge?
Inearliertimes,whenoursocietywas comprisedofmanysmalland
virtuallyself-sufficientunits,a wrongdecisionusually hadverylimited
consequences.Today,aninappropriatedecisioncanhavevastcon­
sequencesfortheentiresocietalsystem.While theinterdependence,
vulnerability,andneedforeffectivecontrolofthesystemareincreas­
ing,
themeansofcontrolmaybedecreasing.
Eventhiscursoryanalysissuggests thatwecannotattainapost­
industrialsocietywith industrial-erameansofregulatinghumanand
institutionalconduct.Thereisthefurthersuggestionthatoursocietal
system
maybecomeincreasinglydestabilizedandvulnerabletochaotic
disruptions.Thus,the"undirected"poweroftheindustrialsystemhas
contrastingimplications.Ontheonehand,itcouldbeextremely
difficultto redirectoursocietyin anydirectionotherthanwherethe
naturalmomentumseemstobe.takingit.Ontheotherhand,this
naturalmomentummaybestronglyself-limitingwhenacriticalmass of
systemic
complexityandinterdependenceisreached.Thelatterpoint
suggeststhatoutoftheensuingdisorganizationmaycomeasufficient
freeing-upofthesystemto allow theinjectionoffreshimagesand
correspondinginstitutionalstructuresinsucha way as to give us a new
burstofmomentumintothepost-industrialera.

82. 62 ChangingImagesofMan
TheGrowingImpotence oftheEconomicImage
Whileoureconomicimagehasbecomelessandlesscapableof
guidingthesocietalcontextcreatedbytechnologicalchange,therehas
also
beenadeclineof constructiveutopianthinking.Indeed,thewords
"utopian"and"myth"currentlyconnoteimpracticality,fantasy, and
irrelevancetoeverydayconcerns.Whenwelabelsomethingutopianit
is
oftentodismissit outofhand.Whenwespeakofmythit isoftento
characterizesomethingas false.Thesepejorativeconnotationssuggest
thatwe livetodaywithoutthebenefitofpositiveanticipatorymyths,
symbols,images:
...asthinkers,Americansrarelyif evernowattempttoconstructanimaginary
society
betterthanthatinwhichtheylive; andat thesametime,thefaith thatour
societyisin somesenseaUtopiahassurely disappeared....Butif wedefineUtopia
as
anyattempttomakeimaginativelyconcretethepossibilitiesof the future,Utopias
have
notinourown dayceasedto exist, buthavemerely beentransvalued....Our
visions of thefuturehaveshifted fromimagesof hopeto vistas ofdespair;Utopias
havebecomewarnings,
notbeacons.Huxley's Brave New World,Orwell's1984 and
AnimalFarm,Young'sThe Rise of theMeritocracy, andironicallyevenSkinner's
WaldenTwo-thevastmajorityofourseriousvisions of the futurearenegative
visions,extensionsof the
mostpernicioustrendsof thepresent.
(Keniston,1965, p. 327)
Thiswave ofnegativevisionsof thefuturesuggeststhattheimageof
humankindwhichprovedsopowerfulintheIndustrialRevolutionis
increasingly
impotentasanorganizingmetaphor.Ratherthanbeing
pulledbyananticipatoryimageof apositivefutureandpushedbythe
momentumof arealizedpast,we arenowonlybeingpushedbythe
momentumofourrealizedpastwithouttheattractionof amagnetic
imageofthefuture.Totheextentthatthisistrue,itwouldseem that
oursocietyis outofcontrol,withguidingimagesvirtually non-existent
andthesystemoperatingonitsowncomplexofmicro-decisions.This
loss ofguidanceviapositiveimages mightbetolerableif theinternal
dynamicoftheindustrialsystemweresufficientlyorganizedthatthe
numerousindividualdecisionsyieldedadesirableresult. Butour
experienceandpresentsituationmakeall tooclearhow haphazardis
theinternaldynamic.Wearethusdoublydisadvantaged:we have no
guidingimages to impose upon theindustrialsystem and the systemitselfseems
to have nointernalmacro-guiding
processes.
Thustheindustrialstateatthis pointhasimmensedrivebutno
direction,marvelouscapacityto gettherebutnoideaofwhereit is
going.
Somehowthebreakdownoftheoldimageshas seemedtolead
moretodespairthanto asearchfornewimages.

83. EconomicMan:ServanttoIndustrialMetaphors
CONCLUSION-PROSPECTS FORTHEFUTURE
63
Thematerialabundanceassociatedwiththeindustrialerahasnot
beenacquiredwithouttremendouscosts.Accompanyingindustrialism
wasanerosionofWesternman'ssenseof acosmological order:
Contemporarymannolonger"naturally"seeshimselfas auseful andnecessary
memberof a social wholegearedintoa meaningfulplanofexistencewithinthe
totalityof acosmicordivine
order.
(Luckman,1970, p. 584)
Ameaningfulexistenceislargely derivedfromtheexistenceof, and
congruencebetween,thehumanbeing'srelationshipsto self,society,
anduniverse.Althoughprofitable,theindustrialperiodhasthusbeen
verycostly as it hasleftusalienated,tovaryingdegrees,fromthese
sourcesofmeaning.Mysteriesof thecosmoshaveseeminglybeen
displacedby thecoldrationalityofscience.Asenseof communityhas
been
displacedbyanincomprehensibleurbanexistence.Social pres­
sureshavecreatedan"other-directed"mentalitysuchthatmanyare
alienatedevenfromthemselves.Thiswouldsuggestthatthenext
phaseofoursocietalevolutionshouldbethereintegrationofmanwith
hissourcesof
meaning-tofindthedeeprootsofsignificanceamong
theephemeralartifactsof oursociety.Thecontinuedextensionofthe
industrialstateseemspoorlysuitedtothistask. We arechallengednow
to
lookbeyondthetechnologicalandmaterialfrontierto a new
Americanfrontierwhichisessentially thatofmansearchingforhimself.
Tosummarize:Theinterrelationshipbetweenthepowerofthe
industrialstate,thecontroloftheindustrialdynamicandthelead-lag
relationshipofimagescanbewoven intotwodistinctsocietalfabrics
which
couldplausiblyemergeoutofthepresent.Strippedof all
refinement,theskeletaloutlinesof two responsestothecurrentimage­
societymismatchmightbe:
1.A"technologicalextrapolationist"response.Thishypothesized
responseassumesthat:(a)theindustrialdynamicwouldbe sus­
tained,(b) itwould continueto berelatively "uncontrolled,"and
(c)theeconomicimageofmanwouldcontinuetolagandbe
forcedtomakeadaptivechangesinaccordancewiththedictates
of
theevolvingindustrialdynamic.
2.An"evolutionarytransformationalist"response.Thishypo­
thesizedresponseassumesthat:(a)theindustrialdynamiciseither
self-limitingorelse will belimitedbysociety,(b) thedynamismof

84. 64 ChangingImages of Man
the"AmericanCreed"willregaincontrol(agreaterdegreeof
societal
directioninresponsetothewillofthepeople)overour
societalsystem andsubsystems,and(c) a newhumanisticimageof
humankindwillemergewhichwill guideusintoapost-industrial
era.
Despitetheseemingclarityof thesetworesponses,wearestillfaced
witha
dilemma.Totheextentthatmodernpeopleandtheirimages
arebeingshapedbytheurban-industrialenvironment,itwouldseem
fruitlessto trytochange"theimage"withoutchangingtheenviron­
mentwhichdemandscertainpatternsofbehavior.Ontheotherhand,
itwouldseemequallyfruitlessto trytochangethepowerfuldynamic
ofindustrialismwithoutthehelpofapotentimageofhumankindto
guideustowardadifferentsocietaltrajectory.Onealternativeis to
attemptto doboth.Theotheralternativeis toaccept-andsomewould
suggestsuffer-theconsequencesoftheworkingoutofthelogical
extensionsoftheindustrial-stateparadigm.Whatisimpliedbybothof
thesealternativesis
consideredingreaterdetailin Chapter7,where
theyaredevelopedatgreaterlength.

85. Reproduced bypermissionof Simon &Schuster,a Division of Gulf andWesternCorporation,
©1970, Walt Kelly.
66

86. CHAPTER 4
InfluenceofScienceon the"Imageof Man"
Let ussupposefor amomentthatweareback in the year 1600,concernedwith
forecasting
probablefuturetrends.Inretrospectit isclear thatoneof themost
significanteventsin
progresswaswhatcamelaterto becalledthe Copernican
revolution...Whatwas theessenceof this remarkabletransformationthatstarted
withthebrashsuggestionsofNicholas CopernicusandGiordanoBrunoandled to
consequencesasdiverseas a
tremendousaccelerationinphysicalscience anda
declinein thepolitical
poweroftheChurch?Oneusefulinterpretationisthata
groupofquestionsrelatingto thepositionof theEarthintheuniverse,andthe
natureandsignificanceof theheavenlybodiespassed outof therealmof the
theological
andphilosophicalandintotherealmofempiricalinquiry.No longer
werethesequestionsto besettledby referringto this orthatecclesiasticalor
scholarlyauthority;
rathertheywere to besubjectedtoilluminationbysystematic
observation
andexperiments.
WillisHarmanin"TheNewCopernicanRevolution"(1969)
Theexplosionofscienceandthekindofknowledgeaboutmanandhis
universethatcameas aresultofthisshiftinauthoritystructurehas
transformedscienceintooneofthemostpowerfulinfluencesonour
imageandconceptionofhumankindtoday.As weshallsee,however,
sciencenow
standsatthethresholdofyetanotherseriesof changes
whoseconsequencesmaybeevenmorefar-reachingthanthosewhich
emergedfromtheCopernican,Newtonian,Darwinian,andFreudian
revolutions.Questionsregardingconsciousness,awareness,subjective
andtranspersonalexperience,therootsoffundamentalvaluepos­
tulates,
andrelatedmattersconstitutea set ofconcernsthatmay,like
earlierquestionsregardingthephysicaluniverse,bepassingfromthe
realmoftheologicalandphilosophicalandintotherealmofsystematic
empiricalinquiry.
Thischapterisorganizedinthreeparts.Thefirst is ageneral
discussionof thecharacteristicsandinherentlimitationsofscience,
includingbriefmentionofareasinwhich theoldmechanistic
metaphorsanddeterministicassumptionshaveproveninadequateand
yieldedtoprobabilisticlaws ofcausality andweirdmodelsquiteforeign
toanythinginordinaryexperience.
Thesecondpartcomprisesacursoryexaminationof anumberof
scientific
frontierareaswhereanomaliesareshowingupordatado
notfitcomfortablyintotheoldparadigms.Thesearethechallenges
which
mayintheendresultin ashift.to anew,expandedscientific
67

87. 68 ChangingImagesof Man
paradigmwhenthestrainofpatchinguptheoldorsuppressingthe
offendingdatabecomestoogreat.
Thethirdpartofthechapterexaminessomeofthesourcesand
characteristicsof apossiblenewscientific paradigm.Throughout,the
interactionisemphasizedbetweenscientificparadigmsandcultural
imagesofman.
CHARACTERISTICS ANDLIMITATIONS OFCLASSICALSCIENCE
Scienceisideallya searchforknowledgeandenlightenmentcarried
outwithanobjectiveandpragmaticallydefinedattitude.Thespiritof
scienceis
thatofopen,unbiasedinquiryintowhateverintereststhe
investigator.Theclassicalview ofscienceisessentially basedonthe
followingaxioms (Conant,1951):
•Reasonis the supremetool ofhumankind.
•Knowledge,acquired throughthe use ofreason,willfree mankindfromignorance
andwill lead to abetterfuture.
•Theuniverseis inherentlyorderlyandphysical.
•
Thisordercan bediscoveredbyscience andobjectivelyexpressed.
•Onlysciencedeals inempiricallyverifiable
truth.
•Observationandexperimentationarethe only validmeansofdiscoveringscientific
truth,which is alwaysindependentof theobserver.
As weshallsee, recentdevelopmentsin avarietyof frontiersof
scientificinquirymakeusprogressivelylesssurethatweknowwhat
theseaxiomsmean,orshouldmean.
ParadigmsinTransmutation
Thescientificinquiryisnotsomethingthatcanbeexaminedapart
fromthesocietyin whichit isembedded.Anactivedynamicprocess
exists
amongthedevelopingscientificknowledge,itstechnological
applications,andthesurroundingculturalcontext.Asthenewknow­
ledgegeneratesnewtechnologiesandtheseareappliedtoinfluencethe
physicalandsocialenvironment,theculturalcontextisaffected.But
thisin turnaffectsthekind,form,andapplicationof newknowledge.
Ina waysimilarto thatportrayedby Fig. 8(page49),conflictgrows
betweensocietalendsandtheconsequencesoftechnologicalap­
plications,andthisbringschallengestothebasicaxiomsof thescientific
activity.
Thecommitmentofscienceto verifiableknowledgerendersit
naturallyPromethean.ThemythicalboldexplorerPrometheusstole
fire
fromtheGodsandtherebygavemancontrolof hisowndestiny.
Prometheus'brotherEpimetheuslikedtoplaywithhis brothers'dis-

88. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 69
coveries,
notalwayswith dueregardfortheconsequences.TheGods,
angryoverPrometheus'theft,gainedtheirrevengebysendingEpi­
metheusa wife,Pandora,withherproverbialboxwhichuponbeing
openedreleasedallmankind'sillsandtroubles.OnlyHoperemained
inside,to preserveman'ssanityin theface of his newmisfortune.Asde
Ropp(1972)pointsout:
Ourage, the age of the newPrometheans,illustratesas does no otherage,thedepth
of thePrometheanmyth.Neverbeforehave thePrometheansbeensodaring.Never
beforehave theEpimetheansbeensorashandneverhasPandora'sboxbeenso
crammedwithmenace.
ThisPromethean-Epimetheanconflictbetweenscienceandciviliza­
tionisone,perhapsthedominant,forcepresentlymodifyingthe
patternsofscientificconceptualizationandexperiment.Emergenceof
a"newtranscendentalism"inthecultureis asecond.Andnew
developmentsincertainscientificfrontierareasformathird.
Thegoals ofsociety, influencedbytheculturalimageofman-in-the­
universe,helptodefinetheresearchterritoryofscience.Thusthe
contentofscienceisaffectedby theprevailingimageofman.Thenthe
actofscientificinquiryinvolvesanothersetofimageprocessesinvolv­
ingmodelsof theproblemto beinvestigated. Manyscientistshave
stressedtheimportanceofproperimaginginscientificinvestigation;
onenuclearphysicist,MartinDeutsch,hasremarked(1959):
In my ownwork,I have beenpuzzledby the strikingdegreeto which anexperi­
menter'spreconceivedimageof theprocesshe isinvestigating determinesthe outcome
of hisobservations.(Emphasisadded)
Theprevailingimageofman-in-the-universealsoentersintothe
interpretationofobservedphenomena.Thescientistalmostinevitably
refersbackto themodelofcausalitycontainedwithinthemorebasic
imagetodecideonanacceptableinterpretationof hisdataand
findings.Themythsandimagesof thecultureinfluenceperceptionof
whatseemspossiblein theuniverseandisthereforeacceptable­
scientificallyorotherwise.
ThomasKuhn(1962)'used theterm"scientificparadigm"toreferto
thetotalpatternofperceiving,conceptualizing,acting,validating, and
valuingassociatedwitha particularimageofrealitythatprevailsin a
science
orbranchofscience.Thesetheoreticalmodelswiththeir
associatedbehaviorpatternsmayoperatesuccessfullyforalimited
time,
butinthedynamicprocessesofscientific developmenttendto
rise,fall,
andbereplaced-oftenbyanexpandedparadigmthat
includestheearlieroneas aspecialcase. Whenaparadigmismoreor
lesssuccessfulat accommodatingthephenomenabeingperceived(and,

89. 70 ChangingImages of Man
werecall,whatisperceivedisaffectedby theformofthedominant
paradigm),thenwehavewhatKuhnterms"normal"science."Its
centralactivityis thearticulationandelaborationofthereigning
paradigm.
However,whenasufficientamountofanomalousdatahas ac­
cumulatedthatdoesnotfittheparadigm'stermsofexplanation,then
oneormorenewcandidateparadigmsmayemergeandthereresultsa
periodof"crisis"science.Events duringsuchaperiodcanbehighly
complex,forasPolanyi(1958) remarks:
Ahostileaudiencemay in factdeliberately refusetoentertainnovelconceptionssuch
asthoseof
Freud,Eddington,RhineorLysenko,preciselybecauseits membersfear
thatoncetheyhaveacceptedthis frameworktheywill be led toconclusionswhich
they-rightlyorwrongly-abhor.
Proponentsof a new system canconvince theiraudienceonly by firstwinningtheir
intellectualsympathyfor adoctrinetheyhave notyetgrasped.Thosewho listen
sympatheticallywilldiscoverforthemselves
whattheywouldotherwise neverhave
understood.
Changesinparadigmconstitutethemostcriticalmomentsinscience,
fortheydeterminewhethera newrealmofrealityis to besuccessfully
incorporatedintotheoperationsofscience.Thesearealsothetimes
whenthedominantimageofhumankindbcomesmostcrucialsince the
issuesinvolved mayinclude"abhorred"conclusions.Thisofcourse
doesnotincludeeverypossiblecase; strongreactionto atheorydoes,
however,
oftenmeanthataparadigmaticlimitationhas becomein­
volved.
Theanomaliesthatappearnearthebeginningof a"crisis"periodin
sciencemay,becauseof
theirprematurity,beridiculedorignored.
Stent(1972)suggests thatadiscoveryis premature"if itsimplications
cannotbeconnectedby aseriesofsimplelogicalstepstocanonical, or
generallyacceptedknowledge."Science'sencounterwithprematurity
is abasic problem.Whenitoccurs,theidealcommitmentofscience
always to
examinethefacts of amattercanweaken,andthefactsmay
beeitherignoredorattacked.Thesignificanceof Mendel'sdiscovery
of
thegenein 1865 wasnotunderstooduntilabout35yearslaterand
wasignoreduntilthattime.Polanyi's1916 modeloftheadsorptionof
gases
ontosolidswas rejectedoutofhandasridiculousuntilit was
•"Thereisneveraperiodofnormalscience:WhatKuhncallsparadigmsaremultiple
andusuallydisconnectedtheories,postulateswhich areconstantlybeingtested,
falsified
andalteredorverified andreclaimedprotern.Theprocessisdynamic;in time
italterseverytenet'ofscience.
Theabandonmentof animportanttenet(likegeocen­
tricity) issometimescalledarevolution. "-HenryMargenau
Kuhn'suse ofthetermparadigmiscontroversialamongmanymembersofthescientific
community;somescientistsregardKuhnascorrect,othersdo not.

90. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 71
"rediscovered"ascorrectabout40yearslater. However,whena new
theorycanbeseentoinvolveimmediaterelevancetothedominant
image,a newphenomenonmayenterthefield.Stentregardsthe
subjectof ESP ascurrentlyintherealmofprematurity,giventhe
generalreactionsof thescientificcommunitytothesubject.Evenas
reportedbyStent,however,itmightbemorepropertoregarditnotas
beingonlyprematurebutalso as atabooinscience.
Onecouldargue,asdoesDubos(1972),thattherearenotaboo
topics,sincescienceis alwayswillingto
dealwithall questionswithinits
capabilities-andultimatelyall problemsare"scientific."Inpractice,
however,historyoftenspeaksdifferentlyandechoes.Kelvin'spoint
(1970)that:"Inprinciplewemaysaythatthe'facts'speakforthem­
selves; inpractice theydo soonlywhenaccompaniedby achorusof
approval."Shawremarked:"Allgreattruthsbeginasblasphemies."
Wemightwellask, whathavebeenthegreatblasphemiesinscience?
Onthelevel ofthephysicalsciences, theclassic case isthatofGalileo.
TheCopernicantheorythattheearthcircledthesunwastabooedby
society,
particularlybytheChurch.AsHannaArendt(1958)explains,it
waspermissible
forscientistsof thedayto usetheCopernicantheoryin
theirmathematicalcalculations,butit wasnotpermissibleforGalileoto
inventatelescopedemonstratingit to betrue.Intheeighteenth
centuryacontroversyragedaroundthequestionofmeteoritesasrocks
whichfell
fromthesky.AftertheLavoisiercommissiondecidedthat
rockscouldnotfallfromthesky,museumsthrewawaytheircollections
of
meteoritessincetheywerenolonger"real"(Morrisson,1972).
Unidentifiedflyingobjects aretabootodayalso,eventhougha
significant
percentageofthecasesonrecordareacknowledgedas
unexplained(Hynek,1972).
TaboosinbiologyhaveincludedDarwin'stheoryofevolutionandat
onetimethestudyofanatomy,whichwas regardedas aviolationof the
"templeofthebody."Contemporarytaboosincludetherelationbe­
tweengeneticsandIQ(Beale,1971) andhumansexuality(Shainess,
1973).
TosomeextenttheauraoftabooalsohangsaroundB. F.
Skinner'sbehavioristtheories.
Inthepsychologicalrealm,whereissuesrelatedtoimagesof the
humanbeingarethemostexplicit,taboos haveincluded:dreams,
hypnosis,death,suicide,homosexuality,parapsychology,subliminal
perception,andpsychedelicdrugs.Onlysomeoftheseareasarenow
beginningtoemergefromthestigmaoftaboo(Farberow,1963;Dixon,
1971;
KleitmanandDement,1957;Hilgard,1965;Noyes,1972). Of
course,becausea theoryistabooed,itdoesnotnecessarilycontaintruth
(Krippner,1973).Thetabooprobleminsciencearises whenanin­
vestigation
couldbeperformedtoansweraquestion,butisnotfor
reasonsthatarepolitical,ideological, orirrational.

91. 72 ChangingImages ofMan
Thuswecanseethattheissuesof prematurityandtabooare
powerfulshapinginfluencesonthecontentofscientificresearch.In
caseswhereatopicinvolves both,ithasevenlesschanceofin­
vestigation.
Inmanysuchcasesthe"holdingfactor"appearsto be
adherenceto aparticularimageofhumankind,sometimesonthepart
ofscientiststhemselves, sometimesbysociety,andoccasionallyby
both-inspiteof theexistenceofsignificant datatothecontrary.
LimitationsoftheScientificProcessItself
Thehumanactivity basictoscienceis observationandtherecording
thereof.However,asciencebasedondescriptionhaslimitsimposedon
it bytheepistemologicallimits inherentintheprocessof description.
Goedelin 1931showedthatit isimpossibleto demonstratetheinternal
consistencyof complexsystemswithoutresorttoprinciplesof inference
outsidethesystem.Thismeansthereis a class ofproblemsthatmust
remainformallyundecidable.SimilarlyTarski(1944)established that
anytheoremexpressedwithinthetermsof agiven formallanguage
canbeprovedtrueonlybyreferencetoanotherlanguagericherthan
thatexpressingthetheorem.AsMargenau(1965)bluntlyexpressesit:
Science nolongercontainsabsolutetruths.We have beguntodoubtsuchfun­
damentalpropositionsas theprincipleof theconservationsofenergy,theprinciple
ofcausality,
andmanyothercommitmentswhichwereheld to beunshakeableand
firm in the past.
Bremerman(1965)suggestsa differentkindofboundarywithhis
theorydefininganupperlimitto theamountofinformationthatcan
beheldinanysystem-atleastin termsofthecurrentframeworkof
analysis.
Thislimitwouldpreventmanfromunderstandinghisown
brainif all hecanuseistheoperationsofthebrain-as-systeinitself.
Anotherlimitationwhichis atleastequallydifficultto dealwithis the
moreorlessexclusiveorientationtowardtheanalytic/rationalmodeof
problemsolving.IntheWest,theonlyalternativehas alwaysseemedto
beillogical
"irrationality,"ourlanguagebeingill-equippedtodiscuss
whatmanygreatscientistshaveacknowledgedasthesourceoftheir
discoveries:intuition.Recentresultsinbrainresearch(discussedin
detaillater)
indicatethatlinguisticexpressionandanalyticthoughtare
associatedwith theleftsideof thebrainwhereastherightsidedeals
withfield-oriented,
syntheticperceptualmodes.Hence,"left-side"
thinkerstendnottoacknowledge"intuition."
Athirdlimitationisspecialization,which Bohm(1971)refersto asthe
naturalfragmentationprobleminscience.Margenau(1973)pointsout
thatinlargemeasure,specializationissimplya by-productofthe

92. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 73
increasingcomplexityofscience.Inthissenseit hasbeenanecessary
andpowerfultool.However,ithasprogressedtothepointwhereour
attentionhasbeendirectedawayfromthesomaticorgeneralsystems
aspectsof
nature;andasFuller(1973)haspointedout,anyspeciesthat
hasoverspecializedhas always becomeextinctowingto a loss of
adaptive
ability."Theimpactofspecializationinscienceis to reduce
science'spossible frameworkofexplanations.
Closelyalliedtospecializationis thelimitationimposedbythereduc­
tionistmethod.Thisistheapproachinsciencewhichproceedsto
investigatesystemsby
breakingthemupintoparts.AsAshby(1973)
describesit:
Faced with asystem,thescientist respondedautomaticallyby takingit topieces.
Animalswere
anatomizedtoorgans,organsmicroscopeddownto cells, cellsstudied
ascollectionsofmolecules, andmoleculessmashedtocomponentatoms.This
methodofanalysistendedtobecomedogma;and,in fact, thereductionists tended
toassertthatallsciencewas to be advancedin this wayalone. "Getto knowthe
propertiesofeachpart,andyou haveonlyto putthepartstogetheragainandyou
will know the
whole."
Thismethod,reducedtoabsurdity,tendstogeneratestatementslike
"lifeis
nothingbutphysicsandchemistry."Italsoleadsto thepictureof
thesciences(Schlegel,1972) shownoverleaf.
Socialsciences
Anthropology
Sociology
Politicalscience
Economics
History
Thismodelsuggeststhatthekindsof procedureswhichphysics and
mathematicsusedinthenineteenthcenturyshouldbeappliedto all
othersciences,andleadsto statementslike:"biologydependsonthe
judgmentofthephysicist"(Szent-Gyorgi,1961). Itisquitetruethatthe
•"ThispointbyFuller,appliedto us, mightindicatewhy we will notsurviveif our
technologicalresourcesare threatened,why wemustrelearnhow tosurvivewith only
ournaturalresources,andwhy it isimperativeto rely onmachinesonly if oneknows
how to fix
them,or dowithoutthem."-StanleyKrippner
Ol M - G

93. 74 ChangingImages of Man
reductionistmethodofanalysishasbroughtaboutmajorprogress,and
themodelwouldconstituteaquitelogicalpictureofthesciences
as awholeifscience
wereto beconfinedtotheanalysisof thekindsof
systems
addressedbynineteenth-centuryphysics.Thesesystemsin­
volvedlittle
ornointeractionbetweenthecomponentparts:theywere
infact
"reducible"systems.Forthesesystems,theinformationneeded
todescribethewholesystem (andthereforecontrolit) isalmost
equivalenttotheamountof
informationneededtodescribetheparts
inisolation:thewholeis equaltothesumoftheparts.
Thereis,however,anotherclass ofsystemsinvolving richinter­
actionsbetweenthecomponentparts.Biologicalandecologicalsystems
aregoodexamples.Inthese,synergyorthepropertiesofthewhole
system
createdbytheinteractionsofthepartsoperatetosuchan
extentthatreductionistanalysiscannotachievea theorycapableof
extensionandprediction.Arbib(1972)pointsoutthat:
WefoundthatweneededtomodifyNewtonianmechanicsto get torelativity when
weenteredthedomainofthevery fast;andweneededtomodifythemagainto get
to
thelaws ofquantummechanicswhenweenteredthedomainofthevery small.
Thuswemustnotbeunpreparedtohaveto find new laws of physics whenweenter
thedomainofthevery complex.
Thereductionistframeworkthereforecontainsinherentlimitations
whenappliedtohighlycomplexsystems,suchasthebrainorbiological
systemas awhole,
andnewphysical principleswillhaveto be dis­
coveredbeforeproperscientificdescriptionofthesecanbemade.
Perhapsakindofperiodictableof theprinciplesgoverningsystemsof
evolvingcomplexitywill be
thenextadvanceinscientificmethod.
*
Stillonemorecharacteristicof classicalscienceis challengedby
recentdevelopmentsonnumerousfronts,namelytheideathatthe
objectiveworld exploredbythevariousscientific probesisessentially
separatefromandindependentofthesubjectiveexperienceofthe
investigator.Theperturbationoftheobjectivesystemby theactof
observingshowsupinparticlephysicsas theHeisenbergUncertainty
Principle.Itappearsinbiologicalandsocialsciencein theeffectsof
experimenterexpectations(Rosenthal,1971; Orne,1959)andinthe
Hawthorneeffect(RoethlisbergerandDickson,1939). It is mostclearly
to be
encounteredintheareaofpsychicresearchsinceif thepsychic
phenomenahaveanyrealityatall,themindoftheobserverismost
surelyanineradicablecomponentoftheexperiment.
Thusthelimitationsofscience havehadimportantconsequencesfor
theway inwhich thecontentsofsciencearedefined.Onlythoseaspects
'"HenryMargenauoffersadditionalcommentsin hisdiscussionof"modified reduc­
tionism"inAppendixC.

94. Influenceof Science on the "ImageofMan" 75
ofreality
thatcanslipthroughthevariouslimitations endupincluded
inthecontentofscience.Sciencedealswithaselectedset of metaphors;
otherpossiblemetaphorshaveinthepastbeenexcluded,whether
becauseof reductionistbiasorcommitmentto apeculiarconceptof
objectivity.
Theprevailing"imageofman"intervenesinthescientific
processby
shapingthedefinitionofboththeresearchterritoryand
interpretationsoftheresultsofscientificinvestigation. Contrariwise,
thepastorientationofsciencetowardunderstandingofthephysical
worldhas
contributedto amaterialisticemphasisinthecultureas a
whole.
As we
examinesomeofthecontemporaryscientificdevelopments
thatchallengeoldscientificparadigms,itmustbefromthestandpoint
of thistwo-way interactionbetweenthechangingscientificparadigm
andthesocietalimageofman.It isnotthateithercausestheother,but
ratherthattheytendtomovetogether.
CRUCIALFRONTIERSIN SCIENTIFICINQUIRY
Challengestothepastparadigmsofscience,someoldandsome
recent,appearinsuchdiverseresearchfrontiersasphysics,biology,
psychology,
andparapsychology.Followingarebriefmentionsofsome
ofthemostimportant.
ModernPhysicsandCosmology
Themodernrevolutioninphysicsbeganquietly:onFebruary21,
1870 a24-year-old
namedWilliamClifford suggestedtotheCambridge
PhilosophicalSociety thataparticleof matterwasreallynothingbuta
kindof hill inthegeometryofspace!In1873, stillbelievingin classical
continuity,Maxwellpublishedhisequationsdescribingthecontinuous
natureoftheelectromagneticfieldbutlaterremarked,in astartling
intuitionofthingstocome:
Thestudyof thesingularities andinstabilities,ratherthanthecontinuitiesof
things
...maytendtoremovethatprejudiceinfavorof determinismwhichseemsto
arisefrom assuming
thatthephysicalscienceof the futureis ameremagnified
imageof
thatof the past.
Thefullmeaningofthatglimmerofthefuturebegantoeruptin 1900
whenPlanckshowedthatenergywasnotemittedin acontinuous
fashion,becamestrongerin 1905whenEinsteinprovedthatlightcame
inpackagescalled "quanta,"andreachedits finalbreachfromthe
continuousdreamwhenBohrincorporatedthefundamentaldis­
continuityintheuniverseintohismodeloftheatomandeventuallythe

95. 76 ChangingImages of Man
Principleof Complementarity,suggestingthatlightcouldbebothwave
andparticle.As JohnWheelersuccinctlyputit (1971):"Asibylseemsto
say,'choose:
paradoxornothing'."
Einsteinthenpromisedakindofcontinuitywithhis theoryof
GeneralRelativity,endingthedichotomyoftime andspace,and
suggestingnotonlythatmatterandenergysharethesameequation,
butthatgravitycanalso beincludedintoaunifiedfield theory.
Suddenlytheuniversewaspuregeometry.AsMargenau(1963)des­
cribesit,
mattersimplydematerialized:"Thehardandsolidatomhas
becomemostlyemptyspace.Electrons...mayindeedbepoints,
mathematicalsingularitieshauntingspace."
Suddenlytheuniversebecamepersonalagain.Bronowski(1973)
describesit well:
Einsteinshowed thatthelaws of physicsareuniversal,thatis,areformulatedin the
same
termsbyeveryobserver, butonlybecausehecarrieshis ownuniversewith him.
Timeas youmeasureit may bedifferentfrommy time, mass as youmeasureit may
be
differentfrommy mass,speedandmomentumandenergymay all bedifferent;it
is only therelations
betweenthemthatremainthesameforusboth.Eachof usrides
his
personaluniverse,his owntravellingbox ofspace andtime,andallthatthey
have in
commonisthesamestructureorcoherence;whenweformalizeour
experiences,theyyield thesamelaws.
Andso, asJeans(1973)remarked,"Theuniversebeginstolook more
like agreatthoughtthanlike agreatmachine,"orasEddington(1928)
hadputit,"Thestuffof theworldismindstuff."
Attheforefrontofphysicstodaytherealworldrecedes.As Edding­
tononceremarked:
In theworldof physics wewatchashadow graphperformanceoffamiliarlife. The
shadowof my elbowrestson theshadowtableas theshadow-inkflows overthe
shadow
paper....Thefrankrealizationthatphysicalscience is concernedwith a
worldofshadowsis
oneofthemostsignificantof recentadvances.
Indeedeverythinghasbeenfoundto bereceding,forGeneralRela­
tivity
predictedthattheuniverseitselfis expanding,andby 1929
Hubblehaddemonstratedit.FarfromthelimitedCopernicanvision,
now weknow
thatwearepartofanimmensegalaxyof about100,000
millionstars,
arrangedin adisc-shapedspiral100,000 lightyearsin
diameter,aboutthree-fifthsofthewayoutfromthecenterofthedisc,
andmovingfurtheroutatamere35kilometerspersecond.The
"edge"oftheuniverseis nowbillionsof lightyearsaway andfull of
strangewonders:quasars,pulsars,andblackholes. Andevenstranger,
thoughlogical,postulatesofantimatter,timeflowingbackwards, nega­
tivemass andparticlestravelling fasterthanthespeedoflightarepartof
thenewtapestry.

96. InfluenceofScienceon the "ImageofMan" 77
It is a
worldfullof logicstrangerthandreams.Everett(1971)has
suggestedthatjustas inrelativitywherethepassageoftimeisrelative
to
theobserver'sframeofreference,inquantummechanics,thevisible
outcomeofaneventis alsorelativeto theobserver.Thusallpossible
outcomesactuallytakeplace, buttheobservercanseeonlytheone
happeningin hisorherframeofreference.PhysicistdeWitt(1970)
thenargues:
Everyquantumtransitiontakingplaceoneverystar,ineverygalaxy,inevery remote
cornerof theuniverse,issplittingthe localworldon earthintomyriadsofcopiesof
itself .
Manyphysicistshaveobjectedstronglytothenotionof auniverse
containingmyriadsofthree-dimensionalXeroxesofthemselves.The
ideaisnotidlespeculation,however,butarisesfromtheurgentneed
inmodernphysicsto somehowunitequantumtheorywithgeneral
relativity."Physicist andNobellaureateEugeneWigner(1961)has
suggestedaroleforhumanconsciousnessat thedeepestlevels of
quantumreality;is he correct?Wemustwaitandsee,andperhaps
rememberjung'sadmonishment:
Spaceflights aremerelyanescape,afleeingaway fromoneself,becauseit iseasierto
go to Mars or to the
moonthanit is topenetrateone'sownbeing.
Modernphysicsandcosmologyhaveplacedthehumanin auniverse
inestimablymorerichandextraordinarythanthemechanicalvision
everpreparedhimfor.Indeed,asLeShan(1969) hasargued,the
cosmicmanofmodernphysicsbearsstrongresemblancetotheimage
of"man-in-universe"ofEasternphilosophies.Forthisperson,too,
realityis
apparent,dynamic,andinhabitedbybothharmonyand
strangeness.Andiftheextensionofscienceistechnology, andtoday
wehavethetechnologyofthehardandsolidmatterofthenineteenth
century,thenwhatcanpossiblybe thetechnologyofmattertrans­
formedintocurvatureinspace-timet
•"Andit seems to somethatsuchunioncannotbeachievedunlessthe problemof
consciousness,which
appearsineveryact of measurement,istakenseriouslyand
includedin thetheory. "-HenryMargenau
t"The(past)Faustian interpretationof(historical)time was subordinatedto the will to
power,symbolizedbyNewtonianmechanicswhich
treatedbodiesmovingin space as
inertrecipientsofenergy. The(present)Riemannianspace-timeof theLeibnitzian
culturehas astrongChinesetinge:fields offorcescomposetheextensionof the
universe
'whichdisplaysacurvilinear 'infinity'."-RolandFischer

97. 78 ChangingImages of Man
OtherPhysicalSciences
Whileseveral areasofthephysicalsciences impingeonquestions
relatingtoimages,two of thestrongestimpactscomefromther­
modynamicsandthecomputersciencesgenerally.
Theconceptofentropyemergedfromthestudyofthermodynamics
inthenineteenthcentury.TheSecondLaw ofThermodynamicssays
thatisolatedsystems naturallytendtowardastateof maximumdis­
order,andsotheuniversemustinevitably"rundown."Ourultimate
fatethenbecameinvasionbychaos, andsincethiswas a law of nature,
therewasnothingthatcouldbedone.Thehumanbeingandlifeare
thereforeinsignificantsince thereis nolargerprocesstowardwhich
humankindcanevolveif thephysicaluniverseisdecaying.
Theconceptstillholdssway,thoughithasbeennoticedthatit isnot
applicabletolivingsystems; Huxley(1963)andotherssuggestedthat
lifeviolatedtheSecondLaw ofThermodynamics.Now weknow that
living systemsexist underdifferentconditions.Entropywasdefinedfor
closed,equilibriumsystemscutofffromtheirsurroundingsandun­
perturbedbyexternalforces.Livingsystems areopenandfarfrom
equilibrium,exchangingmaterialwiththeirenvironments.Damnation
bytheSecondLaw isthereforenotquitesototal,andasthecharac­
teristicsof complexsystemsbecomemoreapparent,theoperationof
theSecondLawmaybeseento beevenmorerestricted.Thepresent
situationinphysics,whereabsolutecertaintyis nolongerpossible,
shouldwarnusthattotalcommitmenttothescientificparadigmof
knowledgecanplaceus in thepositionofacceptingadeprivedconcept
ofreality,whichclearlyhas neverbeentheintentionofscience.
Similarly,
theearliermechanisticview ofcybernetics-that"thebrain
ismerelyameatmachine"-israpidlygivingway to thelessrestrictive
notionofthecomputerasanextensionofthehumannervoussystem.
McLuhanbelievesthatcomputersystemswill be usedto"augment"
humanintellect,justasculturalforcesaugmenttheindividual'sabilities
(Englebart,1973).Anexampleof thisprocessis theuse ofthecom­
putertoopenupnewandcreativepossibilitiesin themodernarts,
describedbyYoungblood(1970).
Chapanis(1970)stresses thatthedifficultiesin harmonizingthe
man-machineinterface,whichusedto beattributedtothelimitsof
man,canjustas well beregardedasthelimitedabilitiesof themachine.
Thoughman'scalculatingrateis slow,subjecttoerrorandfatigue,
machinesystemshave moredifficultycorrectingtheirmistakes,havevery
limited
methodsandchoicesofaction, andaresofarincapableof forming
hypotheses.Moreandmoreeffortisbeingdirectedtowardmakingthe
computeraccommodatetothemanratherthantheotherwayaround.

98. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 79
Attemptstocreate"artificialintelligence,"whichMinsky(1968)des­
cribesas
"thescienceof makingmachinesdothingsthatwouldrequire
intelligenceif donebymen,"haveso farresultedincomputersbeing
taughttoplaychess, simulateproofsofmathematicaltheorems,and
to"understand"simpleEnglish, thoughnotyet in afashion exceeding
humancapability(Newell,1969). PresentworkatStanfordandMITis
focused
ondevelopingmoresophisticatedrobots. Goedel'stheorem,
mentionedearlier(page72),indicates,however, thatmachinesystems
canneverbeconsciousofthemselves exceptbyreferencetoanother
machine.Humanconsciousnessisconsciousofitselfas a unityand
seemstohave propertiesthatcanneverbecreatedartificially.
In1923J.B. S.Haldanepredictedthatalthoughphysicswas thenthe
majorcenterofscientificinterest,thiscenturywouldbe remembered
asthecenturyofbiology.Surveysof thecurrenttrendsinscientific
literature(Garfield,1972) now confirmHaldane'sprediction.
Humansas Species.Muchoftheearlysignificantworkinbiologycon­
cernedthehumanas aspecies.While manyoftheoldtheorieshave
beendiscardedormodified,thereareanumberofimportantnew
conceptswhichaffect
man'srelationshiptoothersof hisspecies,to the
environmentas awhole, andthisplacein theevolutionaryscheme.
Inpopulationbiology,forexample,extensivestudies intothe
dynamicsgoverninghumanpopulationgrowthindicatedthat
humankindisonthebrinkofdiscoveringthatit is alsoboundbythe
S-shapedsigmoidcurvegoverningthegrowthcharacteristicsof so
manyotherspecies(Salk, 1973). As notedearlier(see Fig. 6),thevalues
governingthefirstpartofthecurvewherethesurvivalof thespecies
dependsonthesurvivalof theindividual(competition,survivalof the
fittest)mustbedifferentfromthosegoverningthesecondpartofthe
curve,wherethesurvivalof thespeciesdependsonthebehaviorofthe
wholespecies(cooperation,survivalof thewisest).Thecomplexques­
tions
surroundingthepopulationproblemhavebeendiscussedby
manyauthors(e.g.Ehrlich,1970; Commoner,1971).Clearly themain
impetusforthesestudiesis theneedformantoevolveto asystematic
imageof hisbeing,considerateofthesurvivalof thewholespecies.
Closelyalliedtothese
developmentsareecologicalstudies. Thelatter
haveradicallychangedtheimageofthehumanasconquerorofnature
to asenseof beingincooperationwithnature.Thegrowthethichas
beenchallenged(Meadows,1972); ourattemptstodominatenature
havebeencriticized(Commoner,1971);ourroleas augmenterof
naturehasbeenstressedinseveralways(Dubos,1973; Salk, 1972;
Fuller,1969;Laszlo,1972).
Againtheneedforviablesystems­
orientedimagesis themainfindingofthesestudies.Further,theyhave

99. 80 ChangingImages of Man
stressedtheinterdependenceofhumankind'sexistenceandthatof
otherspecies,as well as theenvironmentas awhole.As Handler(1970)
statesit:
Undoubtedlymorespeciesthananyonenowrealizesareessentialfor man'ssurvival
andwelfare.Forbothbeneficialandharmfultypes,we needto know thephysical
andchemicalconditions underwhichtheycansurvive andreproduce,theextentto
whichtheycan
adjusttochange,theoptimumconditionsforsurvivalandreproduction.
Theneedtoprotectthestabilityanddiversityofallspeciesoffloraand
faunahasemergedintoheightenedpopularawarenessas aresultbothof
thesestudies
andoftheemergenciescausedbyindustrialmismanage­
mentglobally.
Similarly,
evolutionarytheoryhas nowdevelopedtothepointwhere
itextendsallthewayfromtherealmofallspeciesdowntothe
molecular/atomiclevel.Theinterrelationshipof allspeciesas anevolv­
ingwholewas first proposedbyDarwinin 1859.Mendel'sdiscoveryof
thegeneallowedtheelaborationofthemechanismofheredity,while
thediscoveryof DNAasthecarrierofinformationinthegene
(Watson,1953) extendedourknowledgeoftheprocessintothedomain
oftheverysmall.
Thesefindingsled to a reneweddebateabouttheroleof chanceand
determinisminevolution,since onlystatisticaldescriptionofeventsat
theatomiclevel ispossible.As a result,somescientistsconcludedthat
geneticchangecanoccuronlybythemechanismofrandommutation.
"Chancealoneis atthesourceofeveryinnovation,of allcreationinthe
biosphere"(Monod,1971).Thisimageofthehumanspeciesas the
victimofmerechanceplacesmaninanabsurdrole-mostscientists
wouldsee
somethingmoreoperative.Waddington(1969)explains that
theinertgene,as itmoves towardtheprocessof becomingan
organism,passesthroughaseriesofsteps,manyofwhich are
influencedbyboththemolecularandorganismicenvironment.Thusin
theemergenceoftheorganism,orderisimposedontheinitialran­
domness.Weiss (1969)showshow thereexists"determinacyinthe
grossdespitedemonstrableinterdeterminacyinthesmall."
Thusbothchanceanddeterminismareinvolvedatleast (perhaps
consciousnessas well) andthesystemsdevelopedbyevolutionbecome
thecruciblesof acreativeprocess(Dobzhansky,1971). Thetrendof
evolutionis
seenasbeingtowardsystemsofevergreatercomplexity
andsophistication.Inourspecies,particularly, cultureisaninterven­
ingfactor(von Foerster,1971):
Culture,as amanifestationof man'seffectiveandsymbolicbehavior,is at thesame
timecause
andeffectof man'sgeneticconstitution.Ascause,it determinesthe
mechanismsof
naturalselectionin hisself-madeecology;as effect, it is determined
by thecreativeprocesses thatcan bemasteredby hisbiologicalconstitution.

100. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 81
Dubos(1967)pointsoutthatthehuman'sbiologyis nowbasicallystable
while
thehumanpsychemaybesaidto be rapidlyevolving,"andas­
Huxley(1947)suggests:
Since in theprocessofevolution,values emerge,theymustbetakenintoaccountby
thescientist.We find values notmerely
emergingfromtheevolutionaryprocess, but
playingan active partin itslatestphase.
vonFoerster(1971)thensuggeststhat"Thesuperiorsurvivalvalue of
brainsexchangingexperienceandthoughtwillfavortheevolutionof
this
organ."Earlier,TeilharddeChardin(1959)hadnotedthat
"Evolutionisanascenttowardsconsciousness."Thehumanisregar­
dedasbeingattheveryforefrontof thisprocess, thegrowingtip as it
were.
Thustheforcesandcounterforcesofchanceanddeterminism
becomepoisedin adelicate balance,withourspeciesas oneofthe
"rarespearheads...ortrustees...ofadvanceinthecosmicprocessof
evolution"(Huxley,1963).
Whileit is still too
earlyto saywhich ofthesehypotheseswillprove
mostuseful,it isclear thatevolutionarytheoryis,andwillprobably
remain,attheheartofhumankind'simageofitself.
Molecular
Biologyand Genetics.Theunfoldingofthesciencesof the
humanas abiological entityhascreatedseveralmajorshiftsin the
imageofhumankind.Evenif allthephysicalprinciplesnecessaryfor
thecompletedescriptionofthebiologicalsystem arenotyetwithus
(Elsasser,1966), it nowseems
clearthatthebasicunitof life isthecell
andthatitsinformationislargely,if notcompletely,carriedinthe
DNAwhichmakesupitsgenes.Thistotallyphysical descriptionofthe
livingsystemhas threatenedthe"vitalist"philosophieswhichmain­
tainedthatthelivingentitywaspossessedof somespecialnon-physical
component.AsHayes(1971) remarks:
Therecan be nodoubtthatthis new vision ofourselvesasmerelythe verycomplex,
andperhapsevenpredictable,end-productof anexclusivelymacromolecularevolu­
tion will
exertasprofoundan effect onoursocial,ethical andpoliticalattitudesas
have the
enlightenmentofDarwinandFreud.
Thisgives rise towhatDubos(1968)terms"biologicalfreudianism."
However,perhapsthereneedbe noconflict betweenthetwonotions,
ontheonehandthathereditydeterminesthecharacteristicsof the
•"Yourimageof psychicallyevolving humankindis, Ithink,incorrect. "-EliseBoulding
As Dr.Boulding'sreasonsfor
holdingthis view are toolengthytoinclude hereas a
footnote,
andastheypertaintovariousothersectionsof this report,theyareincludedas
AppendixA.

101. 82 ChangingImages of Man
adulthumanbeing,andontheother,thattheenvironmental
experiencesofearlylifeexertashapinginfluence-thenatureversus
nurtureargument.Theconflictis apparentlyresolvedin theviewthat
thegenesprovidepotentialwhichis modulatedbyenvironment.
However,thepersistenceoftheconceptofkarmainthedoctrinesof
theEastsuggests thatfuturescientificmetaphorsmayincludestill
otherinfluences.
Thenotionsofgenetic"engineering,"cloning,andthelikehave
providednewimpetustotheoldvisionsof eugenicsandthe"im­
provement"ofhumanstock.Therelationshipbetweengeneticsand
"intelligence"iscurrentlycontroversialbutisnotinitselfa newidea.
However,withgeneticengineering,allofhumannaturewouldbe in
somesenseapparentlysubjecttohumanchoice.Thisconceptcould
potentiallyhaveamostprofoundimpactonthehumanself-image.
Exobiology/Origin of Life.Fromstudiesoftheoriginof lifeandthe
principlesofextraterrestrialbiology(exobiology) comeclearimagesof
ourcosmicorigin,eventhoughtheyareintermsofourphysicalbeing.
Thefusionofthesetwo areasbringsthefirstglimpseof acosmological
biology,as
Bernal(1965) firstoutlinedit:
Atruebiologyin the fullsense wouldbe the studyof thenatureandactivity of all
organizedobjectswherevertheywereto be foundon thisplanetandothersin the
solarsystem,in
othergalaxiesandat all timesfutureandpast.
Studiesof theself-organizingpropertiesofelementalchemicalsystems
byMiller(1963)
andFox(1970)haveshownhowtheamino-acid
buildingblocksof life formspontaneouslyinprimordialmixturesand
naturallygive rise tomorecomplexforms.Theknowledgethatbe­
tweentheplanet'sformationandthefirstemergenceofsimplelife
forms,meteorsbrought335milliontonsofthese sameaminoacidsto
earthclearlylendssubstancetoOistraker'sremark(1973):"Atomsin
yourbodyhavebeenthroughseveralstars-theywereejectedmany
timesas gas fromexplodingstars."
Increasedunderstandingoftheoriginof lifecanonlyaugmentour
searchforotherkindsof life amongsttheestimatedhundredsof
millionsof
inhabitableplanetsinourgalaxyalone(Dole,1964). Indeed,
thebeginningsofactiveresearchintothepossibilityof extraterrestrial
intelligence(Handler,1970)suggesta newsenseof continuityof life.
Thoughtheproblemsareformidable,thenearfuturewill see, if
presenttrendscontinue,asignificantincreasein informationonthe
originof lifewhichwill be "ofprimerelevancetothemostprofound
andancientbiologicalandphilosophicalquestionsof human

102. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 83
civilization
...partialanswers(towhich)...havegivenrise to varIOUS
religious,philosophical andpoliticalsystems"(Handler,1970).
BrainResearch.Researchinbrainfunctionisoneofthemostrapidly
expandingfrontiersofmodernscience.Thetools ofalmostevery
majordisciplinearebeingusedandthevitalneedforintegrationof
thesciencesmayberealizedthroughourattemptstostudyourown
mentalfunctions.
Incontrasttootherareasofbiology,theearlystudyofthebrainhad
astronglyelectricalorientation;by 1791 it wasknownthatthebrainwas
electricallyexcitable
andby 1932thewell-organizedmotoreffectsand
emotionalresponsesinconsciousanimalshadbeencreatedbyelectrical
stimulation(Galvani,1791;Fritsch,1870;Hess,1932). We knownow
thatthebrainpossessesthemostefficientsignal-detectionscheme
known(Trehub,1971).TheworkofHess,Penfield, andOldsinvolving
theimplantationofelectrodestocreatesignalsinternallyhasallowed
themappingoflargeportionsofthebrain.Controlofpsychological
phenomenaandstimulationofmemoryhaveresultedfromthiswork.
As
Delgado(1969)describesit:
Autonomicandsomaticfunctions,individual andsocialbehavior, emotionaland
mentalreactionsmay beevoked, maintained,modifiedorinhibited,bothinanimals
andinman,byelectricalstimulationof specific cerebralstructures.Physicalcontrol
ofmanybrainfunctionsis a demonstratedfactbutthepossibilitiesandlimits of this
controlarestillunknown.
Ofno lessimportancehasbeentherecentemergenceofsome
detailedknowledgeofthechemistryofbrainfunction.Resultshave
indicatedthatmalnutritioncancauseseriousdamagetothedeveloping
brain,andsomanyofthepooraredoublydisadvantaged.Theories
suggestingthatchemicalprocessesin thebrain(RNAandprotein
synthesis)areinvolvedin learningandmemoryhaveraisedthepos­
sibilityofchemically
improvingthesefunctionsinthehuman-though
thisis stillcontroversialanddefiniteconclusionshaveyet toemerge.
Highlypurifiedgeneticstrainsofmice havebeenisolatedandshownto
havemarkedlydifferentlearningabilitiesforlaboratorytasks,suggest­
ingthatatleastsomekindsof geneticdifferencescanaffectmemory
andlearning.Manymind-alteringsubstanceshave beendiscovered
witheffects rangingfromhallucinationtotranquillizationandtrance.
SuchdevelopmentsledKennethClark,asPresidentoftheAmerican
PsychologicalAssociation,to suggestin 1971:
Wemightbeonthethresholdofthattypeofscientific,biochemical intervention
whichcouldstabilize andmakedominantthemoralandethicalpropensitiesof man
andsubordinate,ifnoteliminate,hisnegative andprimitivetendencies.

103. 84 ChangingImages of Man
Clarkproposedthedevelopmentofchemicallybased"psychotech­
nologies"(primarilytobringcontroloverthetendenciesofnational
leaders,inanattempttolowerthepossibilityof nuclearwar).Delgado
hasurgedthedevelopmentof a"psycho-civilized"society suchthat
dangerousbehaviorinmancanbemodifiedbyelectricalstimulationof
thebrain.Thuscertainareasofmodernbrainresearchclearlyraise
profoundmoralquestionswhich,if unresolved,mightpropelciviliza­
tiontowardBraveNew World and1984.Theissue hasbeenraised,
whetherthecontrolofthebrainmadepossiblebyelectrical stimulation
ofthebrain(ESB) isessentially differentfromplacingtheindividualin a
prison,wheretheprisonbars,insteadofbeingironrods,areacomplexof
metalelectrodeswiredintoacomputer.Delgado(1969)believesthatsuch
questionsarestillpremature:
ThisOrwellianpossibilitymay provideagoodplotfor a novelbutfortunatelyit is
beyondthetheoreticalandpracticallimits of ESB. Bymeansof ESB we cannot
substituteonepersonalityforanother,norcan wemakeabehavingrobotof a
humanbeing.Itistruethatwe caninfluenceemotionalreactivity andperhapsmakea
patientmoreaggressiveoramorous,butineachcase thedetailsofbehavioral
expression
arerelatedto anindividualhistorywhich cannotbecreatedby ESB.
Acompletelydifferentlineofinvestigationissplit-brain research.
Thedataindicatethatthepartofthebrainwhichtalks,uses
language,engagesinlogicalproblem-solving,andreadsthispageisthe
left-handside.Experimentshaveshownthatsplit-brainpatientswho
havelosttheuse ofthis lefthemispherehavenoverbaloutputand
cannotexpressperceptions.Theothersideof thebrainfunctions
differently,beingprimarilyresponsibleforourorientationinspace,
bodyimage,recognitionoffaces;itprocesses informationmore
diffuselyandcanintegrateinformationmorereadily.Iftheleftsideis
analytic
andreductionist,thentherightismoreholisticandintegrative.
Bogen(1973)callsthelefthemispherethe"propositional"mindand
therightthe"appositional"mind.Hesuggeststhatinvestigationofthe
"appositional"mind,orrighthemisphere,mayleadto thediscoveryof
new
formsofcommunication(whichmaynotbelanguage),better
suitedtodealingwithbothourevolutionaryheritageandouron-going
experienceoftheuniverseinholisticterms.
Sperry(1967)notesthatthisfunctionalasymmetryofthebrainis
apparentlyuniquetohighermammalsandmostemphasizedinman.
Bogen(1973)suggeststhatiftherighthemisphereisdominantfor
certainhigherfunctions,wemaysupposetheremightbeothers,and
thatperhapseveryhigherfunctionisdistributedunequallybetween

104. Influence of Science on the"Image ofMan" 85
thehemispheres.'*'Innormalhumans,thetwoareconnectedandsome
informationispassedfromonehemispheretotheother.Scientistsare
onlybeginningtoexplorethecomplexinterrelationshipofthetwo
mindsofman.PerhapsEinstein'stermforcreativethought-"com­
binatoryplay"-willprovepropheticoffutureresearchfindings.Split­
brainresearchisleadingtowardmoreunderstandingofwhatPolanyi
(1964)
terms"tacitknowledge:"Ourtacitpowersdecideouradherence
to aparticularcultureandsustainourintellectual,artistic,civic and
religiousdeploymentwithinitsframework.Byformingandassimila­
tionofanarticulateframeworkthesetacitpowerskindlea multitudeof
newintellectualpassions.
Platt(1970)
remindsusthat:"Perceptionisthefirstthingwe
experienceandthelastthingweunderstand.Itisthebeginningof
knowledgeandalso, insomesense,theendofit."Intheend,
perceptionis apersonalphenomenonanditmaynotbepossibleto
"objectify"itwithoutlimit.Physicistsinvestigating thephysicaluni­
versefoundthatbeyondacertainpointofrefinementofmatter,there
is alimitationofrelativity anduncertaintyontheobjectiveknowledge
principle.Brainresearchtodaymaybeapproachingasimilarlimit
imposedbywhatDelgado(1969)terms"psychologicalrelativity." The
Newtonianconceptofcentersinthebraingoverningvariousactivities
ceasesto bevalid
beyondacertainlevelofcomplexityininvestigation.
Beyondthatpoint,andparticularlywhenitcomesto highermental
functions,thepicturetendstoblur.
Thedevelopmentofbiofeedbacktechniquesinthepastdecade
(describedlater)has broughtanotherimportantresearchtoolintothis
samearea.IntheWestithadbeenconsideredthatthoseaspectsof our
bodilyfunctionswhichcouldbebroughtundervoluntarycontrolwere
strictlydelimitedbythedivisionbetweenthesympatheticand
autonomicnervoussystems.Thisassumptionwas insharpcontrastto
theEasternviewwhich heldthatanybodilyfunctioncouldbecon­
sciously
modifiedat will.Miller(1971) andKamiya(1969) havenow
shownthatthelatterview islargely correct;thattheindividualpro-
•"Therearehistorical'consequences'to theshiftingofepochs:swingingfromthe
digital(left,rational)to the
analog(right,symbolic) hemisphere!In thepast2,000
years,the
pendulumhasswungtwicefromanalogtodigitalandback,andit is now
swingingtowardsthe
analogforthethirdtime.Perhapswe havejustaboutpassedthe
pointmorethanhalfway.Thegreatoutburstofcreativeactivitywhich markedthe first
fewdecadesof the
centurymay be viewed asresultingfromaninterhemispheric
integrationofthedigitalandtheanalogzeitgeist.Apparently,artisticandscientific
creativityreach
maximumat apointmidwaybetweenadigitalandasubsequentanalog
epoch."-RolandFischer

105. 86 ChangingImagesofMan
videdwith feedbackhastheabilityto becomeconsciousof,andin a
limitedwaymodify,
theactivitiesof bothhisownbrainandtherestof
hisbody.
Thisdevelopmentrepresentsanimportantshiftaway from
the"robotomorphic"imagespresentedby ESBresearchandthe
chemicaldominationofmindsuggestedbyClark.
Split-brain
researchhasdirectly challengedtheunitarymind
concept,andwe nowknow thatthetotalnumberofpossiblestatesof
thebraincanbegivenonlyby anumberoftrulyastronomicalpropor­
tions-accordingtoAnokhin(1971), aonefollowedby alineofzeros
stretchingoutintospace24times thedistancefromtheearthtothe
moon!Nowonderthattosome,thebrainhasbeguntolooklikean
enormoushologram(Pribram,1971). AsphysicistWeisskopf remarks
(1972):
Thedeeperwepenetrateintothecomplexityoflivingorganisms,intothe structure
ofmatter,orintothe vast expansesoftheuniverse,thecloserwe get to theessential
problemsofNaturalPhilosophy.How doesagrowingorganismdevelopitscomplex
structure?Whatis thesignificanceof theparticles andsubparticlesofwhich matteris
composed?Whatisthestructureandhistoryof theUniverse?
BiologicalRhythmsandBioelectricFields. Modernbiologyhas
developedanunderstandingofmancenteredlargelyaroundachem­
icalparadigm.Inrecentdecades,however,moreattentionhasbeen
givento thecomplementaryelectricalaspectofbiologicalfunctioning
(Presman,1970)andas aresult,factorsthatwerepreviouslyregarded
asunimportanthavebeenrecognizedassignificant.Forexample,
certainlow-levelradiationhasnowbeenfoundtoaffectadversely
importantparametersofhumanfunctioningsuchasreactiontime,
mood,andtheratesofbiologicalprocesses(Adey,1972; Colquhoun,
1971;Krueger,1973;Fischer,1966). Becker(1963) hascorrelated
frequencyofadmissionsto mentalhospitalswith geomagneticfluctua­
tions.
Thecombinedbodyofthisworksuggeststhat(1)theelectrical
environmentofmanisjustasimportantasthechemical,(2) inattention
to thisenvironmentadverselyaffectsasignificant (thoughundeter­
mined)segmentofthepopulation,whomayendupbeingtreatedas
"mentallyill"whentheproblemmaybeanelectricallyimbalanced
environment.Itisonlyrecentlythatsomeactionhas beentakento
investigatethiswhole
questionof"electromagneticpollution"and
clearly,avast amountofworkremainsto bedone(Healer,1970).
Researchintotheeffectsofvariouskindsof fields andelectrical
currentsonbiologicalorganismshadled, toimprovedratesofhealing
(Becker,1971) andapparentlymoreeffectivecontrolofpain,as well as
correlationsbetweentheelectricalenvironmentandtheincidehceof

106. 87InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan"
variousdiseases (Barnothy,1971).Manyofthesefieldphenomenaare
rhythmicinnature,affectingandbeingaffectedby weatherpatterns
forexample,andthereis anewsurgeofinterestintheinvestigationof
biological
rhythmsandtheirsignificanceforthehumanbeing(Luce,
1971). As a
result,thehighlyrhythmicnatureofmanyaspectsof
humanfunctioningisbecomingclearandthecombinationofthesetwo
areasofresearchisbeginningtopresenta viewwhichmoreclosely
resemblesthatoftheoldastrologers,withtheiremphasisonthe
importanceofthecosmicenvironmentforhumanaffairs,thanthe
moreconventionalviewwhereintheimmediatechemicalenvironment
oftheorganismisconsideredparamount.
Onalargerscale,thestronglyrhythmicpatternsofmanyphasesof
societal
phenomena,suchaswarandconflict,createthedesireto
understandcausalfactors forthemonamuchwiderscalethanpre­
viouslyconsideredreasonable.Thissuggeststo sometheAristotelian
imageoftheuniverseitselfas a sortoforganism-the"cosmobiological
conceptionofnature."Atthefringesofthesedevelopmentsliesthe
recentresearchintotheoldEasterntechniqueofacupuncture,based
onsuchconceptsas"energyflow"andamorefield-orientedapproach
tothehumanorganism.Itmaybethatreorientationtowardthe"field
approach"mayserveto bringthebiologicalview of humansmore
closelyin linewith theEasternview,which holdsthattheindividualis
essentially
partofthecosmicevolutionaryprocess.
ConsciousnessResearch
Sciencehas beenconcernedwiththerelationshipofthingstoone
anotherandnottoourselves(Lonergan,1957).However,it isour
consciousnessthatperceivesrelationships,evenwhensciencehaserec­
tedaninterfaceofinstrumentsbetweenrealityandtheobserver.The
importantanchorpointoftheobserverhasbeenoftenoverlooked.
Chaitanya(1972)notesthat:
Itwassoon forgottenthattodescribeexperiencecompletely,onehadtomentionthe
consciousnesslooking outas well as theuniversewhichwas seenwhenitlooked
outward.
InWesternscienceit has beengenerallyassumedthattheconscious­
nessinvolvedinscientific
observationshouldonlybe ofthekindthat
producesobjectiveknowledge.Inrecentyears,however,therehas
beenincreasedscientificinterestinconsciousnessas such,intherela­
tions
betweenphysicalstates andconsciousness,andinthewaysaltered

107. 88 ChangingImages of Man
statesof awarenesscanaffectperception,thinking,feelings,and
behavior.Researchersfrompsychology,neurology,andmanyother
disciplinesarestudyingsleepanddreaming,meditation,brain-wave
control,yoga,hypnosis, andotherstatesofconsciousness. Thesestu­
dies
indicatethatnotonlydoesmanhaverarelyusedpotentialswhich
canbelearned,butthatelementsofthesestatesaremorecommon
thanpreviouslythoughtandtheirinfluenceonperceptionissuchthat
theworldseenbythemdiffersin manyrespectsfromthatcharacteriz­
ing"normal"consciousness.As thevisiblelightbandis aminutepart
ofthetotalelectromagneticspectrum,so"normal"humanconscious­
ness is
showingupto be asmall portionoftotalhumanawareness.
Itisbecomingclearthatmanyalteredstatesofconsciousness and
othertopicscanbebroughtintotherealmofscientificinquiry.Manyof
thesesubjectivestates orphenomenawereoriginallyclassifiedasreli­
gious
ormysticalin nature,andhenceexcludedfromscientificstudyas
notbeingobjective,physicalistic, orsubjecttogeneralobservation.
Theseattitudesare
changing,firstbecausethebreakdownofsub­
jective-objective
dichotomiesisdemonstratingtheimportanceofcon­
sciousness,
andsecondbecausetechnologicaldevelopmentshavemade
itpossibletodiscoverphysiological correlatesofsubjectivestates­
dreams,forexample,cannowbedetectedandmonitoredthrough
rapideyemovements(REM)andEEGrecordings.As aresultofsuch
advances,theseformertopicsofmysticismaremovingintothedomain
ofscientificverification andexploration.
Hypnosis.Majorscientificresearchintothenatureandcharacteristics
ofhypnosishas
increasedrapidlyinthelastdecade.Thestateof
hypnosisis still notwellunderstood,
but.itcanbedefinedas astateof
mindusuallyinducedbyanotherperson,whichinvolves controlover
attentionandalsocommunicationwithpartsofthemindusually
outsideofawareness,suchasmemory,subconsciousprocesses, and
physicalcontrolofthebody.Thehypnotizedperson'susualstructure
ofrealityrecedes,enablinghimtohaveintenseabsorptioninonefacet
ofawareness.
Presentresearchindicatesthatmanyaffectsarepossiblethrough
suggestioninthehypnoticstate:controlofpain,enhancedmemory
andmentalabilities,changesinmotivationandemotion,changesin
habits,increasesincreativity,
andcontroloverphysicalprocesses,
includingbloodflowandtreatmentofmanydiseases(Weitzenhoffer,
1953;
Hilgard,1965;Krippner,1969).
Itappearslikelythatmostphenomenawhichcanbeevokedby a
hypnoticsuggestionfromahypnotistcanalso bedonebyanindividual
himself,throughself-hypnosisandself-suggestion(Sparks,1962). The

108. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 89
techniqueisonewhichcanbelearnedindividuallyandingroups.An
exampleofthisis thetechniquecalled"autogenictraining"developed
bySchultzandLuthe(Luthe,1969)whichusesself-suggestionexercises
fortherapeuticmedicaltreatments,e.g.relaxation,increasingblood
flow tohandsandfeet,creatingmentalcalmness.
Researchersarefindingthatdeepstatesof hypnosisarenotneces­
sary
formanyoftheaffectsto be produced,so it islikely that
self-hypnosisandself-suggestioncanbeusedby agreatmanypersons
inoursociety.Thelist ofpotentialuses ofhypnosisisextensiveand
impressive,andonemaywonderwhyhypnosisis notusedmore
extensivelyandmorefrequently.
Onepartialansweristhatwedonothaveaparadigm,inmedicine
orinourculture,withinwhichhypnosiscanbeunderstoodandused
consistentlyandresponsibly.Ourmedicineisbasedonthemanipula­
tionofmaterialprocessesthroughmaterialmeans:drugs,surgical
intervention,diagnostictests.So strongisthepreferenceforphysical
meansoftreatmentthatpsychophysicalprocesses arefringeareas:
psychosomaticills, theneuroses,andmentalconditionsandtreated
frequentlywithdrugs,placebos,orpsychosurgery,insteadofthrough
psychologicalmethods.Withasupportivepsychologicalandexperiential
context,inwhichhypnosisis considerednormalanduseful,leadingto
autonomyandself-control,its potentialwouldbemorelikelyto be
accepted,explored,andused.
Biofeedback.Manyoftheresultsobtainedthroughhypnosis-volun­
tarycontrolof a widevarietyof internalstates-canalso beachieved
throughbiofeedbacktraining(BFT).Thisis atechniqueofgivinga
personpreciseandimmediatefeedbackonaparticularphysicalprocess
as itoccurs.
ThemostwidelyknownBFThasbeenappliedtothe
controlofbrainwaves.InaproceduredevisedbyKamiya(1969), an
electroencephalographisusedtomonitoraperson'sbrainwavesand
arrangedtosoundatonewheneveralphafrequencies(8-14cps)occur
inthebrain.Thesubjectisinstructedtonotehowheisthinkingwhen
thetonesoundsandtotrytokeepthetonesounding.Withthis
feedback,
manyindividualslearntoincreasetheproportionofalpha
waves intheirbrain,oftenwithina fewhours.
As wenotedearlier,thiskindofcontrolwas alwaysthoughtto be
impossiblein
theWest.ThepioneeringworkofKamiya(1969) and
Miller(1971) changedthisbelief:thephysicalprocesses thathavesofar
provedamenabletolearnedvoluntarycontrolincludebrainwaves
(alphaandthetafrequencies),heartrate,bloodpressure,bodyandskin
temperature,musclerelaxation,andeventheelectricalactivity ofsingle
cells in
thespinalcord(Barber,1971).
elM_ H

109. 90 ChangingImages of Man
Theconsequencesofthisdevelopmentfortheindividual'sabilityto
learnthefullrangeofcontrolsthatarepossibleovertheactivityofhis
ownbrainhavebeenmentionedearlier.Somepreliminaryreports
fromthisresearchindicatethatsuchcontrolisestablishedthrougha
differentkindofconsciousvolition,a"passivevolition." Thismay
changetheways inwhich knowledgegainedinthesestatescanbe
processedorused."A lessappreciatedaspectof this newtechnologyis
thatitcanallowthepersontobecomemorespecificallysensitiveto the
effectsof changesin hisenvironment,normallyunnoticedandoccur­
ringas aresultofchangesemanatingfromremotelocations,e.g. the
effectsof changesinthemagneticandelectromagneticenvironmenton
reactiontimeandthegenerationofhypertension(Presman,1970).The
psychosomaticbasis formanydiseasesmayalso beexploredin amore
dispassionateway,allowing thepatienttobecomeawareofthefull
situationsurroundingillness.Thiscouldhavesignificantconsequences
inoverallmentalstabilityandthesenseofself-responsibilityin the
individual.
Dreaming.
Thisisthemostcommonalteredstateofconsciousness
thatpeopleexperience.Dreamshavebeenasubjectofinterestfrom
earlytimesandhaveoftenbeenassociatedwith precognitive
experiencesandcreativeexperiencesof allkinds. Freudconcludedthat
dreamswereimagescreatedbythesubconsciousto expressemotions,
desires,andfeelings,chieflyas wishfulfillments (d.Freud,1950).
Othershavefoundthatdreamspresenttrialsolutionsto problems,
showimages andgoals,anddramatizethemesandpatternsfrom
wakinglife.Jungsuggestedthattheyrepresentcontactwiththebasic
archetypalimageswhich arealsoexpressedinmyths.
Abouttwodecadesagoresearchersdiscoveredthatwhenasleeping
persondreams,his eyesmoveunderhisclosedlids(Aserinsky and
Kleitman,1955). Thisdiscovery,simplethoughit was,madeitpossible
to
getrecallof a person'sdreamsduringthenightbysimplywaking
himorherduringrapideyemovement(REM)sleep, ratherthan
relyingonhisspottyrecallthemorningafter.Oncethecorrelationwas
made,thenastudyofEEGpatternsrevealedthatdreamingwentin
cycles
throughthenight,withthelengthofdreamtimeincreasing
towardmorning.Theconclusionisclearthatalthoughdreamsoccurto
everyone,forsomeindividualstheyarenotaccessibletoconscious
memoryinthemorning.
•See EliseBoulding'sremarksin AppendixAregardingself-hypnosisand"mind
games"which use passive volition.

110. Influenceof Science on the "ImageofMan" 91
Interestindreamsanddreamconsciousnesscutsacrossseveralfields.
Psychotherapistsareexploringthemeaningsanduses ofdreamsfor
theindividual'spersonality,lifeproblems,andgrowthneeds(Freud,
1950;PerIs,1969; Martin,1955;Faraday,1972).Researchersin
neurologyandpsychophysiologyarestudyingthemechanismsof
dreamproductionandthefunctionofdreamsforthementalhealthof
theindividual.Thepossibilityof controllingorguidingdreamsisbeing
exploredbyresearchersinconsciousness(Tart,1969, 1970;Witkin,
1969;
Casteneda,1972)andothershavestudiedtherelationofdreams
to ESP(Dunne,1939;UllmanandKrippner,1970).Thefindingsfrom
thisresearchsuggestthathumanshaveextensive andimportantdream
lives,which contributestotheirpsychological,emotional,andphysical
health,andthattheirdreamscanbeusedfortheirbenefitin anumber
of ways:
•Dreamingisessentialfor mentalhealth,anddreamdeprivationresultsin detrimen-
talpsychologicaleffects.
•Actions,plots,
andthemesof dreamscan to someextentbecontrolled.
•Solutionsto
personalorpracticalproblemscan beproducedindreams.
•Literaryandartisticcreationscan be developedthroughdreams.
•Emotionalconflicts andneedscan be communicatedthroughdreams.
•Differentpartsof thepersonalitycan communicatethroughdreams.
•Integrativeandpositivepersonalityimagescan occurindreams.
•Telepathicandprecognitiveinformationcan bereceived andexpressedindreams.
•"Wakingconsciousness"can be maintainedin somedreams.
•Telepathic,predictive, andotherapparentESPmessagesmay occurindreams.(See
thelatersectioninparapsychology.)
Meditation.Thoughinterestinmeditationalpracticeshas increased
markedlyintheWestduringthepastdecade,someofthetechniques
themselvesarethousandsofyearsold,beingdrawnfromclassical
traditionsofmysticism,religiouspractices, andmethodsofself-under­
standing.Therearetwogeneraltypesof meditation.Inone,the
individualgathershisattentiononanobject,athought,asound,or
someotherinternalorexternalsensation,withthegoalof merging
withthatobject.Inthesecondtechnique,themeditatorclearshis mind
sothathe isemptyofthoughts,ideas,feelings,sensations, or"pro­
grams."Whichevertechniqueisuseditmustbelearnedandpracticed
if it is tohaveanyeffect.
Thelimitedamountofscientificresearchthathasbeendonein­
dicates
thatmeditationresultsinloweredratesofmetabolism,respira­
tion,bloodflowandoxygenconsumption,increasedalphawaves in
thebrain,andincreasedrelaxation(Wallace,1970). Thepsychological
effects
includeavastrangeofreportedphenomena,suchas:recallof
experiences,abilitiesto shutoutdistractions,changesincolororshape

111. 92 ChangingImages ofMan
ofobjects,andfeelingsofrelaxationorpeace(Deikman,1963;Tart,
1969).
Also
thereissomeevidencethatdifferentmethodsofmeditation
producedifferentresultsthatareconsistentwiththegoalsof the
practice.Forexample,EEGstudiesshowthatinZenmeditation,
continualawarenessoftheexternalworldismaintained(Kasamatsu
andHirai,1966)whilein Yogameditation,externalstimuliareignored
(Anand,Chhina,andSingh,1961).Eachoftheseis appropriatetothe
intention-toremainawareoftheoutsideworldinZen, andtowith­
drawfromit inYoga.
Psychologically,
somemeditatorsexperiencetheworldtranscen­
dentallyfollowingmeditation,seeingit asfresh,new,andoftenmore
brightlycolored.Thiskindoftransfiguration(reportedinDeikman,
1963) issimilarto reportsofexperiencesbyreligiousmystics, and
indicatesthatmeditationmaygiveindividualinsightsintopartsof
awarenesswhicharedeeperthannormaleverydayconsciousness.
Psychedelic Drugs.Inthelast15years therehasbeenincreased
interestinchemicalsubstancesthatchangethequalityandcharac­
teristicsof normaleverydayconsciousness,particularlythroughsuch
drugsaslysergicacid,mescaline,psilocybin, andothers.Thesedrugs,
referredto aspsychedelics, hallucinogens,orpsychoactivechemicals,
expandorcontractthefield ofconsciousness; theyseemcapableof
enhancingperceptionsandsensations,givingaccess to memoriesand
pastexperiences,facilitatingmentalactivity,andproducingchangesin
thelevelofconsciousness,includingwhatarereportedastranscendent
experiencesof areligious orcosmicnature(MastersandHouston,
1966).
Althoughuncontrolledandillegaldruguse intheUnitedStateshas
hamperedscientificresearch,psychoactivesubstancesseemto have
manypotentialuses ifusedunderproperconditions"(Mastersand
Houston,1966;AaronsonandOsmond,1970;KrippnerinTart,1969).
•Psychotherapyusingpsychedelicchemicalshas hadremarkablesuccess.
• Somestudieshave
shownthatcreativitycan beenhanced,at least inartists andcreative
workers.
•
Therapeuticsessionsusingpsychedelic drugswithpatientssufferingterminaldis­
eases haveresultedin less
painandapprehensionregardingdeath.
•"Psychoactivesubstanceshave manypotentialuses-andmisuses.(See Wayne O. Evans
andNathanS. Kline,PsychotropicDrugsinthe Year 2000.CharlesC. Thomas,1971.)Itis
irresponsibleto waxenthusiastic
aboutthepotentialof drugswithoutalsocautioning
aboutthemanyproblemsthattheyarecausing."-MichaelMarien.

112. InfluenceofScienceon the "ImageofMan"
•Transcendent,religious,or"cosmic"experiencesoccurtosome.
•
Hyperawarenessofbodystatesandphysiologicalprocesseshave beenreported.
•Someevidenceindicates thatparapsychologicalabilities may be enhanced.
93
Thesepotentials,aswiththosederivingfromhypnosis,meditation,
andotheralteredstatesofawareness,aresubjecttotheconditionsset
bytheindividualthroughhispersonalityandhisexpectations,the
settingandcontextofthetreatment,andthesophisticationwithwhich
theparticulardrugisused.Thepotentialofthesetechniqueshasnot
beenfullyexplored,largelyowingto acombinationoftheproblems
sometimesassociatedwiththeiruse inill-suited conditionsandan
unfavorablesocietalattitude.
UnconsciousProcesses andSubliminalStimulation.Thetheorythatparts
ofourthinkingandmentalprocessesareoutsideofourawarenessis
becomingacceptedtoday.Initiallycalled thesubliminalself(Myers,
1903)
ortheunconscious(Freud,1950),thesuggestionofunconscious
processesfirst seemedinconflictwith theimageofrationalman,in
whichtheindividualwasregardedasfullyconscious andrationallyin
chargeof histhoughtsandbehavior.Nowthereisgeneralrealization
thatmanymentalprocessestakeplaceoutsideofawareness,andthese
influenceouractions,ourthoughts,andourfeelings.
Thenotionthatthesensescouldreceiveinformationbelowthe
normalthresholdsforperceptionorawarenesshasalsobeenthe
subjectofcontroversymanytimesduringthiscentury.Lawsprohibi­
tingsubliminaladvertisingweredrawnupevenwhenitsactualexis­
tencewasbeingquestionedbypsychologists.Dixon(1972)hasrecently
reexaminedthewholequestionin acriticallightandfoundthatas
measuredagainsteightdifferentexperimentalcriteria,the
phenomenonisrealandhasbeenfoundtoaffectatleast eightdifferent
aspectsof perceptionandbehavior.
TheSuperconscious.Freud'sconceptoftheunconsciousmind
emphasizedapoolofnegative,emotion-riddenconflicts,andthis
notionhascometocharacterizetheunconscious.Currentlythereare
indicationsthataconceptofasuperconsciousaspectofmindisemerg­
ing.Thesuperconsciousisthenamegiventothecreative,intuitive,
inspiringaspectsofmind,thosewhichhavepositiveandself-directing
qualities(Assagioli,1965; Aurobindo,1971;TeilharddeChardin,1969).
Like
othermentalactivitiesthatareoutsideofconsciousawareness,it
maybeexpressedindreams,hunches,feelings,andintuitive"know­
ings."Atpresenttheideaofasuperconsciousisscatteredamonga
numberofphilosophers,psychologists,andotherinvestigatorsof con-

113. 94 ChangingImages of Man
sciousness.Iftheconceptis aviableone,itmaycoalescewithas much
forceandeffectas didtheearlierideaofunconsciousprocesses.
Towarda Science of Consciousness. Besidesthestudyofspecificstates
ofconsciousness,
researchersarebeginningtodevelopexplanatoryand
descriptivetheoriesregardingconsciousness.Lilly (1972)hypothesizes
thatthemind(andbody)is a humanbiocomputer,withprogramsand
metaprogramswhichcanbeanalyzedandaltered.Muses(1972), a
mathematician,describesconsciousness mathematicallybyhypernum­
bers.Tart(1971)considersstatesofconsciousnessas information­
processingsystems,with unitssuchasmemory,emotion,senseof
identity,
evaluationanddecision,andawareness.Krippner(inWhite,
1972) haslistedtwentystates
ofconsciousness,with criteriato dis­
tinguisheach.Suchtheoriesrequireinvestigationandfurther
development,butindicatethataninvestigationofconsciousness andits
alterationsisscientificallyfeasible.
Herewecansummarizeasfollows:theextensionofthescientific
methodtothestudyofconsciousnessitselfhas resultedinthe
identificationof anincreasingnumberofdistinctstatesofconscious­
ness,
eachwithdistinctcharacteristics throughwhichreality maybe
experiencedorinterpreted.Tart(1972)suggests thattherulesof
correspondencewhichexist between"normal"consciousnessandthe
"external"worldshouldalso bediscoveredbetweenotherstatesof
consciousness
andtherealities"external"tothem.Thisextensionof
thescientificmethodcould,hesuggests,greatlyenhancescienceand
theusualassumptionofsciencethat"ourordinary,normal,so-called
rationalstateofconsciousnessis thebestoneforsurvivingonthis
planetandunderstandingtheuniverse"(Tart,1973).Thecon­
sequencescouldbeprofoundnotonlyforscience,by extendinggreatly
themeaningofgeneralizationforexample,butalsofortheimageof
humankind.Theimagestemmingfromthisresearchas awholeis
basically
onewhichoverlapswiththeimagefromevolutionarytheory,
whereinthecourseofevolutionmovestowardincreasingcomplexity
onthephysicallevel andincreasingawarenessinthearenaofcon­
sciousness.
Parapsychologyand PsychicResearch
Wecomenow toresearchonphenomenathatviolatetheparadigms
ofphysicalityorcausation,orthatcannotbeexplainedbytheknown
laws oftheuniverse.Thefourmajordivisionsof this kindofresearch
todateareas follows:

114. Influenceof Science on the "ImageofMan" 95
•Telepathy.Theperceptionofanotherperson'son-goingmentalactivitieswithoutthe
use of anysensorymeansofcommunication.
•Clairvoyance.Theability to knowdirectly informationor factsabouteventsoccur­
ringinremotelocations,without normalsensorymeans.
•Precognition.Theability to know ofeventsor happeningsin thefuturewithout
sensoryorinferentialmeansofknowing.
•Psychokinesis(telekinesis).Themovementofmatterbynon-physicalmeansor direct
mentalinfluenceoverphysicalobjectsor systems.
I<
Thefirstthreeareoftenreferredtocollectivelyas psiphenomena,or
extrasensoryperception(ESP);psychokinesisis sometimesreferredto
undertherubricofpsycho-energeticphenomena.Themaintask
chosenbyearlyworkersintheseareaswasproofoftheactualexistence
of
thephenomena;theseeminglysporadicnatureoftheiroccurrence
meantthattheonlyproofwhichcouldbesoughtatthetimewas
statisticalin
nature(Rhine,1961).
Margenau(1966)hassuggestedthattheproperapproachwouldbe
to
attempttofind thoseconditionsnecessaryto concentratethe
phenomenasufficientlyto ensuretheirreliableoccurrencein alabora­
torysituation.Therearemanyindicationsthatthisis nowpossible,as
moreandmorereliabledatafromscientificinvestigation areemerging
abouttheoccurrenceandcharacteristicsof thesephenomena.We
surveythesefindingsbriefly:
•Alteredstatesofconsciousness,particularlythose tendingtowardrelaxation,facili­
tatereceivingESPinformation.
Thishasbeenfoundfor the states ofdreaming
(UllmanandKrippner,1970),deeprelaxation(BrandandBrand,1973),alphabrain
wave states(Honorton,1969),andhypnoticsuggestions (Krippner,1967).
• Physical states
andprocessescan be "induced"telepathically.Inexperimentswith
identicaltwins
andalso withunrelatedpersons,physicalchangessuchas the rateof
bloodflow,electricalskinresistance,
andbrainwavepatternshavebeensentfrom
onepersontoanother(Dean,1966; Tartin Ryzl, 1970;DuaneandBehrendt,1965).
•
Telepathyismorelikelybetweenpersonswho have mutualliking,orwho have
physical
oremotionalbonds(AndersonandWhite,1956; DuaneandBehrendt,
1965).
•Emotions
andemotionalcontentcan betransmittedtelepathically.Moss (1969), for
example,
presentedemotionallystimulatingvisual andmusicalsequencestosenders,
andpercipients(thereceivers) reportedcorrespondingemotionalfeelings.
•
Highmotivationenhancespsiphenomena(RhineandPratt,1957).
• Belief inextrasensory
perceptionraises ESPscoringlevels inlaboratoryexperi­
ments;disbelieflowers
them(thesearecolloquiallycalled sheepvs.goatexperi­
ments)(Schmeidler
andMcConnell,1958;Palmer,1971).
•
Telepathicorotherpsiinformationisoftenreceivedsubliminally, andgainsaccess
to theconscious
mindthroughhunches,dreams,intuitions,andfeelings(L.E.
Rhine,1961).
I<"Ofthe 4 effects, mostscientistshavegreatestreservationwithrespectto telekinesis­
in spite ofworkatBoeing andin Russia.Telekinesisis also of least importancefor the
discussion
thatfollows."-HenryMargenau

115. 96 ChangingImages of Man
•Theinformationisofteninterpretedthroughthereceiver'sownframeworksof
perception,ratherthanseenas it wassent. Forexample,the visualmessageof a
boxingmatchmaybetranslatedintoanimageof anoceanwithpoundingwaves;
messages
regardingstreetriotsmay beconsciouslyperceivedas relatingtoearth­
quakes(Moss, 1969).
•Scoreson ESP testshave
beencorrelatedwithseveral differentpersonalitycharac­
teristics(e.g.
KanthamaniandRao, 1973).
•Psychokineticeffectshave
beendemonstratedin thelaboratoryto affect quantum
processes,mechanical andelectronicsystems, andfallingdice andotherobjects
(Adamenko,1972;L.E.Rhine,1970; Green,1973;OstranderandSchroeder,1970).
•Psychokineticor
paranormalphysicaleffects arealmostalways small inlaboratory
experiments,butmay be oflargemagnitudeinreallifesituations,suchaspoltergeist
phenomena-whichmay becausedin somecases bypsychokinesis (L.E.Rhine,
1970; Roll, 1970).
• In
experimentalstudies,thepsychokineticeffectalmostalways shows asignificant
cyclicdeclinein
strengthovershorttimeperiods(L.E.Rhine,1970).
Thesefindingsarestillscatteredpiecesof information,andas yetthe
fieldawaits anintegratingtheoryorsetofprincipleswhichwillreveal
lawful
patterns.Scientistsfromdisciplinesotherthanpsychologyare
enteringtheinvestigationsofpsychic phenomena,andthis has
widenedthevarietyof searchcriteriabeingbroughttobearonthe
issue.Justasthechemistknowsthatcertainconditionsoftemperature,
pressure,timingandconcentrationofchemicalsarenecessaryfora
reactiontoyield agiven product,modernpsychicresearchispiecing
togetherthecomplexpatternofconditionslikelyto enhancethe
occurrenceoftelepathyorprecognition.
Severalnew developmentsmaketheseinvestigationsmorefeasible
now
thantheywereinthepast:
• It may be possible totrainpsychicabilities usingtechniquesof immediatefeedback
to
enhancethelearningprocess(TargandHurt,1972).
• Psychics have always
referredtoothermodesofperceptionaspartoftheirability,
e.g. the
perceptionof"auras"or fieldsaroundthebodyassourcesof information.
Electronicinstrumentationsensitiveto minutechangesinmagneticandotherfields
aroundthebodycan now be usedin abiofeedbackset-upto enhancethesekindsof
perception(Beal, 1973).
•Electronic
instrumentationcanfurtherbeusedto detectandmonitorpsychophy­
siologicalstateswhich
arecorrelatedwithpsychic functioning(ASPRNewsletter,
1972).
•
Theuse ofgiftedpsychicsin laboratoryresearchisincreasing.Many ofthese
persons
apparentlyhavevoluntarycontrolofvariousparapsychologicalabilities
(Green,1972;
StanfordResearchInstitute,1973).
•
Certainaspectsof physics thatwerethoughtto logicallyprohibitmostpsychic
phenomenaarenolongerheldsorigidly. Theclassicalformulationsof the prin­
ciples ofcausality andconservationof energyarenotholdingup incertainsituations
in
quantumphysics(Margenau,1965)andthusphysicaltheoryismakingroomfor
some of thekindsofcausalityinvolvedinpsychic
phenomena.
•Theoriesof thephenomenabasedonquantummechanicsandphysics havebegunto
emerge;inoneofthese,thetheoreticalcurveforthedistributionof psychic abilities in
populationscloselymatches experimentaldata(Walker,1973).

116. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 97
Inpsychicresearch,wherethetheoreticalissuesareinmanycases
identicalwith
thelimitsofphysics,it is understandablethatmany
relevantgeneralmodelswillcomefromphysics.Forexample,attempts
arebeingmadetorelate"hiddenvariable"theoryinquantum
mechanics,conceptsofhypernumberandhyperspace,andtheoriesof
sub-atomicparticlesto a
descriptionofthephysicalworldinsucha
way
thatitincludes,atleasttheoretically, theinformationthatcanbe
thebasisforpsychicperception(Walker,1973;Muses,1972-3;Kozyrev,
1968;Koestler,1972).
Impactof Psychic Research onImagesof Humankind.Thepresentform
ofsciencehas baseditselfuponaparticularkindofseparationbetween
subjectiveandobjectiverealities, andhasarguedthatitsdiscovered
laws
makeit so.Thisremainedrelativelyunchallengeduntiltheearly
twentiethcentury,whenthedeeperprobingofsciencebegantoreveal
a
universethatrendersobjectiveknowledgeimpossibleonceacertain
kindofhighlyresponsivesystemis approached.Asnoted,thisshows
upparticularlyinphysics-wheretheatomiclevel is sosensitiveto the
natureofthemeasurementnecessaryfortheacquisitionofobjective
knowledgethatthisknowledgebecomesimpossibletoachieve.
Asimilar
phenomenonoccursin researchonthehumanbrain.Eccles
(1970)hasdescribedtheconnectionbetweeneventsinthebrainand
energytransitionsoccurringatthesubatomiclevel inatoms.His
suggestionisthatwholechainsofactions andresponsesofthenervous
systemarecapableof beinginitiatedbytiny energytransitionsoccur­
ringatthequantumlevel,since thebrainpossessescellswhich canbe
affectedby
theseverysmall energytransitions,cellswhosefiring can
triggerotherwholesets of neurons.Thisinterfacebetweenquantum
mechanicsandbrainresearchwill nodoubtbeoneofthevitalgrowing
areasofsciencein thefuture,andmayoverlappresentinquiriesin
psychic
researchinimportantways.
Itis ofcourseatthelevel ofinformationitselfthatalltheories,
whetherphysical,biological, orpsychological,mustfuse.All theissues
involved,however,seemto
hingeupontherelationshipbetweenthe
physicalworld andthatofconsciousness,andit isthisrelationshipthat
is"ontrial"whenpsychicphenomenaaredebated.
Animportantaspectof thisrelationshipisthedemonstrationthatthe
bodyissensitiveto manymorethantheseveralclasses ofstimuliin
normalsensoryperception.Insubliminalperceptionthepresentation
issuchthatthethresholdofperceptionforthesensemodalitybeing
testedis neverreached,andyetevidenceclearlyshows thatinformation
istransferred.Dixon(1972)concludesthatsubliminalstimulationhas
beenshowntoaffectdreams,memory,adaptationlevel,conscious

117. 98 ChangingImages of Man
perception,verbalbehavior,emotionalresponses,drive-related
behavior,andperceptualthresholds.Thussubliminalperception
researchhasbeenheldbysometo betheessentialpointofdeparture
fromconventionalpsychologyintothoseissuesin thetheoryofper­
ceptionwhichalsoinvolvepsychic researchand,ultimately,therela­
tionshipbetweenthebrainandthe"external"world.
However,arecentexperiment,ifsubstantiated,pointsto afarmore
radicaldeparturefrompresentlyacceptedpsychologicaltheory.This
experiment,byPuthoffandTarg(1974),dependsuponthediscovery
thatif astroboscopiclightatabout15flashespersecondisshinedin a
subject'seyes,a characteristicalphacomponent(around10or11 cps)
appearsin hiselectroencephalogram.InthePuthoff-Targexperiment
tworemotelyisolatedsubjects areused,somepriordegreeofrapport
havingbeenestablishedbetweenthem.Thelightisflashedin one
subject'seyesandtheotherisaskedtoguesswhether,in agiven time
interval,thelightisonoroff.While thesecondsubjectisusually
unabletoguessbetterthanachancebasis,thetelltalealphacomponent
appearsin hisEEG. Theimportantdeductionisthatunconsciouslyhe
knowswitha
certainty,inanextrasensoryway,whenthelightis inthe
otherperson'seyes-evenwhilehe is denyingsuchknowledgeto his
conscious
mind.
Inotherwords,thiswatershedexperimentappearstoprovideclear
evidenceofuniversaltelepathiccapacitywith almostcompleterepres­
sion(formostpersons)ofawarenessof thissourceofknowledge.
Demonstrationofthisrepressionphenomenondoesmuchtoexplain
thepuzzlingerraticcharacterofpsychicresearchdata.Itopensthe
possibilityofradicallynew researchmethodologiesinwhichtheinhibit­
ingeffectof the"internalcensor"isbypassedbyutilizing responses
(suchas EEGcomponents)thattheorganismhasnotlearnedto
repress.
Theimplicationsof theexperimentgoesmuchfurther.Iftelepathic
capacityis shownto beuniversalandalmostcompletelyrepressed,this
suggests
thatthesamemaybetrueofthewholerangeofreported
paranormalphenomena-clairvoyantremoteperception;abnormally
rapidhealing;precognition;retrocognitionofotherlifetimes;telepor­
tation,"thoughtphotography,"andotherformsofpsychokinesis;and
therest.Kuhn(1970)describeshow,in thereplacementofscientific
paradigms,awatershedpointisreachedwheretheaccumulatedweight
ofdiscrepanciesandanomaliesthatcannotbefittedintotheold
paradigmtipsthebalance,anditbecomesmoreprofitable(in emo­
tionalas well as inrationalterms)toseeka newparadigmthantopatch
uptheold.Recentexperimentalresearchers,includingespeciallythe
experimentmentionedabove,stronglysuggestthattherangeof

118. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 99
humanpotentialitiesis fargreater,thattheroleofout-of-consciousness
mindprocessesis fargreater,andthatthepowerofexpectationsand
imagesis fargreaterthancanbeaccountedforundertheold
paradigm.
ClearlythedominantimageofhumannatureinWesternsociety
todaydoesnotas yetincludethepotentialitiesimpliedbythevastand
puzzlingrangeofreportedpsychicphenomena.Ontheotherhand,
publicinterestinthisrealmisevidentlygrowing.IfLawrenceLeShan
(1969) iscorrectin histheorythattheassumptionsheldaboutreality
influencethe"reality"experienced,thenchangingculturalassump­
tionsaboutthepossibilityofpsychic phenomenamayhavecon­
sequencesforthefrequencywithwhich theyareobservedtooccur.
(Hypnosisresearchersintheearlynineteenthcenturytypicallyobser­
vedthatthehypnotictrancebroughtforthlatentclairvoyantobser­
vationanddiagnosiscapabilitiesin theirsubjects.A centurylaterthose
doinghypnosisresearchweremorecertainthatthesephenomenawere
physicallyimpossible, andtheynolongerseemedtooccur.)
Ifthenewlyre-energizedareaofpsychicresearchdoesflourish,with
thedualimpetusofincreasingpublictoleranceandnewmethodologi­
caltools,its impactonmodernculturemaybeprofound.Asearlier
indicated,inthecurrentWesternscientificparadigm"reality"tendsto
bephysical,causal,mechanistic,
andobjective.Thedataofpsychic
researchsuggestthatrealityincludesparaphysicaleffects, thatnon­
materialmentalstatesexist andtransactwithphysicalsystems, andthat
humanityhas amentalor
consciousnessaspectwhichtranscendsits
physical
nature.
GeneralSystems TheoryandCybernetics
WemayletGregoryBatesonintroduceafinalresearchareato be
mentionedhere:
thegrowingtogetherof anumberofideaswhich haddevelopedindifferentplaces
duringWorldWar II ...theaggregateoftheseideas[beingcalled]cybernetics,or
communicationtheory,or informationtheory,orsystemstheory. Theideaswere
generatedinmanyplaces: inViennabyBertalanffy,in HarvardbyWiener,in
Princetonby vonNeumann,in BellTelephonelabs byShannon,inCambridgeby
Craik,
andso on. Allthese separatedevelopmentsindifferentintellectualcenters
dealtwith...theproblemofwhatsortof athingis anorganizedsystem...Ithink
thatcyberneticsis thebiggestbite outof thefruitoftheTreeofKnowledge that
mankindhastakenin t.he last2000years.
(1972,pp.482-484)
Generalsystemstheoryis inessence anattempttointegrateinsome
rationalterms,withappropriatemetaphors,thediverseknowledge

119. 100 ChangingImages of Man
flowingfromthewholeofscientificinvestigation. Itaims atbeingboth
holisticandempirical.Oneof itsmostbasicpropositions,empirically
supported,isthatlawsandprinciplesfoundtogovernthesystems
particulartoonedisciplinearelikelytohave importforthesystems
peculiartootherdisciplines.
Forexample,Wiener(1954)observes thattheoperationsofmodern
complexcomputingsystemsarepreciselyparalleltothoseofliving
organismsintheiruse offeedbacktocounteractthethermodynamic
tendencytowardincreasingentropy(i.e.confusion,disorder).Inboth
casestherearesimilarprocessesofcollecting informationfromthe
outsideworld,transformingthisinformationintomoreusableforms,
basingactiononthetransformedinformation,andreportingthe
consequencesbacktotheinternalregulatoryapparatus.
Theconceptofmanysystemsas potentiallyhavingsimilarfunctional
orstructuralmodelsisanessentialpartofwhatin 1954 wastermed
GeneralSystemsTheorybyvonBertalanffy(atheoreticalbiologist),
Boulding(aneconomist),Gerard(aneurophysiologist),andRapoport
(amathematician).Itshouldbenotedthattheyspecificallyrejectedthe
notionofthepersonbeingonlyanassemblyof thepartsofsystemsthat
thereductionistapproachsuggests(Buckley,1968).
Themainthrustforthesystemsapproachmaybe said tohave
stemmedfrombiology.Thetrendtoward,andneedfor,viewing
biologicalsystemsin
otherthanreductionisttermscamefromthe
thinkingof vonBertalanffy,Weiss, Cannon,Bernard,andothersin
the1920sand1930sthoughtheirworkdidnotgainwidespread
recognitionuntilafterWorldWarII.Thenit wasrealized thatal­
thoughpartsofthebiologicalsystem mightbesaidto be bothin
equilibriumanddosed,thewholesystemwas notsostructured,andso
new
conceptswouldbenecessaryif thesesystemswereto beaccurately
describedbyscience.
Inturn,thesystemsapproachwasfruitfullyappliedtomanyaspects
of
thestudyoforganisms,e.g.to thecell(Rashevsky,1938), to per­
meationin cells(Osterhout,1932), tometabolation(Bertalanffy,1932),
growththeory(vonBertalanfly,1934), andexcitation(Hill,1936).
However,thetermsof itsinitiationwerebroaderthanthisandAshby(1973)
describes
thekindsofcross-fertilizationthatwereenvisagedaspossibleif
theinhibitionsofspecialization couldberemoved:
Theneurophysiologistsweregenerallyunwillingto thinkof thecerebral cortexas a
place
whereepidemic-likeprocesseswere occurring.Theeconomistsordinarilywould
nottake apersonseriouslywhosuggested thatthebankingsystemworkedrather
liketheliver.

120. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 101
Further,theadvantagesofthesystemsapproachweremadeapparent
whenSirRonaldFishersuccessfullychallengedthereductionistpre­
mise bydemonstratingthatinecologicalsystems,plots showingthe
effectof onevariablechangeatatimecouldnevershowtheeffectof
varyingtwoormoreofthemsimultaneously.Asecondmajoradvance
wasachieved whenradioengineersmasteredtheproblemsoffeedback
circuitswhich hadenormoussensitivitybutwerewildlyunstableuntilit
was
understoodhowtheinteractionscreatedbythefeedbackoperated
onthesystem.WhenNorbertWienerdiscoveredthattheresultscould
beappliedtosystems generallysuchthat"goal-seeking"or"self­
corrective"devicescouldbeconstructedutilizingthefeedbackprin­
ciple,thensystemsscience beganinearnest,butagain,forspecialized
purposes.
Now it isunderstoodthatinteractioninsystemsis a vital elementand
itrequiresa newapproach;henceWeiss's(1969) pointthat:
Thenumberofstatementsnecessarytodescribe thewholesystemis morethanthat
necessarytodescribe theparts...the"more"intheabovestatementdoesnotat all
referto anymeasurablequantityintheobservedsystemsthemselves;it referssolely
to
thenecessityfor theobservertosupplementthesumofstatements
thatcan be
madeabouttheseparatepartsby anysuchadditionalstatementsas will beneededto
describe
thecollective behavioroftheparts,wheninanorganizedgroup.
Further,theways inwhichsystems arestructuredintermsof
hierarchiesthatallowthemtodealeffectivelywith increasingcom­
plexityis
anotheressentialcomponent(Weiss,1969).
'*'Thuswefind
thatsystemsin generalhaveonlycertainkindsofresponsestogrowth,
newinformation,orchange,all ofwhich havecommonmeaningsin
systems
theory.Ingeneralsuchresponsesarecharacterizedbysudden
restructuringphenomenawhichareusuallyprecededbydissonancein
thesystemshowingupatseverallevels simultaneously.Theseevents
arealsoaccompaniedby atrendtowardgreatersimplificationas well as
interactive
transitionsacrosslevels of theoldsubsystemicstructure.Itis
notyetclearwhethertransitionsof thiskindcanactuallybe guided;
thisquestionemergingfromthesystemsapproachisoneofthemost
demandingchallengeswhichwe mustmeetinthenearfuture(Platt,
1970).
Thusit isclearthatinformationemergingfromthesystemsap­
proachcanhaveimmediaterelevanceforthestudyofmanypartsof
thehumanenvironment.Thehierarchizationnotioniscommonto
• SeeNoteA, p. 109.

121. 102 ChangingImages of Man
language(Chomsky,1965), voluntaryaction(Bruner,1969),instinctive
behavior(Tinbergen,1951),andnumerousotherkindsofsystems.
Laszlo (1969, 1972)
andSalk(1973), amongothers,findethics and
valuesas havinganobjectivebasein normsechoedinthestructureor
"metabiology"oflivingsystems. Bateson(1972)states thepromiseof
cybernetics
andgeneralsystemstheorymostambitiouslyin dealing
withthedilemmatowhich humanconsciousnessaidedbymodern
technologyhavenowbroughtus:
Todaythepurposesoftheconsciousnessareimplementedbymoreandmore
effectivemachinery, transportationsystems,airplanes,weaponry,medicine,
pesticides
....Consciouspurposeis nowempoweredtoupsetthebalancesof the
body,of society,
andofthebiologicalworld aroundus. Apathology-aloss of
balance-isthreatened....Ontheonehand,we havethesystemicnatureof the
individual
humanbeing,thesystemic natureof theculturein which he lives,andthe
systemic
natureof thebiological,ecologicalsystem aroundhim;and,ontheother
hand,thecurioustwist in thesystemic natureof theindividual manwhereby
consciousnessis,almostofnecessity,
blindedto thesystemic natureoftheman
himself.Purposiveconsciousnesspulls out,fromthetotalmind,sequenceswhichdo
nothavetheloopstructurewhichischaracteristicof the wholesystemic structure.If
you follow the"common-sense"dictatesofconsciousnessyoubecomeeffectively,
greedyandunwise-...[where]I use "wisdom"as awordforrecognitionof and
guidanceby aknowledgeof thetotalsystemic creature.Lack ofsystemicwisdomis
always
punished....Biologicalsystems-theindividual,the culture,andthe
ecology-are...punishingofanyspeciesunwise enoughtoquarrelwith its ecology.
Call
thesystemicforces "God"if you will. (p. 440)
SOURCES ANDCHARACTERISTICS OF A POSSIBLE NEW PARADIGM
Wehaveexaminedsomecharacteristicsofscienceas it has been,and
alsosomeofthedevelopmentsthatmaybeforcingchangein its basic
paradigm.Now wewanttolookatsomeoftheinteractionsbetween
scienceandsocietyandsuggestsomecharacteristicsof thenew
scientific
paradigmthatmaybeemergent.
InteractionsbetweenScienceandSociety
Sciencetodayaffectsthelives ofanunprecedentednumberof
people,intermsbothoftechnologicalimpactandoftheirdirect
involvementintheactivity.ThenumberofAmericanswhoareinsome
manneroccupationallyinvolvedinscientific researchanddevelopment
isapproaching5percentoftheworkingpopulation(Schlegel,1972).
Thehighlycomplexandcostlyoperationsofsciencehave becomea
subjectfordebatein alltheadvancedsocieties(Ciba,1972; Calder,

122. Influence of Science on the"ImageofMan" 103
1963).
Thisincreasedimpactandthehighcostofsciencebringa
heightenedinteractionbetweensociety'sattitudestoscienceandthe
contentandquantityofscientificresearch.
Foratleasta century,therelationshipbetweenscienceandmodern
societyin manywayshasresembledthatwhichformerlyexistedbe­
tweenreligionandsociety.Inadvancedsocieties,mostpeoplehave
soughtexplanationofnaturalphenomenainscientificterms,where
formerly,explanationwassoughtfromtheauthorityofthemajor
religions.Thus,sciencehasactedas akindofvalidatingfilterthrough
whicheventsin the"real"worldhadtopassbeforetheycouldbecome
accepted.However,inperformingthisfunction,sciencehasoften
endeduprejectingasunrealorillusorymanyaspects.ofsubjective
experienceofphenomenawhichcannotbeexplainedby itsown
paradigms-psychicphenomena,UFOs,religious experiences-aswell
as
someofthetabooslisted earlier.Inrecentyears,majorinstitutions
ofscience
havebeguntorecognizethattheycannolongerrefuse
attentiontoaspectsof humanexperiencehavinghighcurrencyin
society,
andthattocontinuallydenyexistencetowidelyexperienced
realitiesis to eventuallydestroytheirownauthority.
Relatedto thesechangeswithinscienceissociety's growingdis­
enchantmentwithscience. Generallyspeaking,thisdisenchantmenthas
beenexacerbatedbythesometimesdisastrousmisapplicationoftech­
nology
madepossiblebyscience. Intheeyes ofmany,thedistinction
betweenscienceandtechnologyisblurred;as aresult,today'secologi­
calcrisis,
thespinoffofscience intomilitarytechnology, andother
problemsofadvancedsocietiesareblamedonscienceitself.
Thisnewhostility towardscienceis reflected,forexample,in
decreasedenrollmentinscience-degreeprogramsatcollegesanduni­
versities.Ithas alsorepeatedlybeenusedinthepoliticalsectorto
initiatemassivecutoffsof
fundingforbasicscience-eventhoughthe
developmentofmilitarytechnologycontinuestoflourish.Thereis a
growingbeliefin thepossibilityofdiscovery-specific targetedfunding
inscience,althoughexaminationofthepatternsofscientificdiscovery
discloses
thatoneof itsessentialqualitiesis unpredictability.
Theinfluenceof socialfactors onsciencecanpullin twoopposing
directions.Ontheonehand,socialpressurecanenrichthewhole
contentofsciencebystressing theneedforscienceto addressitselfto
manyissuesnow excluded.Importantfuturedevelopmentsmight
include,forexample:extensionofmodelsofcausalityto includenew
phenomenainterlockingwithdevelopmentsinphysics;theoryof
complexandmutualcausalsystems andpsychicresearch;theroleof
consciousnessin bothquantummechanicsandthegeneralrealmof
state-specificsciences;
thevitalparametersofecologicalandglobal

123. 104 ChangingImages of Man
systemsaswholly interconnectedsystemsleadingtomoreenlightened
macro-decision-making.
Ontheotherhand,ifpreviouslycited problemsofmisunderstanding
ofscienceandtheroleof technologyprevail,thensciencewillhaveits
baseof
operationsdiminishedbythesocialdemandforalmost
exclusiveattentiontoshort-rangeproblemsandgoals,thuscausinga
deteriorationofthequalityof thescientificenterpriseas awhole.
Thus,certainsocialpressuresmaybeactuallymoldingscienceinto
becomingexactlywhatsocietymostwishes itnotto be.
Althoughithasbecomecommonplacetonotehowsciencehas
transformedsociety,we maywellhaveunderestimatedtheconverse­
howmuchthechangingvaluesofsociety haveacceleratedor
decelerated,andaffectedtheformandcontentof,scientificactivity.As
Edelstein(1957)
pointsout,theGreeksdiscoveredandtestedmostof
theessentialelementsofthescientificmethod.Theydidnot,however,
developtheirdiscoveriesintopracticalapplication. Oneofthereasons
forthis,Farrington(1953)suggests,was thatGreeksocietywas based
ona slaveeconomy,andtherewas,therefore,noneedforthe
developmentoftechnologicalapplications.A morefundamentalre­
striction,asEdelstein(1957)notes,was theGreekimageofmanin
relationtonature:"Theworldwasthereto live inandnotto beused
andmadeover."Hence,theGreekapproachtothepursuitofknow­
ledgewaslargelyaesthetic, althoughasAristotleprophetically remar­
ked:"Manvanquishedbynaturebecomesmasterthroughtechnics."
IncontrasttotheGreeknotionof"man,"theJudeo-Christianview
holds
that"man"isessentiallyseparatefromtherightfulmasterover
nature.Thisviewinspiredasharprateofincreaseintechnological
advancesin
WesternEuropethroughouttheMedievalperiod.Onthe
otherhand,theseverelimitationsofscholastic methodology,andthe
restrictiveviews of theChurch,preventedtheformulationofan
adequatescientificparadigm.ItwasnotuntiltheRenaissancebrought
a newclimateofindividualism andfreeinquirythatthenecessary
conditions
fora newparadigmwereprovided.
Interestingly,theRenaissancescholars turnedtotheGreeksto
rediscover
theempiricalmethod.TheGreekspossessedanobjective
scienceof
things"outthere,"whichD. Campbell(1959)termsthe
"epistemologyoftheother."Thiswasthebasicnotionthatnaturewas
governedby lawsandprincipleswhich couldbediscovered,andit was
this
thattheRenaissancescholars thendevelopedintoscienceas we
havecometoknowit.
Today,scientistsareexperiencingasenseofrestriction fromthe
limitationsof theobjectiveandreductionistapproach,akintothe
limitationsfeltby theRenaissancescholarsin relationtotheMedieval
schoolmen'sapproach.

124. Influence of Science on the"ImageofMan" 105
Thetimeisclearly ripeforanewvision,andit isnaturaltowonderif
onceagainthemethodsofinquirydevelopedbyanotherculturemight
notbestrongwhereoursareprovidingweak.As indicatedbyTable5,
it
maybethatthesemethodswill befoundinan"epistemologyofthe
self,"suchas hasheldsway intheEast.Certainly,thereis asuddennew
interestinorientalknowledgeofvariousmethodsofcontrolover
bodilyandmentalfunctions.LiketheGreekmethods,thesetechniques
havelain dormantintheircultureoforigininsofarasgeneralap­
plicationand"objective"developmentareconcerned.Now,however,
theEasterndiscoveriesarebeingvalidatedintheWestbybiofeedback
andothertechniques.Inshort,thescientificknowledgeoftheWest
maybetheenvironmentneededifdiscoveriesof theEastareto
developandreceive"widespreadapplicationtothepracticalconcerns
ofhumankind.Thisisnottosuggestthatmodernsciencewouldor
shouldadopttotallyall theEasternnotionsofconsciousness,butrather
thattheymightbefruitfullyadoptedandsynthesizedwithtraditional
Westernscientificmethodstoproducethenextstagein man'sevolu­
tionaryadvance.AsOates(1972)commented:
Whatappearsto be thebreakingdownofcivilizationmay well besimplythe
breakingup of oldformsby life itself (not aneruptionofmadnessor self­
destruction),aprocess
thatisentirelynaturalandinevitable.Perhapswearein the
tumultuousbutexcitingclose of acenturies-old kindofconsciousness-afew of us
liketheologiansof theMedieval
churchencounteringtheunstoppableenergyof the
Renaissance.
Whatwemustavoid istheparanoiaofhistory's"truebelievers,"who
have always
misinterpretedanatural,evolutionarytransformationofconsciousness
as
beingtheviolentconclusionof allhistory.
CharacteristicsofaPossiblyEmergentParadigm
Muchofwhathasbeendiscussedin this chapteris tothepointthat
thescientificparadigmand,throughit,scientificresearchfindings
affect
thedominant"imageofman"inthesociety-butcontrariwise
thesociety'spriorities anditsculturalprejudicesinfluencethescientific
paradigm.Atthepresentmomentinhistorybothdevelopmentswithin
scienceitself(e.g. changingmetaphors)andpressuresfromtherestof
society(e.g.
disenchantmentwiththepresentscience-technologythrust)
•"Thisis amost importantadmonition,whichcouldbe furtherelaborated.Northrop's
'Meetingof the East andWest'heremakesan importantpoint.In my ownwritings,
whereIintroducedP-planeandC-field,I called attentionto the factthatthe East
dwellslargelyin theprotocol
planeofimmediateexperience(whichincludesintro­
spection
andestheticimmediacies), refusingtoenterthe field ofrationalconstructs.
TheWest,ontheotherhand,overemphasizesC, therational.P andCareconnected
byrulesof correspondence.Myinsistenceis uponequalizingtheemphasison the
two.
"-HenryMargenau
elM-I

125. Table5
ELEMENTS OF ANHISTORICALANALOGY FOREXPLORINGTHEFEASIBILITY
OF ANEWSCIENTIFICPARADIGM
......
g
Elementof the
historicalanalogy m
Approachorideawith
undevelopedpotential
Imageblocking
developmentof the
ideafor
human
betterment
incultureoforigin
Motivatingconditions
for
developmentof
idea
Medievalto
Industrial
transformation(past)
Early
Greekdevelopmentof
anepistemologyof
the
"other"onwhichanobjec­
tivephysicalsciencecould
bebased
Dominantimageof theworld
as
thereto live in,not
to beused andmadeover;
free
peopleenjoyingknow­
ledge
foritsaestheticvalue;
slaves
doingthework­
henceuneconomictoreplace
humanenergybytechnology
Perceivedlimitationsof
thescholasticmethod,de­
sire
forempiricismand
practicalphysicaltech­
nologies
and
IndustrialtoPost-industrial
transformation(future)
EarlyOrientaldevelopmentofan
epistemologyof the"self"on which
anobjective/subjectivepsycho­
physicalscience
couldbepartially
based,
Dominantimageof the
personasessentiallyaspiritual
beingdeludedbythe"maya"of
physical
existence-henceuneconomic
toapplyself-knowledgetoproblems
ofmaterialexistence
Perceivedlimitationsof
current
reductionistic,objective methods;
ecologicalproblemsbeyondresolu­
tionbyphysical-technologiesalone;
desirefor"value
incorporating"
socialandpsycho-technologies
Q
~
~
('JI:j
E'
('JI:j
~
~
~
c:"
~
~
~

126. Imageofhumankind
necessarytofoster
developmentofthe
idea
Buildingblocksfor
developmentofidea
Resultof full .
developmentofidea
Personas abeingseparate
fromnature,appropriateto
dominatenaturethrough
exerciseofindividualwill
andreason
TranslationofGreek
thought;developmentof
measurementmathematics,
engineering,andlater
•'pure"sciencesofspecial­
izeddiscipline
Powerfulobjectivescience
andphysicaltechnologies;
industrialcorporationswith
necessarycapitalizationto
exploitnewtechnologies
Personintrinsicallypartofnature,
appropriatetoharmonizeselfand
naturethroughexerciseof theindi­
vidual
andthecollective,with
objective
andsubjectivemeans
TranslationofOrientalthought,syn­
thesiswith
generalsystemstheory,
learningtheory,andemergingdis­
ciplinesof holisticobjective/
subjective
inquiry
Balanced"moral"scienceandeco­
nomics
orientedtowardecological
well-being;balancedemphasis
on
physical,social, andpsycho­
technologies;newinstitutional
formsyet to bediscovered and
created
~
~
l;:
t"::>
;:!
("',
t"::>
~
~
t"::>
;:!
("',
t"::>
C
;:!
So
t"::>
~
~
~
~
~
;:!
-o
-:J

127. 108 ChangingImagesofMan
maybebringingaboutabasicchangeinthescientificparadigm.From
thenatureofthesevariousforceswe haveexaminedinthepreceding
discussionit ispossibletodeducesomecharacteristicsthattheemer­
gentparadigmwouldbelikelyto haveif it isresponsivetotheseforces.
Thefollowingeightcharacteristicsareamongthemostimportant:
1.Thenewparadigmwilllikelybe inclusiverather than exclusive.
Scienceas it hasbeenknowntonowwill beincludedas aspecialcase,
distinguishedby apositivisticbias thatresultedinrelativeneglectof
subjective
experience,andaseriousschismbetweenthe"twocultures"
ofscienceandthehumanities.Therewill berecognitionthatany
systemofknowledgethathasguidedastablesociety, whetherthat
societybe sophisticatedorprimitive,ancientormodern,Easternor
Western,maybeassumedto berootedinthehumanexperienceofits
timeandplaceandhenceinthatsensevalid,notto belightly assumed
awayas a quaintsuperstition.
2.Itwilllikelybe eclectic in methodologyandin itsdefinitionofwhat
constitutesknowledge.Itwill beguidedbythedictumofSaint-Exupery,
that"Truthisnotthatwhichisdemonstrable.Truthisthatwhichis
ineluctable"-whichcannotbeescaped.Thusthenewscientific
paradigmwillnotbeslavishlyweddedtothecontrolledexperimentas
theparagonofthetestforultimatetruth.Furthermore,it willnotbe
solely
reductionisticin itsquestfor"explanations,"recognizingthat,
forinstance,ateleologicalcausemaycomplement,notcontradict,a
reductionisticcause.
3.
Thenewparadigmwilllikelymakeroomforsomesortofsys­
tematization
ofsubjectiveexperience,thedomainwhichhasheretofore
largelybeenlefttonon-science-thehumanitiesandreligion.Thatis to
say, it will
includestudyofthoseexperiencesfromwhichwe deriveour
basicvalue commitments.Fromthischaracteristicflowseveral others:
4.Itwilllikely fosteropen,participativeinquiry, inthesenseof
reducingthedichotomybetweenobserverandobserved,investigator
andsubject.Insofaras itdealswitha "humanscience,"it will bebased
oncollaborativetrustand"exploringtogether,"ratherthanonthesort
ofmanipulativedeceptionwhichhascharacterizedmuchexperimental
psychologicalresearchofthepast.
5. It willlikelybe
amoralinquiry, inthesenseofinvestigating (and
applying)whatvaluesarewholesomeforman(muchinthesensethat
thescienceofnutritioninvestigateswhatfoodsarewholesomefor
man),ratherthana"value-free"
inquiry.
6.Itwilllikely highlightaprincipleofcomplementarity, orrecon­
ciliation(analogouslyto waveandparticletheoriesoflight)of such
"opposites"asfreewillanddeterminism,materialismandtranscen­
dentalism,scienceandreligion.

128. InfluenceofScience on the"ImageofMan" 109
7.Thenewparadigmwilllikelyincorporatesomekindofconceptof
hierarchicallevel of consciousness,orlevels ofsubjective experience.
Thesewill bedistinguishableinthesensethatconceptsandmetaphors
appropriatetoonelevel donotnecessarilyfit another.Theywill be
hierarchical,notinthesensethatoneishigherthananotheronsome
valuescale, butinthesenseof structuralhierarchy,andalso inthe
sensethattheconsciousnessof intensemomentsofcreativityare
accompaniedby, insometestablemeaning,moreawarenessthantimes
of
"ordinaryconsciousness,"andthoseinturninvolvemoreawareness
thandeepsleep.Thenotionof aspectrumofpotentialconsciousness
connotesextendingtherangeofrecognized"unconscious"processes
(i.e.processesofwhichwe
arenotusuallyconscious althoughthe
potentialityappearsto bepresentofexperiencingthemdirectly)to
includea vastrangeofreportedexperienceintheprovincesofcreative
imagination,"cosmicconsciousness,"aestheticandmysticalexperience,
psychicphenomena,andtheoccult.Thisrangewillinclude,im­
portantly,bothsubconsciouschoice-man"hidingfromhimself,"
repressingnotonlyfeelingsandmemoriesbutalsoknowledgeof his
ownpotentialities-andsupraconsciouschoice,thedirectionof a
"higherself"manifestingitselfin hunchesandinspirationsand
"choosingbetterthanweknow."Themetaphorsappropriatetothe
"highest"levels willincludesomeway ofreferringtothesubjective
experiencingof aunityin allthings(the"More"ofWilliamJames,the
"DivineGround,"Brahman)ofwhich the"higherself"(the"Over­
soul"ofEmerson,Atman)hasimmediateknowledge.
8.Thustheparadigmwill allow amuchmoreunifiedview ofhuman
experiencesnowcategorizedundersuchdiverseheadingsas"crea­
tivity,""intuition,""hypnosis,""religiousexperience,"and"psychic
phenomena"-andalso amoreunifiedview oftheprocessesof per­
sonalchangeanddevelopmentthattakeplacewithinthecontextsof
psychotherapy,education,"growthcenters,"religion,andcrisiscon­
frontation.
Theguidingparadigmofscientificactivity andthedominantimage
ofmaninsocietyarenotthesamething.Theyare,however,inter­
dependentandachangetakingplacein onewillsurelyaffecttheother.
NOTE
Note
.4
"Weiss'spointthattherulesof interactionmustbegivendoes notprovidethe whole
story
here.Complexpatternscan begeneratedbysimplerules.However,inUlam's
formulation,it takes a
greateramountof(Shannonian)informationtodescribethe

129. 110 ChangingImages of Man
finishedpatternthanjusttherulesof interactionalone.Thustheamountofinformation
(Shannonian)grows.ThisiscontrarytoShannon'sformulationthattheamountof
informationdecreasesbutcanneverincrease.Furthermore,oftentherulesofinteraction
cannotbeinferredfromthefinishedpattern.ItisimportanttorealizethatShannon's
informationtheorywasdevelopedtocombatnoise in systemsandisthereforebasedon
therulesof
randommterference.Thusitcannotexplaintheincreaseofcomplexity,
structureanddifferentiationinbiologicalsystems.Biological andsocialprocesses,on the
otherhand,arebasedon differentiation-amplifyingas well asstructure-maintaining
mutualcausalrelations, andcanincrease andmaintaindifferentiation,structureand
complexity.So Shannon'sinformationtheoryisinadequateforbiologicalandsocial
systems. [SeeMaruyama(1963) for
furtherdetails.]"-MagorohMaruyama

130. "Thequestion before the board, then is whether or not to enter an altered state of consciousness."
Reproducedbypermissionof TheNewYorkerMagazine,Inc.Drawing byRichter.
©1977.
112

131. CHAPTER 5
CharacteristicsofanAdequateImage ofHumankind*
Wehaveseenhowthepredominantimageofhumankindin asocietyis
a
powerfulshapingforceonthesocialenvironmentandhowthesocial
environment,inturn,influencesthesociety'simage.We havealsoseen
howthedominantimagesthatguidedthissocietythroughanageof
incrediblesuccessarenowbeingchallenged,bcauseof ourinabilityto
dealadequatelyeitherwiththeproblemscreatedbythesuccessorthe
problemsattendanttopastandemergingsocialandscientific
developments.
Nowquestionsof tremendousimportarise.Couldanimageof
humankindemergethatmightshapethefuture,asthecurrently
dominantimages-manasthemasterofnature,inhabitantof a
materialworld,andconsumerofgoods-ourlegacyof thepast,have
shapedourpresentculture?Couldsucha newimageprovidethe
bridgetocarryussafelyoverto apost-industrialera?Ifso,what
characteristicsshouldtheemergentimageentail,suchthatitwouldbe
bothfeasible
andadequateforthesatisfactoryresolutionoftheserious
problemscurrentlyfacingthesociety?
Fromthenatureofcontemporarysocietalproblems,studiesof
plausible
alternativefutures,andourearlierconsiderationsoftherole
playedby asociety'sdominantimage,wecanpostulateaprovisionallist
ofcharacteristics
thata newimagemustpossessif it is to become
dominantandeffective.At theminimumwebelieveitwould needto:
(1)provideaholisticsenseof perspectiveonlife,(2) entailanecological
ethic,(3)
entailaself-realizationethic,(4) bemulti-leveled,multi­
faceted,
andintegrative,(5) leadto abalancingandcoordinatingof
satisfactions
alongmanydimensions,and(6) beexperimentaland
open-ended.Weexaminetheserequirements morecloselybelow, and
willconsiderthefeasibilityof emergenceofsuchanimageinChapter
6.
•Topreventmisunderstanding,itshouldbeemphasizedthattheword"self"in this
chapterismeantto have atrans-personalconnotationalongthe linesdescribedin thenext
chapter.For thisreason,some readersmaypreferto scanChapter6beforereading
further.
113

132. 114 ChangingImages of Man
AHOLISTICSENSE OFPERSPECTIVE
Aholisticperspectiveandunderstandingof lifeseemsabsolutelyvital if
we
aretoovercomethefragmentationandalienationthathavebecome
socommoninthelatterpartoftheindustrialera.Ifintheabsenceof
themythsandritualsofpre-scientificsocietieswe aretoregainasense
ofmeaningfulpurposeandintegration-atthelevel ofself, ofsociety,
andoftheuniverse-agenerallyacceptablesenseof perspectiveor
understandingmustemergeinoursocietyof "whatit is allabout."Just
asanadequatenewimageshouldservetoreintegratethespecialized
imagesthatatpresentcontendwitheachother,so
tooshoulditleadto
asatisfactory
senseofperspectiveandderivativemethodsfor
experiencingandparticipatinginconstructionanddiscoveryprocesses
throughwhichthatperspectiveismaintained.Onlythenwilltheneeds
ofcontinuedevolutionandtheimportantfunctiononceservedby
mythandritualagainbefulfilled."
ECOLOGICAL ETHIC
Anecologicalethicisnecessaryifmanistoavoiddestroyingthe
complexlife-supportsystemonwhichourcontinuedexistenceonthe
planetdepends.Itmustrecognizethatavailableresources,including
space,arelimitedandmustportraythehumanasanintegralpartof
thenaturalworld.Itmustreflectthe"newscarcity"in anethicof
fragility,of doingmorewithless.Itmustinvolvenotonlyasenseof
mutualself-interestbetweenindividuals,butalsotheinterestsoffellow
menandthemoreextensiveinterestsamongfellowcreatures(both
nearandfar,bothpresentandfuture).
Anecologicalethicwouldimply
movementtowardahomeostatic(yetdynamic)economicandecological
system,inwhich
thehumanacts inpartnershipwithnaturetohar­
monizeecologicalrelationshipsandinestablishingsatisfactoryrecycling
mechanisms.Suchanethicisnecessarytoachievea synergismof
heterogeneousindividualandorganizationalmicro-decisionssuchthat
theresultantmacro-decisionsaresatisfactoryto thosewhomadethe
componentdecisions,andtosociety.(Thealternativewayofarrivingat
satisfactory
macro-decisionsinvolvesbehaviorcontrolsthatwould
deprivetheindividualoffreedoms,as well asbeinginconflictwith the
nextcharacteristic.)
Anecologicalethicshouldincorporateconcernsthatarebroader
thanthoseofthephysical/biologicalecosphere,however.Itshouldalso
leadtoconcernfortheprocessesofcoordinatedandbalancedneed-
•See Note A,p.121.

133. CharacteristicsofanAdequateImage ofHumankind 115
satisfactionandwell-beingamongcultures(culturalecology), among
variousinstitutions andtypesofactivities suchasthearts,thehumani­
ties,thesciences,politics andsoforth(institutionalecology), and
amongvariousaspectsof theself(intra-andtrans-psychicecology).
SELF-REALIZATION ETHIC
Thedesirabilityof this characteristicofthenewImage ISbasedon
theviewthattheproperendof allindividualexperienceisthe
evolutionaryandharmoniousdevelopmentoftheemergentself(both
as apersonandas apartofwidecollectivities), andthattheap­
propriatefunctionof socialinstitutionsis to createanenvironment
whichwill fosterthatprocess.Thisistheethicwhichmustsupersede
theman-over-natureethicandthematerial-growth-and-consumption
ethicwhichhavegivenrise to a largeportionofman'sproblemsas he
becameincreasinglypreoccupiedwithsolely materialaspectsofexploit­
ingandcontrollingnatureforselfishendsonafragileandfinite
planetwherethepursuitofsuchgoalscanbesuicidal."
Thisself-realizationwouldrelievethecurrenthostilitytowardin­
dustrialandbureaucraticpracticeswhich tendtodiminishmanandthe
anxietythatwehavesomehowlost asense ofdirectioninthecontrol
andmanagementofourhumanaffairs-ofwhatourancestorswould
havecalledourdestiny.Thewideacceptanceof a newethicisrequired
if wearetorestructureoursocialinstitutionstosatisfytheindividual's
basicneedforfullandvaluedparticipationinthesociety.Ascorollaries
to thisethic,
self-determinationofindividualsandminoritygroups
wouldbe fostered,diversityofchoices wouldbehonored,social
decision-makingwouldbecomelargelydecentralized,andthe
mechanismofcreativevoluntarismwouldbepreferredoverpublic
bureaucracyfortheaccomplishmentofmostsocialtasks.t
Properlyunderstood,thesetwoethics,theoneemphasizingthetotal
communityoflife-in-natureandtheonenessofthehumanrace,and
theotherplacingthehighestvalueondevelopmentofselfhood,are
•SeeNoteB, p. 122.
t"Letusrealizethatself-realizationis very muchanuppermiddleclass/bour­
geois/academic/liberal
nostrumthat,as yousuggest,will cureeverythingfor
everybody
....I am all forself-realizing, butIentertainfarmoremodestexpectations.
Moreover,I can be totallyself-realized,
butstill beanxiousas hell'thatwe have
somehowlost asenseofdirectionin the
controlandmanagementofourhuman
affairs.'Theself-realizationparadigmrequiresfarmorecriticalexaminationthanyou
havegivenit
here-justremember,thatformostAmericans,self-realizationis winning
atrophyin thebowlingleague. Thereis noindicationhow this will be otherwise."­
MichaelMarien

134. 116 ChangingImagesofMan
notcontradictorybutcomplementary.Botharenecessarytosynthesize
andcoordinatemutualisticandhierarchicalapproachesin asymbiotic
manner.Theecologicalethiccorrectsforaselfishdistortionofthe
self-realizationethic, andthelattercorrectsforanexcessivelycollec­
tivistversionof
theecologicalethic. Together,thetwoethicsleave
roomforcooperationandforwholesomecompetition,forsocialityand
forindividuality.Butifthetwoethicsaretoharmonize,theterm"self"
mustbeunderstoodinbroadterms,incorporatingthediverseroles
andaspectsofexistenceof thehumanbeing.Toquotethreemodern
theorists,
It is by now widelyaccepted thatthehistoryofevolutionmay be regardedas the
developmentofevermorecomplexorganizationsof living matter:molecules,
proteins,cells,
groupsof cells,animals.
(Metzner,1968)
Consciousness,
ratherthanbeingtheproductof aparticularneuralcircuit...is the
organizationof thebio-system; thatis,awarenessisthe"complementary"aspectof
thatorganization-itspsychologicalequivalent.
(Deikman,1972)
Consciousnesscan be
definedas aphenomenonwhich issynonymouswith the
structureof anorganism.
(Wolf, 1970)
Thus,correspondingtothegenerallyincreasingcomplexityand
differentiationofevolvingbiologicalsystems, therehasbeenacon­
comitantincreasein consciousnesswhichreflects thatevolvingstate. Our
senseof self mustincorporatethisvisionif we areresponsiblyto accept
thechallengesthatourerapresents.
Justasthedifferentsystemswithinthebody(cells,organs,andso
forth)areinterrelated,so tooarethedifferentsystemswithin the
body-politic(persons,institutions,andsoforth),andthisinterrelated­
ness ofnecessityincreasesas ourcivilizationbecomes moretightly
coupledandcomplex.Itrepresentsahigherdegreeoforganizationof
thebio-system.Ifwetryto"loveourneighborasourself,"notbecause
it is
whatwehave beentaughtisproperbutbecausewe holdthe
underlyingimageandperceptionthatourneighborisin arealsense
ourself,thenitmightindeedbecomemorefeasibleto arriveat
meaningfulsocialgoals thatcanbesatisfiedwithinecologicalcon­
straints.
Thusthenewimageofhumankindshouldincorporatetrans­
personalas well asindividualisticaspectsofexistence.
'*'
.,See SirGeoffreyVickers'very relevantcommentson "SocialEthics"in AppendixB.

135. CharacteristicsofanAdequateImageofHumankind 117
MULTI-DIMENSIONAL, MULTI-FACETED, AND INTEGRATIVE
Weearliernotedhowtheimagesof humankindhaveoverthepast
severalhundredyearsbecomeincreasinglyfragmentedasspecializa­
tionandreductionismhavecometo beemphasizedinmaturein­
dustrializedsocieties.Ifthistrendisnotreversedit islikelyto lead,not
onlytocontinuingfragmentationofpersonalityandculture,butalso to
ideologicalconflictas socialpolicies
basedonoldimagescompetefor
dominance.(Forexample,witnessthecurrentdebateovertheimageof
thehumanasportrayedinSkinner'sBeyondFreedom andDignity(1971)
andoperantconditioningintheschools.)
Atthis
pointinhistory,ideologicalconflictis too costly-ourweapons
aretoostrongandourinstitutionalenvironmenttoofragile.Ifa new
imageis tocontributetoresolutionoftheplanet'swoes, itmustprovide
foranintegrativereconciliationof theapparentdichotomiesbetween
opposingimages(as quantumtheoryreconciledwaveandparticle
imagesinphysics). Thenewimagemustalso beintegrativeinthesense
thatitbuildsonpastsuccessfulimages. Seldomifeverhavehistorical
infusionsof newimages fromexternalsourcesbeenof anon-violent
nature,whetherthenewimagewasimposedbyphysicalpoweror
broughtin by acharismaticmessiahwhowaspersuasivetosomebut
nottoothers.Forthe
newimagetofosterasmoothtransitionto a
benignpost-industrialandeventuallyplanetarysociety,it has to be
absorbedintothelives ofpeopleandtheinstitutionsofsocietywithout
thedisruptionsthataccompanymostrevolutions.Thiscanonlyhappen
ifthenewimageanditsimplicationsareseenasanintegration,
reinterpretationorimprovementoftheold.
Anyimageofhumankindthathasguidedastablesociety, whether
thatsocietybesophisticated orprimitive,ancientormodern,Eastern
orWestern,agriculturalorhuntingorindustrial,mustbeassumedto
be
rootedinthehumanexperienceof itstimeandplaceandinthat
sensevalid. Thatimagewhichcanleadtowardapluralisticyet sym­
bioticworldof
greaterfulfillmentcannotbe indirectoppositiontoany
ofthesemorerestrictedimages.Inthespecificcase oflate twentieth­
centuryAmerica,thenewimagemustsomehowbemadecompatible
withthebasicsymbols andimagesoftheAmericandemocratic
experiment,andwiththeindividualismofthefrontierandtheener­
geticactivismof Americanenterprise.
Butjustasthenewimageshouldbeintegrative,so tooshouldit
entailahighdegreeofdifferentiation,notblurringthedistinctiveness,
focus,
andvalidityofvariousspecializedimagesinefforts atin­
tegration.Itthereforemustbeadequatelymulti-faceted,and,in
keepingwiththesenseof evolution,coordinatethose differences at ahigher
level ofcomplexity
andcoherence.

136. 118 ChangingImagesofMan
Toperformthistaskof differentiatedintegration,thenewimagewill
likely
haveto bemulti-dimensional."Inkeepingwiththelessons
learnedfromecologyandgeneralsystemstheory,anynewimagewill
haveto
orderthevariousaspectsof ourexistenceat thephysical,
organic,social,psychical, andspirituallevels. AsPolanyi(1966) and
Weiss (1969)havepointedout,theselevelsformahierarchy;the
functioningofsystemsat eachlevelrelies ontheelementallaws ofthe
lowerlevel; buttheprincipleoftheoperationsof ahigherlevelcan
neverbederivedfromthelawsgoverningthelower-thelowerlevel
systemreceivedits
meaningfromthehighersystem,which integrates
theparticularsofthelowerintoa newemergingGestalt.Sucha
multi-leveled
imageofhumankindcouldtherebyhelpbothtointegrate
thecontributionsfromvariousdisciplinesofscience, andtocontain
meaningforandservetheneedsofindividualsandgroupsatvarying
degreesofmaturityandmodernity,justasrelativisticphysicsincludes
Newtonianmechanicsandcommon-senseobservationsasspecialcases
of
restrictedvalidity.
Thus,iftherequirementsofvariouscultures,beliefsystems, and
personalitytypesareto beserved,ifculturalunitywithdiversity]is to
be
fosteredandtheevolutionofconsciousnessto be furthered,thenew
imagemustportrayageneraldirectionofgrowthinwhichvarious
conceptualemphasesarereconciledbutretained.Forexample,the
emphasisof:individualityandcommunity;theway oftheyogi (in­
wardly
directedchange)andtheway ofthecommissar(outwardly
directedchange);freedomanddeterminism;natureandnuture;male
andfemale;sensoryandextrasensory;andsalvationorprogress
througheffortsby self andsocietyandthroughdivineintervention.
Themeaningofdivinitymustsomehowcometoincorporateboththe
imagesof personasseparatefromGod,andofpersonandGodas
differentlevels ofthesamereality.Inallsuchcasesthevariouspartial
imagesappearascomplementarytruths,neitherdenyingtheother,thus
reflectingtheviews ofsuchdiversegroupsaschildrenandadults,
letteredandunlettered,abstractandconcreteminds.
Bothofthedominantconceptualimagesbasic to Westerndemocracy
(anagnosticsurvivalof thefittestandatrustworthyinvisiblehand)are
inneedofrevitalizationif self-interestedindividualmicro-decisionsare
infactto combineintosatisfactorymacro-decisionsin today'scomplex,
• SeeNoteC, p. 122.
t''Theterm'unitywithdiversity' shouldbereplacedby'symbiotizationof hetero­
geneity.'Although,as you[Markley] pointedoutinconversation,the term'unitywith
diversity'is likely to be
understandabletomorepeople,it misses the pointcompletely.
This point is very important."-MagorohMaruyama

137. CharacteristicsofanAdequateImage ofHumankind 119
interconnectedsociety.Thus,iftheoperativeprinciplesbasedona
view of
thehumanaspossessingfreewillanda validsense ofvaluesare
toremainviable,thenewimagemustaccommodatetheconceptand
experienceofthetranscendental,theexpansionofconsciousness,in
personalandculturalevolution.
BALANCING ANDCOORDINATING SATISFACTIONS ALONGMANY
DIMENSIONS
Themaximizingofconcernsalongonenarrowlydefineddimension
wouldnotallowtheothercriterialistedaboveto bemetin a waythat
contributestoanincreasedqualityof life. Therelatedideasof balance
andcoordinationstemfromecologyandgeneralsystemstheory(as
well as
fromvariouscultures'notionsaboutwisdom),andprovidesa
neededcorrectiveto theone-sidedlife style ofachievinganincreased
standardoflivingthathasaccompaniedthegrowthofthevalue-empty
economicsandsciencein ourindustrial
society."
Sucha newimageofmanmightbesupportiveof aphilosophy(and
indeed,apublicstrategy)of "well-being"-atermthatWeisskopf
(1971) uses toreplacetheterm"welfare"andtheolderterms"happi­
ness"and"utility,"which havecometohavepredominantlyeconomic
connotations.Suchaphilosophywouldhavetoacknowledgethat:
...aperson,a family, agroupor anationcanhavetoo muchwealthandincomeand
maysuffer fromtoomuchchange,economicgrowthandproduction.It may
considerthatthe way inwhichwealthis produced,distributedandconsumedcan, in
itself, lead to adestructiveway of life.
(Weisskopf,1971, p. 182)
Justasthecomplexitiesofecology farebadlyfromsingle-valued
approachesofsuchphysicaltechnologiesasDDT,so too dothe
complexneedsofthehumansystemfromtreatmentssuchastypify
exclusively
allopathic(drug-based)medicine,oraminimum-wagelaw.
Thehierarchicalstructureofhumanneedsrequirescoordinated
"satisficing"if theoverallgoalofwell-beingis to be served.(Theterm
"satisfice"was coinedbyHerbertSimon,1957.Itstemsfromour
•"Theterm'balance'shouldbereplacedby'symbiosis.'In symbiosisdifferencesdo not
have to be'reconciled.'You makepositiveuse ofdifferences. Forexample,plants
convertcarbondioxidetooxygen, andanimalsconvertoxygenintocarbondioxide.
Theydo theopposite.Symbiosismakesuse of thisdifference. Theideaiscompletely
differentfrom'reconciliation.'Also,'balance'isbased ontheparadigmthatwhatone
gainsiswhat someoneelse loses.Butinsymbioticparadigm,everybodygains."­
MagorohMaruyama

138. 120 ChangingImages of Man
recogmtionthatthetrade-offsinreallifearesuchthattrue"satis­
factions"arenotusuallypossible-hencewe suffice asbestwecan,
arrivingatdecisionsthatdonotproperlysatisfybutmayindeed
"satisfice.It)
Inadditiontothesesomewhatidealizedobjectives, however,thenew
imageshouldpointtowardatransformedstateofindustrializedsociety
thatwillseemachievableandpreferabletothepresentstate,yethave
functionalutilityin thepresent.Apositiveguidingimageis acrucial
determinantinthefateofapeople.Inindividualpsychotherapy
(Frank,1972)andinsocietalrevitalization(Polak,1973), theexpectation
ofsuccessin confrontinganddealingwithcrisesis oftenafarmore
importantvariablethanthespecificmethodsorapproachesused.For
example,theAmericanresponsetoWorldWarIIseemsto provethat
oursocietyis capableofextraordinarymobilizationwhenitperceives
itselfto be in a crisis
thatitcomprehendsandexpectsto beableto deal
with.ButofcoursethepresentsituationisdifferentfromWorldWar
II;asPogosaid,"Wehavemettheenemyandhe isus."Ratherthan
encouragingpropagandisticeffortstomobilizesociety,a new image
shouldleadtounderstandingsofpersonalandsocialactionssuitable
forthehighlyinterconnectedandcomplex-butlimited-environment
thatthesymbol"spaceshipearth"hascometosignify.Theimage
shouldhaveethicalimplicationsthatareimmediatelypracticalin ap­
plicationandshouldvalidatethesensethatthereis a wayoutofour
currentdifficulties.
EXPERIMENTAL ANDOPEN-ENDED
Self-consciouslyevolutionaryratherthandogmaticandparadigm
boundattitudesandimagesarenecessary.Itisunreasonabletoexpect
therateofchangeinsocietyto diminish.Ifthesocietyof thefutureis
toavoid
theimageobsolescenceandcrisisthatourpresentsociety
faces,it will be
necessarytoanticipate-ratherthanjusttoreactto-the
necessityforsuchparadigmchanges,andcontinuouslytoseekmore
adequateconceptionsandimages.
Thusthenewimageofhumankindshouldincorporatethecon­
tributionsofsubjectiveprocessesas well asobjectivesciences. Itshould
portrayavisionofman-in-theuniversethatisunrealizedbutappears
realizable-incompleteinthesenseofpointingtothegreatermystery
thateachindividualorculturemustdiscoverforitself,andthus
encouragingexplorationandself-developmentonthepartofin­
dividuals,
groups,andtheentirehumanventure.
Indeed,thislastrequirement,thata newimagebeopen-endedand

139. Characteristics of anAdequateImage ofHumankind 121
evolutionary,maybethekey totheproductivetransitionhoman
industrialpastto apost-industrialfuture.Foroneofthestrongestof
currentconflictsis thatofincrementalversusrevolutionarychange.
Incrementalchangeistypicallyseenasbeinginadequatetoovercome
theresistanceof institutionswhichmustsomehowbefundamentally
changed.
Revolution,ontheotherhand,mightwellcausesomuchsocial
upheavalthatthecurewouldbeworsethanthedisease.We suggest
thattheresolutionofthisdilemmacouldbefosteredbyan"imageof
man"intransformationwhichportraysthepersonandhumanculture
asgrowingelementsinanevolvingcosmos. Ifpersonalandsocial
evolutionisseenasanintegralpartofhumanlife,thenperhapsmuch
lessimpetuswouldberequiredtobringaboutneededchange.One
suchimagehasbeenexpressedinDunn's(1971)phrase,"process
teleology",inwhich humanbeings
...establishtheprocessof humandevelopmentasthegoal of theprocessof social
evolution.
Boththeprocessandthe goalareunderstoodto beopentofurther
transformationas weadvancewith thepracticeandunderstandingofthem.(p. 244)
Withsuchimageryit isconceivable thattheincrementalist/rev­
olutionarydilemmacouldberesolvedbyrevolutionarychangesatthe
conceptuallevel inthenearterm,butaccompaniedbyincremental
changesattheoperationallevel,leadingtothoroughgoingtrans­
formationofsocietyonlyinthelongerterm.
NOTES
Note A
"Holisticthoughtandanalysisareessentialto understandthechangethroughwhich
we
arepassing.Ifwearegoingtoworkourwaythroughthepitfallsanddilemmas
inherentinyourconvincingvisions of thefuturewith aminimumof wasteandagony,we
can only do so if we
areunabletoperceive theinterrelationshipsofthingsandappreciate
theproblemsinherentin theinexorablesynthesis.
"Therearetworatherfundamentalobstaclesin theway of thisachievement: oneis
intellectual
andtheotherinstitutional.AlfredNorthWhiteheadforesawthe first in 1925
whenhewroteof the evils ofspecialization:
...theignorationof thetruerelationof eachorganismto itsenvironment..., the
habitof
ignoringtheintrinsicworthof theenvironmentwhichmustbeallowedits
weightin anyconsiderationof final
ends....Inshort,thespecializedfunctionsof the
communityareperformedbetterandmoreprogressively,butthegeneralizeddirection
lacks vision. (pp. 282, 283)
"So we are
deprivedof theintellectualtools anddisciplinesnecessarytosimplify,
refine,
andsynthesizethe componentsoftheholisticvisions which you set forth.
Furthermore,mostacademicbureaucracies, structuredtorewardspecialization,arenot
helpingthesituation.
Of M -J

140. 122 ChangingImages of Man
"Asecond-andrelated-obstacletotheholisticapproachemergesfromthestructure
ofourinstitutions,suchas government,corporations,anduniversities.Theseinstitutions
have
beenmadelegitimateby a frameworkofideas,andideology,which emergedsome
300 years ago as anexplicitrejectionofMedievalholism.
(Idescribethisideology,
somewhatimprecisely,as Lockean....)Ourinstitutionshave departedfromtheold
ideology
evenas it haseroded;theirfoundationsareshaking.Butevenastheyshake,
ourinstitutionsandtheirmanagersunderstandablytendtodingforlegitimacyto the old
ideas."-GeorgeC.Lodge
Note B
"Thisshouldbecalled'heterogenisticself-realizationethic.'In ordertouri-brainwash
the
readers,it isnecessaryto repeat'heterogenistic'whereneeded.'Self-realization'may
mean,in themindsofmany,giving the'opportunity'toeverybodyand'enabling'
everybodytobecome standardmiddle-class,enablingeverybodyto go tocollege,etc. I
wouldrewritethe
entirepassageas follows:
[Thenewimage] mustembodyorimplyaheterogenisticself-realizationethic,basedon
the view
thatthe basicprincipleof thebiological andsocialprocessesisincreaseof
heterogeneityandofsymbiotization,thattheindividualsareuniqueanddifferent,that
thedesirableendof allindividual experienceis thefurtherdevelopmentof the
emergentself,andthattheappropriatefunctionof socialinstitutionsis to createan
environmentwhich will allow forandfacilitateheterogeneousdevelopmentof in­
dividuals
andsymbiosiswithin humanspeciesas well as amongalllivingspecies."­
MagorohMaruyama.
NoteC
"Threeinterpretationsmustbementionedhere:hierarchical,atomistic, andnetwork.
In the firstschoolof
thought,representedbyAristotle,ThomasAquinas,Polanyi and
Weiss,thesedimensions areconceptualizedas levels in ahierarchy. Thesecondschoolof
thought,havingits originintheNominalistsof theMedievalAge andtranslatedintothe
ideologyof
democracyinEnglandandintheU.S.A., sees the whole asnothingbuta
statistical
sumof itsparts. Thethirdschoolof thought,developedparticularlysince the
adventofcyberneticsin 1940s, sees the whole ascharacterizedby the pattern ofnetwork
formedbetweenindividualelements.Insomecasessucha networkmay bepre-designed
accordingto acentralizedplan. Butinmanycases thenetworkwillformas aresultof
interaction
betweentheelementswithoutanybodyplanningahead.Ecologicalinter­
actions
areanexampleof thelatter. Theevolutionaryprocessis anotherexample.The
resultis differentfroma merestatisticalsumof theparts. Noris itsomethingplannedby
a
centralauthority.Thistype of system ischaracterizedby the patternofinteraction
activatedby its componentelements."-MagorohMaruyama

141. RembrandtvanRyn-Ascholarin hisstudy,watchinga magic disc ("DrFaustus").
Reproducedbypermissionof theNationalGalleryof Art,Washington,D.C.
124

142. CHAPTER 6
TheFeasibilityofanIntegrative,
EvolutionaryImage
ofMan
Wehavepostulatedasetofcharacteristicsthatanemergentimageof
man-in-the-universewouldneedinorderbothto beadequatetothe
challengesofthefuture,andalso to becompatiblewithourhistorical
past.
Howfeasibleis it thatsuchanimagemightcometodominate
worldsocietyin thenearfuture?
Weproposetoaddressthisquestionhere,in twoparts.Firstweshall
examinetheconceptualfeasibility.Mathematiciansusewhattheyterm
an"existencetheorem"-itisenoughtoshowthatsolutionscanexistif
youcanfindevenone.Inthatspiritwediscussonesortofimageof
manthatappearstomeettheconditionslaiddowninthepreceding
chapter.
Theninthesecondsectionweshall examinetheoperationalfeasibility
of
replacingpastimagesof manwitha new andemergentone.
CONCEPTUAL FEASIBILITYOF A NEWIMAGE OFMAN
Thusthepossibleconstructionof a newimage,andthetestingfor
conceptualfeasibility,will be examinedfirst.
Elementsofa NewImage
Itwouldbeimpossibleto cite all thecontributionsthatinfluencedthe
envisioningofthecompositeimagedescribedbelow.However,the
ways ofthinkingorimagingcontainedinthefollowingworks stand
outashavinghadparticularsignificanceinthis exploration:
•Generalsystems thinking(Laszlo, 1972; vonBertalanffy,1967), butinparticularthe
hierarchicalrelationshipsof
ascendinglevels of"consciousness"(Polanyi,1966;
Weiss, 1969);
andtheprocessof"hierarchical restructuring"(Platt,1970).
•Various
pasttheoriesandimages(e.g. Judeo-Christian,Darwinian,Freudian,
behaviorist),reviewedin Chapter3,thatsomehowmustbeincorporated.
•
Themetaphorof thehumanbiocomputer(Lilly, 1972).
125

143. 126 ChangingImages of Man
•Thepostulationof"state(ofconsciousness)specific"theories,needs, knowledge
processes,andmodesofexplanation(Tart,1972;Kantor,1969;Maslow,1962;
Hubbard,1954;Kohlberg,1969).
•Thevisionof continuingevolutionofman-social(Dunn,1971),cultural(Mead,
1964),spiritual(Chardin,1939),andintegrative(Aurobindo,1963;Assagioli,1965).
•The"PerennialPhilosophy"(Huxley,1945)andvariousoccultwritings(e.g. Ous­
pensky,1943).
•Theprocessof transformationaldiscovery,as in the "Monomyth"(J.Campbell,
1956),"culturalrevitalization"(Wallace, 1956),andintheworkofToynbee,Jung,and
Eliot, asdescribedinTheExperiment inDepth(Martin,1955).
The Gradient
Figure9 shows a numberoftheoriesaboutthenatureofthehuman
andtheirunderlyingimagesthatwe willattemptto showcanbe
integratedintoamoreholisticimage/theoryofhumankind.Ifthis
attemptprovessuccessful, eachcompositepartwouldcometo be seen
notaserroneousbutratherashavingitsownvalidity (albeitarestricted
oneasseenfromtheperspectiveof thewhole).First,it isusefulto
introducetheconceptofgradient,andto see how itappliesto the
systemicpropertiesofexistence.
Imagesaf man
Divine self
Many-leveledself
(astral,erc.)
Spokesmen
The Veda s , Perenni al phi losophy, etc.
Rosicrucians,Theosophy,etc.
Existentially-freeman
Absurd man
Conditionedman
Economic man
Animal-bestial
man;
Impulsive-Irrational
man
Repressed man
Dreamingman
(ego 7)
'Conscious"
(
super­
ego?)
Lid
?)
Personal
and
collective
subcon s cious"
Humanists,NeoFreudian
Sartrianexiste ntialists
Freud, Watson, Skinner
Freud,Lorenz,Ardrey
Freud
Jung
-It
Fig. 9.Complementarityofvariousimagesasthey mightfit in aproposedcomposite
imageoftheperson.
•Jung'simageryof"dreamingman"isdifficulttoplacein themodel-preciselybecause
this
aspectofmanpartakesof"thecenter"(discussedonpages137-138),whichtendsto
integrate"thehigher"and"thelower."

144. The FeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage of Man 127
By"gradient"wemean,simply,"thegradeorascent...aseriesof
transitional
forms,states,orqualitiesconnectingrelatedextremes"
( Webster's).
Itiswidelyrecognizedthateachsucceedinglevel ofbiological and
socialevolutionformsahierarchicalgradientofinteractinglevels of
increasingcomplexityandorder.Thevariousscientificdisciplines
reflectthis
orderedseries-fromphylogenesisto ontogenesisto socio­
genesis;
fromsuchdisciplinesasphysics,chemistry,genetics, and
physiologytoethology,psychology,sociology, andanthropologyandto
suchnewlyemergingdisciplinesassystems theoryandthepolicy
sciences.
Sometypeof gradientshouldsimilarlyberecognizablewith regard
tothehigheraspectsof humanexistence.Inbiologicalevolution,as
eachhigherlevelsystem emerges,itbringswithit thecapacityto order
chemicalreactionsin anincreasinglycoherentandpurposivemanner.
Similarlywithsocial andculturalevolutionwhere,forexample,ethical
normsorderorchanneltheenergiesassociatedwith moreprimitive
processes(suchas
anger)inkeepingwithhigherneeds,orwhere
immediategratificationis postponedinordertoobtainagreater
gratificationatsomefuturetime.
Threeprinciplesare enunciatedin thisapproach:one,thedimensionsofexistence
formahierarchyof lower
andhigherlevels ordimensions;two, the higher
dimension,
althoughrestingon the foundationsof thelowerones, cannotbe
understoodintermsof theprinciples governingthe lowerones;it receives its
meaningfromthe higherdimensionwhichintegratestheparticularsof thelower
dimensionintoa new
emergingGestalt.Three,thehighestlevel is therealmof the
normative,of themoralsense,of the
standardsof value.
(Weisskopf,1971, p. 186)
Ananalogytocomputerprogrammingmaybe ahelpfulillustration
at thispoint.
TheGradientin the HumanBiocomputer.Therealpowerandflexibility
of
themoderncomputerisfoundnotin itshardware,butin its
software-thegradientseriesof evermoregeneralsymbolicprograms
thatmakeitfeasibleto use thecomputerforvastlydifferentfunctions.
Thebasicfunctioningof acomputerrequiresoneinstructionforeach
operationthatiscarriedout,andwhileprogrammingat thismachine­
languagelevel is inprincipleveryflexible,it requirestoomuchtimeto
preparespecialpurposeprogramsfordifferentapplications.Rather,it
has
beenfoundusefulto createahierarchicalseriesofmacropro­
gramminglanguages,whereasingleinstructionatonelevelgenerates
ascoreormoredetailedinstructionsatamorebasic level.
Theutilityof thecomputermetaphorofhumanfunctioningis
illustratedin
Table6 (a). Atthelower(machinelanguage)endofthe

145. Table6
THREEDIMENSIONS ON A"GRADIENTOFAWARENESS"
-
N)
00
(a)
Hierarchicalprogramsin the
humanbiocomputer
(b)
Hierarchyofneeds
(Maslow)
(c)
Hierarchyofmoralorientations
(Kohlberg)
Higherlevels ofawareness andfunc­
tioning,
metaprograms,transcendence
of timeandspace,aesthetic and
creativesense, supra-mentalfunction-
ingastrallevels,contactwith 5. Self-actualization
spiritualentities,etc.
4.Esteem
Normallevels ofwakingawareness and
egofunctioning
3.Belongingnessand
love
2.Safety
Subconsciousawareness,idfunctioning,
1.Physiological
semantic
andculturaldeterminism;
psychosomaticprocess;genetic
inheritance
6.Universalethical principle
5. Socialcontact/sharedunder­
standings
4.
Authoritarianlawandorder/doing
duty
3.Other-directed-conformist
2.Instrumentalrelativist
1.Obedienceandfearofpunishment
Q
~
;z
C1q
;;.
C1q
~
~
~
~
~
;z

146. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 129
humanbiocomputeraresuchprocessesas geneticinheritance;in­
stinctual,
endocrine,andautonomicprocesses;semanticandcultural
determinism-allofwhichwe havesomedegreeofsubconscious
awarenessof;andastheexperienceofyoga,hypnosis, andbiofeedback
trainingsuggests,all ofwhichwe cantosomeextentreprogram.At a
higherlevel,thatofnormalwakingawareness,theexecutivefunction
ofthehumanbiocomputermanifestsawarenessoftheself(cogito, ergo
sum);andaspartofthatself-awareness,believes thatit isconstantly
capableofchoice andofreprogrammingitself,i.e. thatithasfreedom.
Justhowmuchfreedomofchoiceexistsat this level is somewhat
problematical,however,foras Lilly (1972) haspointedout,thereare
stillhigherlevelmetaprogramstowhich thehumanbiocomputeris
subject.
Ifsuchmetaprograms(thebasicbeliefs;imagesof self, others,and
theuniverse;influencefromsubconsciousandthesuperconscious
aspectsof self) determinethecriteriaforchoice,thenthereis infact
verylittletruefreedomofchoiceunlessaccess to theselevelscanbe
obtained.Wehaveonlythemostrudimentarymapsfortheseaspectsof
theself,buttheymustbeincorporatedintoanyimageofhumankind
adequateforthefuture.Totheextentthatalineardimensionoflower
andhigherisvalid,however(andwe willlaterdiscusslimitations ofthis
approach),itwouldseemthatit isthelowerquasi-consciousorun­
conscious aspectsof manthatareoperativethroughthefunctioningof
instinctual
energies(Freud)andoperantconditioning(Skinner);and
conversely,thehigherlevelsarethosetowhichesotericwisdomrefers
andfromwhichtheintuitivesourcesofcreativitymostlikelystem.The
ItalianpsychiatristRobertoAssagiolihas formulatedamap
(reproducedhereas Fig. 10)thatdepictsthesevariousdomainsof
consciousnessin a
usefulway.
TheGradientofHumanNeeds.Maslow (1962)describedagradientthat
parallelstheaboveas beingmanifestbypersonswithdifferentlevelsof
need-fulfillment.Henotedthatpersonswhohaveadequatelyfulfilled
theirbasicphysical andemotionalneedsactfromaverydifferenttype
ofmotivationthandothosewhohavenot.Verysimplystated,
"deficiencyneeds"arethosewhich,if notfulfilled,will eventuallylead
toillness
ortodeath.Theirnon-fulfillmentcausesthedeprivedperson
to actatlowerlevels of functioning,as wehaveportrayedonTable
6 (b).Growth/being/wisdomneeds,ontheotherhand,aretheneeds
whosefulfillment providesasenseofmeaningforexistence,aesthetic
orspiritualdelight;non-fulfillmentbrings,notillness,butrathera
senseof
boredomorapathy(assumingthatthedeficiencyneedsare

147. 130 ChangingImages of Man
~'''l;6
/--,,~'"'-
/
I
-,
I \
/
i\7
/
I
3
I \
~-----t------l
I
......+-,
/I,2I
7I I4I \
\25;'I
\
-, /
...._...... I
,----------1
\ I / 7
\ /
" /"'-_/
I.The lowerunconscious
2. Themiddleunconscious
3. The higherunconsciousor superconscious
4 The field of consciousness
5 The conscious self or
"I"
6 The higher self
7 The
collectiveunconscious
Fig. 10.Variousaspectsofconsciousness/functionin thepersonality.Source:Assagioli
(1965). Assagiolipresentsa
greatdealmorebackground,reservations,andqualifications
with
regardto this type ofconception thancan bepresentedin thisreport.
adequatelymet).
*ItwasMaslow's hypothesisthatmostpeoplemove
sequentially
througha"hierarchyofneeds."Suchmovementlikely
occursin two
ratherdifferentmodes.As Maslowemphasized,itcan
occurquitespontaneously-asonemodalneedtypeisadequately
fulfilled,thereis anaturaltendencytogrowandseekfurther.Onthe
otherhand,asnotedbyClareGraves(anothertheoristwho has
developedtheneedshierarchytheme),itcanalsooccurorbestimu­
latedincrises-asonemodalbehaviorstylebecomes dysfunctional
thereis atendencytoseekanotherlevelofneedfulfillment.
TheGradientof HumanMorality.Stillanothersimilargradientseries,
thistime
havingto dowith ascendingdegreesofmoralthinkingand
acting,has beenderivedbyKohlberg(1969).Inbothcross-culturaland
domesticstudies,Kohlbergfoundthatthedominantformofmorality
tends,overtime,to follow adefinite, hierarchicalprogression.Thisis
truebothofwhole culturesandoftheindividualwithintheculture
(untilhe reachesorsurpassesthedominantformin hisculture).Like
thehierarchyofneeds,thesestagesalso formagradient,asdepictedin
•"Itisimportanttonotethatboredomandapathy(ifnotviewedfromadualistic
mind-bodybias)doeslead to illness,non-productivity, anddeathintermsof the holistic
conceptsthis
paperisespousing."-StanleyKrippner

148. PRECONVENTIONAL I.EVEL
Atthislr-ve lthechildisrt'sponsive
tosuchrulesandlabelsasgoodor
badandrightorwrong.Heinterprets
theselabelsinpurdyphysicalor
hedonisticterms:Ifheishad,heis
punished;ifheisgood,heis re­
warded.Healsointerpretsthelabels
intermsofthephysicalpowerof
thosewhoenunciatethem-parents,
teachersandotheradults.Thelevel
comprisesthefollowingtwostages:
Stage1:punishmentandobedi­
enceorientation.Thephysicalcon­
sequencesofactiondetermineits
goodnessorbadnessregardlessofthe
humanmeaningorvalueofthesecon­
sequences.Avoidanceofpunishment
andunljuestioningdeferenceto
powerarevaluedintheirownright,
notintermsofrespectfor anunder­
lyingmoralordersupportedbypun­
ishmentandauthority,thelatter
hein!!:stagl'4.
Stage2:instrumentulrelativistor­
ientation.Rightactionconsistsofthat
whichinstrumentallysatisfiesone's
ownIll'('clsundoccasionallythr­
)1('(·II.s(Ifotilt'rs.H'II11,allrt·lationsart·
vi ..w..rlIIItenllSsinnl.rr10those-of
th('marke-tplace.Ell'ul('utsoflilir­
ness,ofreciprocityande-qualsharing
arepresent,huttheyarealwaysin­
terpretedin apragmaticway.Reci­
procityis amatterof"youscratchmy
hackaudI'llscrall'hyours,"notof
loyalty,!!:ratitudeorj1lostice.
CONVENTIONAL LEVEL
Atthislevelmaintainingtheexpec­
tationsoftheindividual'sfamily.
groupornationisperceivedasvalu­
ahleinitsownright,regardlessof
immediateandobviousconse­
'III«'I1C·('S.Thea«itlJ(l,.isoneIlotonly
ofconformitytothesocialorderbut
ofloyaltytoit,ofactivelymaintain­
ing,supportingandjustifyingthe
order,andoftdentifyingwiththeper­
sonsorgroupinvolvedin it.This
levelcomprisesthefollowingtwo
stages:
Stage3:interpersonalconcordance
or"goodhoy-nicegirl"orienta/ion.
Goodbehavioristhatwhichpleases
orhelpsothersandisapprovedhy
them.Thereismuchconformityto
stereotypicalimagesofwhatismajor­
ity or"natural"behavior.Behavioris
frequentlyjudgedbyintention:"He
meanswell"becomesimportant,and
oneearnsapprovalby"beingnice."
Stage4:"lawandorder"orienta­
tion.Authority,fixedrulesandthe
maintenanceofthesocialorderare
valued.Rightbehaviorconsistsofdo­
ingone'sduty,showingrespectfor
authorityandmaintainingthesocial
orderfor itsownsake.
POSTCONVENTlONAL LEVEL
Atthisle-velthereis aclr-areflint
ton-achapersonalckfluilionofmoral
values-tode-fineprinciplesthat
haveval'idityandapplicationapart
fromtheauthorityofgroupsorper­
sonsandapartfromtheindividual's
ownidentificationwiththesegroups.
Thish-velagainhastwostages:
Stage5:social-contractlegalistic
orientation.Generally,thisstagehas
utilitarianovertones.Rightaction
tendstobedefinedintermsofgen­
eralindividualrightsandintermsof
standardsthathavebeencritically
examinedandagreeduponbythe
wholesociety.Ther~is aclearaware­
nessnftheimportanceofpersonal
valuesandopinionsandacorres­
pondingemphasisonprocedural
rulesforreachingconsensus.Other
thanthatwhichisconstitutionally
anddemocraticallyagreedupon,
rightis amatterofpersonalvalues
andopinion.Theresultis anempha­
sisbothuponthe"legalpointof
view"anduponthepossihilityof
makingrationalandsociallydesirable
changesinthelaw,ratherthanfreez­
ingit as in~he"lawandorder"stage
4.Outsidethelegalrealm,lreeagree­
mentisthehindingelementofohli­
gation.Thisisthe"official"morality
oftheU.S.governmentandtheCon­
stitution.
Stage6:unioersulethical-nrtncip!e
uriC'lItation.Rightisdefinedbythe
conscienceinuccorclwithself-ehosen
ethicalprinciples,whichinturnare
basl'donlogical"olllprehensiveness,
universalityandconsistency.These
principlesareabstractandethical
(thegoldenrule,thecategoricalim­
perative);theyarenotconcretemoral
rillesliketheTenCommandments.
Atheart,theseareuniversalprinci­
plesofjustice,ofthereciprocityand
equalityofhumanrights,andofre­
spectforthedignityofhumanbeings
asindividualpersons.
Fig. 11. Stages ofmoraldevelopment.(Source:Kohlberg andWhitten(1972). Reprinted
by specialpermissionfrom Learning, The Magazine for Creative Teaching,December1972.
©1?72byEducationTodayCompanyInc.,530UniversityAvenue,Palo Alto, Cali­
forma.)
131

149. 132 ChangingImagesof Man
Table6 (c).(Descriptionsof eachofthestagesaregivenin Fig.11.)*
Hampden-Turner(1971)hassuggestedthateachofthedominant
socialscienceshas a "hiddenmorality"thatcanbelocatedin oneof
Kohlberg'scategories,andthatalthoughmostsocialsciencesclaimto
eschewmetaphysics,
theymakeunverifiablemoralassumptionsthat
significantlyaffect theirchoiceofmethodologyandcriteriaofvalida­
tion.
Hampden-Turnerconcludesthatonlythosesocialsciences that
areconsistentwithKohlberg'sstage6havethedemonstratedcapacity
to
movefromparadigmtoparadigm(stressingcongruencebetween
andreconcilabilityofperspectives) despitedialecticaltension.
TheRelevanceofaGradientofAwarenessfor anAdequateImage. Whatis
thecommoncharacteristicofthevariousgradientswehavereviewed?
Recalling
theoperationaldefinitionofconsciousness(theorganization
ofthebiosystem;withawarenessasthepsychologicalequivalentor
complementaryaspectofthatorganization),itseemsreasonabletocast
theimageofascendingstagesofevolutionintermsof agradientof
awareness.As wecometohigherstagesofevolution,theattributeof
consciousnesscomestothefore.Bythiswe meanthediscoveryof
relationshipsandthemakingofchoices-bothindividuallyandcollec­
tively-onthebasisofunderstanding,appreciation,andjudgement;
andbeinginfluencedby arelevantcontextwithitspast, present,and
futureratherthanbeingdeterminedbyinstinct,habit,orsome
authorityfromanothertimeandplace.Inthissensewe speakofthe'
evolutionofconsciousnessmanifestinhierarchicalrestructuringofour
conceptions;andthederivativesystemsofthought,institutions,etc.,
throughwhichweachieve coherentintegrationathigherordersof
differentiationandcomplexity.
Wehaveonlybrieflysketchedsomeofthethinkingthatleadsto this
conception.Othercontributionswhichareinkeepingwithanascend­
inggradientofawarenessinevolutionwehavepostulated:"this
worldly"(e.g. D.Campbell,1966;Polanyi,1966; Weiss, 1969; Land,
1973),"otherworldly"(e.g.Cummins,1952),and"transworldly"(e.g.
Hubbard,1951;Aurobindo,1963).(Land'sbookGrow orDie: The
UnifyingPrincipleofTransformation(1973),especially Chapter10,
elaboratesthisthemeinmoredetailthanwecandohere.)Again,
however,wearenothereconcernedwhetherthesewaysofthinking
arerightorwrongasjudgedbythemethodsofanyoneparticular
knowledgeparadigm,butratherwhether(1)theygive us avisionof
potentialgrowthandfurtherevolutionbeyondwherewearenow-a
•"Tothesedimensions,you mightaddRollo May's fivedescendinglevels ofpowerand
fiveascendingkindsof power(Power and Innocence,Norton,1972)."-MichaelMarien

150. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 133
visionthatacceptswhere(bothasindividualsandas aspecies)we are
now,seeingourselvesnow as beingmorehighlyevolved(in someways,
less in
others)thanwasearliernian,andlesshighlyevolved thanwe
hopefuturemanwill be;and(2)theylaytheconceptualbeginningsof
a
generalsystemsframeworkinwhichanintegrationofthevarious
fragmentedimagesof man-eachofwhichcancometo beseenas
hayingarestrictedvalidity-becomespossible.Atthisstate ofknow­
ledge,then,we viewthegradientofawarenessmoreasuseful
metaphorthanasproventheory.Indeed,asthereviewoflimitationsof
sciences
presentedinChapter4makesclear,it islikely not
possibleto provewhetherornotsucha view isvalid. Ratherwe will
havetoestimatewhatresultsmightflowfromtranslatingthis-as
opposedtosomeotherimageofhumankind-intoconcretepoliciesfor
theresolutionofsocietalproblemsandthefullerrealizationofthe
humanpotentialities.We attemptsuchanestimateinChapter8.
The Self
Asecondkeyelementinourattempttodiscovera moreadequate,
integrativeimageofman-in-the-universeconcernsimageryregarding
thenatureoftheself.Inourculture,thedominantimagewhichthe
personholdsofhimselfis thatof aseparateandindependententity,as
denotedbytheveryterm"self"-definedbyWebster'sas"theperson­
havingitsownorasinglenatureorcharacter."Butevenacursory
examinationoftheknownfacts ofexistenceindicates thatthisis an
undulylimitedview, as explainedbelow.
Transpersonaland Personal Imagery. Themostbasicaspectsof ourbeing
whichwe haveportrayedasbeingatthelowerlevel(the machinelan­
guageaspectsof thehumanbiocomputer)weshareincommonwithall
otherpersons.Indeed,becauseofthiscommonality,onesuspectsthat
it isonlythis levelwhichisusually comprehendedinthephrase"the
natureofman."Thenextstagein developinganintegrativeimage
ofhumankindisexploredin Fig. 12,whichshows theseaspectsas being
transpersonalratherthanidiosyncraticto eachperson.jung'sphrase
"thecollectiveunconscious"seemsparticularlyappropriateforthislevel.
Comingupthegradientofawarenessweobservetheegoicand
sensorylevel,wherethereis avalidperceptionofseparatenessbetween
persons.Thebehaviorsthatareuniquetothislevel, suchasouruse of
sensorychannelstocommunicatewithotherhumansacrossthespatial
distancethatseparatesus,aretypicallyperceivedasmanifesting
freedominthesenseof theirbeingfreelychosenbehaviorunderthe
uniquecontrolofeachpersonas aseparateentity.

151. 134 ChangingImages of Man
<:0
I
"Higher"
transpersonal
region
Personal
region
....
c
.!!!
"0
o
t5
"Lower"
transpersonoI
region
I
To the beginnings \
ofevolution
{TranSpersona.1regiono.f
shared
unconscious(e.g
racialmemones,cultural
mdgeneticinheritance)
Fig. 12. Ametaphoricalimageof the personalandtranspersonalaspectsofconsciousness.
Butcomingstillfurtherupourgradientofso-calledawarenesswe
find-ifthereportsof yogis(Patanjali, Prabhavananda,andIsherwood,
1953),mystics(Reinhold,1944), andsomerecentlaboratoryevidence
(Tart,1969;Backster,1972) areto bebelieved-thatthingsonceagain
becometranspersonalinnature.Perceptionsbecomeintuitiveand
"quasi-sensory"(tousethetermcoinedbyMcBain,1970), ratherthan
stemmingfromtheusualsenses.Andtypicallyas higherlevelsare
reached,subjectiveexperiencesofmind-sharingareoftenreported,as
areexperiencesof adisconnectednessortranscendencefromtheusual
constraintsoftimeandspace(see,forexample,Tart,1969, 1970).
Indeed,it islikelythatonlywhenweareableto expandourscientific
imageofmantoincludephenomenaatthislevel will we beableto
developadequatetheoriestoaccountforthevariouspsychic
phenomenareviewedin Chapter4.
TheschematicizedintegrativeimageofthepersonshownonFig. 9 is
thereforecastin theshapeofthehourglass,orcone,thusconnoting
theways inwhich one'snatureisproperlyseenastranspersonalatthe
lowerandupperreachesofexistenceandpersonaloruniquein

152. Evolutionary Image of Man 135
between.Morespeculatively
(butbasedonanecdotalreportsfrom
variousresearchersinthephenomenologyofconsciousness)we might
addthesymbolofinfinity fortheuppermostreachesof themap,and
thephrase"tothebeginningsofevolution"forthelowermost:if the
ancedotalreportsareto bebelieved,infinity andthe"beginningsof
evolution"canbesubjectivelyexperienced,andwhenexperienced,
tendtomerge.F. W. H. Myers hasformulatedadifferentbutsimilar
conception,
shownbelow in Fig'. 13.
Subsystem,System,andSupersystemImagery. Theways inwhicha person
is aseparateanddistinctsystemarebuta smallpartoftheways in
whichhe
incorporateslower-level(sub)systems, andinwhichhe is
partofhigher-order(super)systems.Displaying boththeindependent
propertiesofwholes,andthedependentpropertiesofparts,the
personis a"holon."Otherdimensionscouldbeaddedas well,butas
Fig. 14 shows, we nowhave
theconceptualbasisforamulti-dimen­
sionalsystems-orientedimageof
person-in-the-universethatisindeed
integrativein thewaysdesired.
Beforecompletingthisimage,we might
pauseto asktheimportant
question:Iftheexperienceofindividualityis buta small slit in allthere
is tothetotalityof ourexistence,whereistheessenceof thehuman
person,thebeing(asopposedtotheclass) to befound?EchoingKoestler
(1967),
whereisthe"ghostinthemachine;"It isherethattheimageof
humankindespousedinthePerennialPhilosophyprobablyprovides the
bestsingleanswer:
Theatma,the Self, isnever bornandneverdies. Itiswithoutacause andis
eternallychangeless.
Itisbeyondtime, unborn,permanent,andeternal.Itdoesnot
die when the body dies.Concealedin the heartof allbeingslies theatma,theSpirit,
the Self;smaller
thanthesmallestatom, greaterthanthegreatestspaces.
(TheUpanishads,WOOB.C.)
\
Group
==
==mind ==
/
Fig. 13. Apersonal-transpersonalmind/bodymodel.Source:F. W. H. Myers, in Johnson
(1957).

153. 136 ChangingImagesofMan
I
I
I
IGradientof aggregation
I
I
-----r----+----+------
I
I I
I I I
" ctorns.rrucrobes.cells.organs,body,fdmlly,group,nation,planet,
I I
TranspersonalI Personal ITranspersonal
Fig. 14.Twoof"N"possibledimensionsof anintegrativeimageof the person.
Finallythen,torepresentthisselfthatis (intermsofspaceandtime)
a
"not-thing,"wecompletethepictorialversionof ourproposed
compositeimageofhumankindbyaddingthecenteras in Fig. 15. It
mightberepresentedbyanothershape(e.g. as inAssagioli's model
shownearlier),butthetubularshapeisoftenreportedasthe"feel"of
those
whoexperiencemeditation,andweagreeinprinciplewith
Wilson(inpress)
thatanyadequateimagewillnotbeconstructed,but
ratherseenthroughexperience.
ManasProcess.Ifthevisionof thePerennialPhilosophyis at allvalid,
this
Centeristheonlytrulystaticimage.All oftheotherimagesof the
humanwhichdepicthowtheselfmanifestsarebuttemporary,ever-
/
I
I
I
I
I
I
\ I I /
-t------+-
II II
I I
IIII
I I
IIII
I I
:
1=1:
II II
I I
II I I
--t----l-
II I \
" I I \
I II \
I I \
I \
I
I
I
/
,
\
\
\
I
I
I
I
I I
=1
1
I
___~__J_
1
1
1
I
=1
I
I
I
------
_I_~-
I
1 I
I I
I I
I I
,COl
I!
I I
I I
Fig. 15.Transcendent-immanentaspectsaddedtothepersonal-transpersonalaspectsof
anintegrativeimageof
theperson.

154. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImageofMan 137
changingattributesofthatself. AsNorbertWiener(1954)observed:
Wearenotstuffthatabides,butpatternsthatperpetuatethemselves;whirlpoolsof
waterin anever-flowingriver.
Howcanthevisionof thestaticself "hiddenin allthings"beusefully
reconciledwith
themanyvisionsof thequasi-static-but
it)reality,
changing-visionsofthevisible selfthatwe call aperson?Ifthe
collectivewisdomof themythsofvariousculturesis to betrusted,the
way ofreconciliationis illuminatedbytheImageoftheCenter(Eliade,
1952).
Theideaof"movingfromwherewearenottowherewemost
trulyare"(WilliamJames)is wellexpressedin a nowarchaicmeaning
oftheword"weird"(Anglo-Saxonwyrd),whichis a wordrelatedtothe
Germanwerden,"tobecome."StandingindirectcontrasttotheIndian
notionofdharmaorthecurrentWesternnotionsofsocializationor
conditioning(bothofwhichsee theindividualasnecessarilysubjectto
thelawimposedbysociety),weirdisanunfoldingfromwithinofwhat
ispotential.(Notethatthisis alsotheessentialmeaningoftheroot
wordeducere,"tobringforth,assomethinglatent,"fromwhichour
wordeducatederives.)Inthisimageofreality-aswithEliot's(1935)
"still
pointoftheturningworld....Wherepastandfutureare
gathered"-themetaphysicalgroundofthepersonandwhathas
broughthimforthareoneandthesame.Torealizethis Centerof
Imagesofman
Divineself
Many-leveledself
(astral,etc.)
E
xistentiotly-free man
Absurdman
Condi tione d man
Economic man
Animal-bestialman;
Irrnulsive-IrratIOnal
man
Repressed man
Dreamingman
00
I I ~p~kesmen
I I I
I The Vedas.Peremio!ptulo soohy.etc.
\I:/
\ I I I
\ IRocicrucicns.Theosophv, etc
\ I I I
--l--t-+--'
I I I :
iIHumanists,NeoFreudians
I I Sor
tnonexistent.ousts
I I I I
I I II
I I Freud, Watson,Skinner
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I I
: I I I
: IFr1eud"Lorenz,Ardrey.etc.
-t--I--i--I
II Freud \
II,\
I I I \
I IJung\
II \
I I \
Fig. 16.Composite metaphorof anintegrative,evolutionaryimageof the personfor the
future.
Ol M - K

155. 138 ChangingImages of Man
one'sbeingis said toprovideconceptualreleasefromthetyrannyof
suchpolaritiesas creatorandcreature,goodandevil, IandThou,and
freedomanddeterminism.
Butasalloutwardmanifestations(orpartialimages)partakeequally
ofthis
Center(as Fig. 16depicts),wefind thatwe nowhavethe
conceptualframeworkforanimageofhumankindwhich,as weshall
see,comesveryclose tosatisfying
thecharacteristicswe earlierpos­
tulated.
'*'
ExaminingtheNewImageforConceptualFeasibility
Ifoneagreesthatthethrustofevolutionseemsto be towardgreater
"consciousness"(i.e.increasingorganizationofthebio-system,with
"awareness"asthepsychologicalequivalentorcomplementaryaspect
ofthatorganization),theaboveframeworkprovidestheneededim­
ageryforevolutionarygrowth,direction,andaholisticsenseof mean­
ingof life.Itgivesanopen-endedandexperimentalsenseof some­
thingtogrowtoward(bothpersonallyandculturally).Pursuitofhigher
statesofawareness; increasingabilityto integrateknowledgeandto
coordinateandbalancetherelativeneedsofthesubsystem/sys­
tem/supersystemrelationships;andexplorationofpersonal,inter­
personal,andtranspersonalaspectsofexistence-eachofthesecon­
tributestotheemergenceofan"ecologicalethic"anda"self-realiza­
tionethic";tocoordinated"satisficing";andto goalsof"ephe­
meralization"thatareconsistentwithlimitsto growthofmaterialism.
(Theterm"thrust"hasbeenchosentodescribethisprogresstoward
greatercomplexityandconsciousness,nottodenotethegoal ofevolu­
tion,
butratherthepathitseemstotake.Goalis a termwhichis
associatedwith
theconceptualparadigmoflinearcausality;it is this
paradigmthatsomehowmustbetranscended,ifonlyinpart.Itisfor
thisreasonalsothatwehavesingledoutDunn'sterm"process
teleology,"becauseitexplicitlyavoids
thedifficultiesof theolder
conceptsofvitalismandteleologv.r)
'"SeeNoteA, p. 160.
t"Thisisgood,butinsteadof a linearhierarchy(insteadofenvisioningthe system in
termsofourold way oflookingatthings)how aboutsomethingon theorderof a
circular
model(uruboruslike)-wherethedreaming manof Jungwouldbecirculatory,
cycliclylinkedto thesuperconscious
man,in a visual systemthatimpliesongoing
progress?"-StanleyKrippner
"I find thismodelmostinteresting,especiallythe way it incorporatesthe'absolutes'of
existenceat
bothof itsextremes....Agoodstartingpointforfurtherwork."[Para­
phrasedfrom]-MargaretMead

156. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImageofMan 139
Toillustratehow theholisticimageportrayedbythisframework
couldadequatelyincorporateandreconcilethemorespecializedim­
agesof
humankindatvariouslevels ofdevelopment,someadditional
discussionisnecessary.
We
postulatethateachofthevariousspecializedimages presentedin
Chapter2anddisplayedin Figs. 9 and16 isappropriateto agiven
contextorsituationthathasrepeatedlybeeninhumanexperience­
whichis why theyexistin theimagerepertoryofourvariouscultures.
Wefurtherobservethattotheextentwhichthepersoncannotmanifest
inanappropriatesituationanyofthevarious"waysofbeing"con­
notedbythegradientofawareness,tothatextentthepersonis
deficientin waysthatlimithisflexibilityin dealingwitha changing
environment-hencelimitthesurvivalpotentialoftherace.Theability
tofighteffectively(physically
orpsychologically)whenone'ssurvival
(physical
ormental)isthreatened;theabilityto experienceaesthetic
pleasure,tomarvelatthemysteryofexistence,andtotranscendone's
individualityin a directsenseof participationinthatmysterywhen
appropriate-eachoftheseis a partofthehumanexperiencethrough
whicheachof usshouldbeableto flow in andoutasfitting.Thepoint
isnotthatoneshouldnecessarilyfight, cooperate,ormeditateinanyor
in allcircumstances(norshouldonenecessarilyimpugnothersforso
doing),butratherthatoneshouldbeableto do (andacceptothers
doing)anyofthesethingswhentheyfit. AllpartakeoftheCenter.
Needlessto say,trade-offs areinvolvedandcoordinationofdifferent
behaviorsisrequired.AsJonasSalk(1973) hasobserved:
Theconflictin the humanrealmis nowbetween"self-expression" and"self-restraint"
withintheindividual,as the effect of
culturalevolutionaryprocesseshas reduced
externalrestraintupontheindividual."
Whileeasymobilityacross thevariouslevelsportrayedbythe
gradientofawarenessisclearlyin theinterestsofthesurvivalof the
humanraceandofthefulfillmentof eachindividual'spotentialities,
suchfreedomneedsto beexercisedbytherestraintthatcanderivein
oureraonlyfromaholisticperspectiveoflife,growth,andevolution.
Forthesereasonsweemphasizetheneedfordevelopmentof im­
ageryofperson-as-(in)-process;foravisionof growthnotas ingetting
abovepersonsatonelevelafteranother(assomeoccultistsarewontto
do),butratherintheexpansionofawarenessinbothmoreandless
•"Areductionof externalrestraintupontheindividual?Tell it toAmalrik,Sol­
zhenitsyn,
andSakharov.For thatmatter,Iwouldlike to see theevidenceforsucha
trendin thiscountry."-MichaelMarien

157. 140 ChangingImages of Man
inclusivedirections;inthegainingofchoicesof appropriatebehaviors
thatpartakeofalllevelsbutarecoordinatedbythemoreinclusive
ones;andinlearningtodissolvefixationsat anygivenlevel, hence
beingmoreablecontinuouslyto flowfromapredominantorientation
atonelevel tooneatanother,accordingtotheneedsoftheenviron­
mentandinappropriatelycoordinatedgrowth.
Itisprimarilyintheabovesensethatwebelievethataholisticimage
suchastheframeworkdepictscouldadequatelyintegratethevarious
aspects
andpastimagesof humankindwithoutblurringorinvalidating
theiruniqueness;foronlyinthisway will we haveanontologicalbasis
fortoleranceofdifferenceandchange.
Therearesomedifficultieswith theframeworkaspresentedabove.
Themainoneisthatitis-inkeepingwiththedominantconceptual
paradigmofWesternculture-essentiallyhierarchicalinnature.Thus
notonlyistheconceptionsomewhatculture-bound;itdoesnoteasily
integratenewlyemergingmutual-causalthoughtsinscience.Other
cultureshavedominantconceptualparadigmsthatareessentiallynon­
hierarchicalandaremoremutualisticasregardsknowledge,ecology,
andhumandevelopment.
'*'AstheanthropologistMaruyamahaspoin­
tedout(1960, 1963, 1967, 1973)manyfunctionsofconcernto asociety
aremoreusefullyfulfilledby non-hierarchicallystructuredparadigms.
ButMaruyamaalsonotesthatwhenahierarchical/self-righteousanda
mutualistic/symbiotic
paradigmhavecomeintointerculturalcontact,
theself-righteousparadigmhasanalmostirresistibletendencytorun
overthemutualisticone.
Asomewhatdifferentbutrelatedproblemarisesin connectionwith
theexclusivistinterpretationtheJudeo-Christiantraditionhasputon
transcendentalimagesofman.Thereappearsto be a basiccontradic­
tioncontainedinthistraditionbetweentheexclusivist(as in "noman
comethtotheFatherbutthroughme")andtheuniversalist(Godas
omnipotent,omniscient,andomnipresent,thereforeallthatis,isGod).
Theexclusivistis thetendencythathascapturedthepopularim­
aginationinthemainstreamreligioustraditionsofourculture.Butthis
turnsoutto benotsomuchonesideof a contradictionasonearmof a
dialectic,
oneelementof aparadox.
Betterunderstood,thesedifficultiesturnoutto bebasedin misunder­
standings(whichis notto saythattheywillnotbeveryrealdifficulties
in a
communicationorpoliticalsense). Theyarisefromhavingto use
•"I fail to see how anynon-hierarchicalsystem of thoughtandorganizationcanprovide
the
neededcoordinationacrossdifferentlevels ofaggregation.Whatisnecessary,is
thatthecoordinationbefromthe'insideout'as itwere, andnotfromthe topdown,as
thehierarchicalnotionis so
ofteninterpreted."-[Paraphrasedfrom]EdgarDunn,Jr.

158. TheFeasibilityof an Evolutionary Image of Man 141
traditionallanguagetoexpresswhatareessentiallynon-traditional,
"non-paradigm"concepts.
Thuswehave usedwordssuchas"gradient,""thrust,"and
"hierarchy"whendescribingtheevolutionarytrendtowardgreater
complexityandconsciousness.We haveuseddiagramsandtables
which
mayseemtoimplyprogressionfrom"primitive"to"sophisti­
cated,"or"lower"to"higher."Thismayseemtoimplyanelitistview
of
humanevolution.Itmighthavebeenhelpfultoadoptacircular
modelinwhich,forexample,thedreamingmanofJungwouldbe
cyclicly
linkedtothesuperconsciousmanin avisionalsystem that
impliedon-goingprocess.Butsubstitutingonemetaphororvisual
imageforanothersimplyseemedtochangethenatureofthedifficulty.
Theproblemappearsto beprimarilythatrealityis so muchricher,
somuchmoremultidimensionalthananymetaphor,thatallmapsof
reality
leadtodifficultiesif theyaremistakenlyassumedto beliterally
true.Thusrealityis hierarchicalinonesenseandnotinanother,and
manisseparate,seekingself-fulfillmentandyetpartofaunityin a
sense
thatmakesself-fulfillmentillusory. The"higher"formsofcon­
sciousnessmaybesimilarto thepsychicabilitiesof "lower"formsof
life(forexample,householdpets,dolphins,plants)in a way thatmakes
thelatteras"sophisticated"asthehighesttranscendentalcharac­
teristicsevolvingin thehumanspecies.
Thusitwouldappearthatanemergentworld-wideimageof
humankind,satisfyingtheconditionsidentifiedinChapter5, isconcep­
tuallyfeasible,providingweremainclearthatitisanimage,ora set of
metaphors,andthatitsrealfunctionis toleadtowardthedirect
experiencingofwhatitcanonlyincompletelyandinadequately
express.
OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITYOF ANEWIMAGEOF MAN
Wewantnow toexaminetheconditionsunderwhichsucha new
imageofmanmightemergeto acommandingpositioninthesociety.
Onecondition,inherentinthefundamentalcharacteristicsof Chapter
5, isthatitprobablycannotbeengineeredormanipulatedintosucha
position.
Safer,atanyrate,is aprocess wherebythenewimageis
fosteredbysomeandresistedby others,suchthattheprinciplesof
checks
andbalances,andofcreativesynthesisofdifferences, are
allowedto operate.
Essentially,weshall:
1.reviewtheprocessthroughwhichbothculturesandpersons
appeartoevolvein responsetocrisis;

159. 142 ChangingImages of Man
2.drawinferencesas to howtransformationaldiscoveryandthe
emergenceof a newimageofmancanappropriatelyorin­
appropriatelybefostered;
3.considervariousindications thatpersonalandinstitutionaltrans­
formation,andtheemergenceofmoralparadigms,arefeasible
withoutbeingcausedtohappen.
EvolutionaryTransformationinResponsetoCrisis
Itseemsclear thattodaywearelivingin anecologicalsystemin
which
higher-ordersystemscoordinatetheinteractionsof lower-order
subsystems,anecologyinwhich thereisanincreasingabilityof higher
organismstomakesymbolicmapsofreality,totest andtoimprove
thosemaps.Thus,intheevolutionarybattleforsurvival,it maybe
possible
"forourideasto dieinourstead"(Popper).Intheevolution
fromphylogenesis(naturalselectionthroughmutationandgenetic
recombination)throughontogenesis(theabilityof ahighly developed
organismto"reprogram"itselfwithinlimitsandmodifyitsbehaviorto
suit
environmentalchanges)tosociogenesis(theaccumulationof
acquiredbehaviorthroughsymboliccommunication),thetrendthat
standsoutisthepowerandutilityofconsciousness.Thismanifests
itselfas
theabilityto mapthevariousdimensionsofexistence,both
physicalandsymbolic,andto usethose mapsfor"behaviordirectedto
changingbehavior"(Dunn,1972).
A crisis is
oftenthecatalystfortheredrawingofone'spreferred
"map."Inasmuchasthisisprecisely thedirectioninwhichourculture
appearsto beheading,it isusefultoreviewtheprocessesof crisis­
orientedtransformationinothercultures,inscience,inmythology,in
persons.Allthese
maycontaininsightsthatcouldproveapplicableto
theresolutionofourdifficulties.
CulturalTransformations
Whathappenswhen,becauseofenvironmentalchanges,military
defeat,orinterculturalinvasion(e.g. by a newtechnology),a cultureno
longeradequatelyservesitsessentialfunctions? Ifthedegreeofper­
ceivedcrisis is nottoogreat,theclassicprocessesof culturalchange
(evolution,drift,diffusion,historical change,acculturation)takeplace;
if,
ontheotherhand,thedegreeofperceivedcrisis isacute, cultural
transformationis likely tooccurrapidly.
TheanthropologistAnthonyF. C.Wallace(1956) in a comparative
studyofthecrisis-motivatedtypeofculturalchangederivedaseriesof

160. TheFeasibilityof an Evolutionary Image of Man 143
idealizedstages throughwhichmanysuchtransformations-ifsuccess­
ful-havepassed.Especially relevantforourpurposesareWallace's
findings
onhowimagesof theroleof selfandsocietyhavechangedin
othersocietiesin responseto crisis.Hediscoveredthatunlikeclassic
culturechange,theprocessof revitalizationrequiresexplicit intent by
membersof thesocietyand oftentakesplacewithin one generation:
Thestructureof therevitalizationprocess,in cases wherethe fullcourseis run,
consists ofsomewhatoverlappingstages:1.SteadyState;2. PeriodofIndividual
Stress;3. PeriodofCulturalDistortion;4. PeriodofRevitalization(inwhich occur
thefunctionsofmazeway reformulation,communication,organization,adaption,
culturaltransformation,androutinization);andfinally 5. NewSteadyState.(p. 264)
Thekeyelementintheprocessof transformationiswhatWallace
termsthe"mazeway,"whichthefollowingshowsis almostsynonymous
withourterm"imageofman-in-the-universe":
It is...functionallynecessaryforevery personin society tomaintainamental
imageof thesocietyanditsculture,as well as of his ownbodyanditsbehavioral
regularities,in
orderto act in ways whichreducestressat all levels of thesystem.
Thepersondoes,in fact, maintainsuchanimage. ThismentalimageI havecalled
"themazeway,"since as amodelof thecell-body-personality-nature-culture-society
system or field,
organizedby theindividual's ownexperience,itincludesperceptions
ofboththe maze ofphysicalobjectsin theenvironment(internalandexternal,
humanandnonhuman)andalso oftheways in which this maze can bemanipulated
by the selfandothersinordertominimizestress. Themazewayis nature,society,
culture,personality,andbodyimageas seenbyoneperson....Changingthe
mazewayinvolves
changingthe totalGestaltof hisimageof self, society, andculture,
ofnatureandbody,andof ways ofaction. Itmay also benecessaryto makechanges
in
the"real"system inordertobringmazewayand"real"systeminto congruence.
Theeffortto work a change in
mazewayand"real"systemtogetherso as to permit more
effective
stressreductionis the effort at revitalization;andthecollaborationof a number
ofpersonsinsuchaneffortiscalledarevitalization movement.(pp.266 ff.Emphasis
added)
WhethertherevitalizationmovementISreligiousorsecular,the
reformulation
...seems todependonarestructuringofelementsandsubsystemswhichhave
alreadyattainedcurrencyin the societyandmayevenbe in use....Theoccasionof
theircombinationin aformwhichconstitutesaninternallyconsistent
structure...andoftheiracceptanceby the prophetas aguidetoaction,is abrupt
anddramatic,
usuallyoccurring as a moment of insight, a brief period of realization of
relationshipsandopportunities.
Thereformulationalso seemsnormallyto occurin its
initialformin
themindof asinglepersonratherthanto growdirectly outofgroup
deliberations.(p. 270.Emphasis added)
Aftermazewayreformulationcomeadaption,culturaltransfor­
mation,androutinization,duringwhichtheidealismof theoriginal
visionis modifiedinresponsetoculturalfeedback;it tendsto be

161. 144 ChangingImages of Man
preservedonlyinthoseareaswherethemovement"maintainsrespon­
sibilityforthepreservationofdoctrineandperformanceofritual,"in
otherwords,itbecomesa church,whetherreligiousorsecular.
ConceptualRevolutionsinScience
Studyingthehistoryofscience,ThomasS.Kuhnrecognizeda
similar
pattern.InhissomewhatcontroversialTheStructureofScientific
Revolutions
(1962),Kuhn'suseofthe"knowledgeparadigm"andthe
cyclethroughwhichknowledgeparadigmsarereplacedisalmost
analogoustoWallace'suseoftheterm"mazeway."Thetermknow­
ledgeparadigmisusedtodenote
...thecollectionofideaswithin theconfinesofwhichscientificinquirytakesplace,
theassumeddefinitionof whatarelegitimateproblemsandmethods,theaccepted
practice
andpointof view withwhichthe studentpreparedformembershipin the
scientific
community,thecriteriaforchoosingproblemstoattack,therulesand
standardsofscientificpractice.(p. 11)
Suchaknowledgeparadigmhasawell-understoodset ofexemplars
orprecedentsthatdefinea field ofinquiry,determinetherulesthat
governtheformulationsofnewproblems,andspecifyacceptable forms
ofsolutions.Thus,theparadigmcanonlyexistif thereis ashared
commitmenttocertainbeliefs,suchasthatthemoleculesof a gas
behaveliketinyelasticbilliardballs, orthatcertainkindsof procedures
shouldbeusedforexperimentation,orthatsometopicsareap­
propriateforscientificinvestigationandothersnot.Itscommunicants
mustalsoagreeonthemeaningofsymbolicrepresentations,as in
mathematics.Finally,its communicantsmustsharerelevantvalues,
suchastheimportanceofmakingpredictiveversusnon-predictive
explanations,theappropriatenessofimposingsocialconcernsduring
problemformulation,andthedegreeofsimplicitydemandedin
theories.
Suchaknowledgeparadigmbearsthesamerelationtothelawsand
rulesin a field ofscientific inquiryas dothemythsandritualsin a
pre-scientificsociety.
Thatis,theyareconsideredbymanyto bethe
fundamentalunitsinfluencingthescientificresearchprocess."
TheexcitementgeneratedbyKuhn'sworkrestsnotsomuchwithhis
formulationoftheknowledgeparadigm,however,aswithhis potrayal
ofthedynamicswithwhichsuchparadigmsarecreatedandreplaced.
Ratherthanaim atnovelty,in Kuhn'sviewnormalscienceattemptsto
• SeeNoteB, p. 160

162. TheFeasibility of anEvolutionaryImage ofMan 145
actualize
thepromiseofferedbytheexistingparadigm.Butitresults
almostinvariablyin theexposureofanomaliesbetweenexpectations
basedontheparadigmandfact.Thus,asnotedinChapter4, assuch
anomaliesgrowmorenumerous,we seetherecurringemergenceof
crises
andthedevelopmentof newparadigmswhichembraceboththe
oldparadigmsandtheanomalousdatathattheoldcouldnotdealwith
adequately.Kuhnhasnotedthatthistransformationalprocesstypically
passes
throughfourstages:preparadigmresearch,normalscience,
crisis,
andrevolution.
SimilaritiesbetweenScientificandCulturalRevitalization
Seekingas weareusefulpatternsfromhistorytoguideourthinking
forthefuture,it isinterestingtocompareKuhn'sandWallace's
analyses.
>II:Innormaltimes(steadystate': : normalscience)thefunc­
tioningofthedominantimagesandwaysofdoing(mazeway::know­
ledgeparadigm)areconsideredadequate.However,whenthese
becomeinadequate(individualstress/culturaldistortion:: crisis)the
responsesaremanyandvaried,buttakepredictableforms.Some
individualsavoidfacing thedifficulties(undergochronichighlevel
stress::avoid
theanomalies)andassumethatacontinuationof
ordinarymeansofproblem-solvingwillsuffice;otherscallforareturn
tofundamentals.Expressionsofdiscontentincrease,however,anda
"creativeminority"(Martin,1955)turnsfromsearchesforincremental
waysofproblem-solvingtosearchesforfundamentalreconcep­
tualizationof thefacts.Inevitably thelegitimacyof thesesearchesis
difficultto
obtainfromtheestablishedauthorities,unlessthepercep­
tionof crisisbecomes widespread.
Althoughthediscoveryandapplicationofthenewreconceptualization
(revitalization::revolution)is a complicatedprocessandoccursoveran
extendedperiodoftime,themomentofdiscoveryof thedesired
conceptualreformulationoccursnotbydeliberationandinterpretation,
butby arelativelysuddenandunstructuredconceptualeventlikethe
Gestaltreversal.Like thecharismaticleadersofrevitalizationmovements,
scientistsoftenspeakof"scalesfalling fromtheeyes"orof a"lightning
flash"thatilluminatesapreviously obscurepuzzle,enablingthemto
•"Theuse ofAnthonyWallace'sanalysis ofcargocults as aparallelto Kuhnis verybad;
[it is] anundiscriminatinguse of
material."-MargaretMead
"Thecitations
frommywritingonRevitalizationMovementsin Chapter6 very well
representedmyviews."-AnthonyF. C. Wallace
"[The]basicconcept thatweneeda newknowledge paradigm,andthe use of
Kuhn/Wallaceisexcellent.
"-EliseBoulding

163. 146 ChangingImages of Man
see itscomponentsin a new way.Thoughsuchintuitionsdependon
experience,bothanomalousandcongruent,gainedwiththeold
paradigm,theyarenotlogicallylinkedtoparticularitemsofthat
experienceasaninterpretationwouldbe.Instead,largeportionsof
thatexperiencearegatheredandtransformedintoa"ratherdifferent
bundleofexperience"and"thereafter...linkedpiecemealto thenew
paradigmbutnottotheold"(Kuhn,1962,pp.122 ff., alsocitedin
Wirt,
Lieberman,andLevien,1971, p. 55).
Asignificant
differencebetweenthescientificrevolutions andthe
culturalrevitalizationmovementsstemsfromthefactthatscientific
inquirycanincorporateamuchwiderrangeofdifferencethancanthe
institutionsof aculture-althoughKuhnobservesthatestablished
scientists
oftenfind itdifficultif notimpossibleto converttothenewly
emergentparadigmfromtheoneinwhich theyhaveinvestedtheir
professionallives, sothatthenewparadigmisoftenfullyacceptedonly
witha new generationofscientists.Wallaceobserves thatthetrans­
formationofanentireculturetakesplace onlywhenandifthepurity
oftheoriginalvisionis adapted(inresponsetoresistancethatis
encountered)by"addingto,emphasizing,playingdown,andeliminat­
ingselectedelementsofit"(1956, p. 274).
Otherscholars(e.g. Toynbee,1935;Quigley,1961; Mumford,1956)
whohavereviewedtheriseandtransformation(orfall) ofcivilizations
havededucedsimilarseriesofstages thatportraywhatwemightcall
"thecycle oftransformation."Beforetryingtodeducetheimplications
of
thesefindingsforourownsituation,it isusefultoconsidersimilar
patternsthatcanbefoundintheliteratureofmythologyandof
psychotherapy.
MythicTransformations
Asvariousscholars havenoted(e.g.Boisen,1962;Erikson,1958)
oftenthoseindividualswhobringthenewreconceptualizationsto
society
havehadpersonalproblemswhichweresimilarin formor
whichweresignificantlyrelatedtothoseofthelargersociety.In
resolvingtheirownproblemstheypresentedvisibleresolutionsto the
problemsoftheirculture,andviceversa. Thischaracteristicof the
herois infactso commonthroughoutthetransformationmythsof
differenttimesandplacesthatJosephCampbell(1956) hasusedthe
term"themonomyth"todescribeit:
Thestandardpathof themythological adventureof theherois amagnificationof
theformularepresentedintheritesofpassage: separation-initiation-return:which
mightbenamedthenuclearunityof themonomyth....(p. 30)

164. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 147
Thecompositeheroof themonomyth...and/ortheworldin which he finds
himselfsuffersfromasymbolicaldeficiency.In fairy tales this
mightbe asslightas
the lack of a
certaingoldenring,whereasinapocalypticvision thephysical and
spirituallife of the whole earthcan berepresentedasfallen,or on the pointof
falling,into
ruin.
Typicallythe heroof the fairy taleachievesadomesticmicrocosmic triumph,andthe
heroofmythaworld-historical,macrocosmic triumph.Whereastheformer-the
youngestordespisedchild whobecomes themasterofextraordinarypowers-prevails
overhispersonaloppressors,thelatterbringsback fromhisadventurethemeansfor the
regenerationof his society as a whole. (pp. 37 ff.)
Thebasicpatternisclear:
Whethertheheroberidiculousorsublime, Greekorbarbarian,Gentileor Jew, his
journeyvaries little inessentialplan. Populartalesrepresenttheheroicactionas
physical;
thehigherreligionsshow the deedto bemoral;nevertheless, therewill be
foundastonishinglylittlevariationin themorphologyof theadventure,thecharac­
terrolesinvolved,thevictories gained.(p. 38)
Justasthemythologicalhereoftensuffersfromadefectthatspurs
himontoaction,so manyofthegreatmenofhistoryhavenotbeen
typicallytheproductofcarefree,"well-adjusted"homes(Goertzeland
Goertzel,1962). Nordosuchpersonstypicallyadjustin aconformist
fashiontopersonalandsocialrealities whichtothemseemfilledwith
anomalies.Rather,theyattempttoresolvethedissonantelements
oftheirlife increativeways, whichisthecentralgoalofpsycho­
therapy.
PersonalTransformations
Althoughtheliteratureofpsychotherapyis sovariedthatit is
difficultto
makeanycleanandclear-cutgeneralizations,apatterndoes
emergefromwriterswho attempttodescribetheprocessof crisis­
motivatedpersonaltransformation.FromthewritingsofBoisen
(1936/1962),
Martin(1955),Sullivan(1953), Fingarette(1963),andKan­
torandHerron(1966) wederivethefollowingseriesofstages thatseem
totypifythisprocess:
1.Adequatemasteryofone'slife:relianceondefensemechanisms
(e.g.denial,repression,sublimation).
2.
Inadequatemasteryofone'slife:anxietyanddisintegration.
3.Lookingforcauses:blameandguilt.
4.
Findingcauses:acceptanceofresponsibility.
5.
Lookingfornewsolutions:opennesstoseeingthingsanewbothin
theinnerworldandintheouterworld.

165. 148 ChangingImages of Man
6.Findingnewsolutions:insights thatreformulateone'sexistential
conceptionsandreintegratethepersonality.
7.
Applyingnewsolutions:learningnewmodesofbehaviorthattest
andapplythenewperspectivewithincreasedmasteryofone's
life.
8. New level of
adequacy:open-endedgrowthandlearningasnor­
malbehavior.
Althoughthereisinsufficientspacetodiscussthesestages here,it is
usefultonotetheirsimilarityto thoseinscienceandmyth.
SynthesisandInference
We nowdrawthevariousobservationsofpersonal,scientific,and
culturaltransformationtogetherinordertodrawanyinferencesthat
mightincreasetheoperationalfeasibilityof anew, moreadequate
imageofhumankind.Table7summarizestheidealizedstagesof the
"cycleof transformation"thathasbeenformulatedbydifferent
scholars.
*Althoughnumerousexamplesofcreativitycanbefound
whichdo notfitthiscycle oftransformation,theoverallpatternseems
typicalof
thecrisis-motivatedtransformationsthathaveoccurred
repeatedlyin a widevarietyofsettingsinplace andtime.
Inthegeneralcreativityliteraturethecommonelementsto this cycle
havebeentermedpreparation,incubation,illumination,and
verification(G.Wallace,1926).
First
comesthetestingofconventionalapproachesandfindingthem
wanting("preparation").
Thenextstep("incubation")oftennecessitatesmakingwhatP. W.
Martin(1955) hastermed"theexperimentindepth,"thedeliberate
settingasideof assumptionsthatareconventionallymadeaboutreality,
andengagingintechniquesoractivitiesthatopenupone'sself tomore
primalanddirectperceptionsofrealitywhich arelessstronglyfilteredby
convention.Asthesesourcesofcreativityarenotyetgenerallyunder­
stood,access to themisformostpersonsaratherrandomandun­
controlledprocess.Hencetheterm"incubation,"whichsuggests the
•"ItshouldbepointedoutthatA. F. C.Wallace'stheorizingis notconceptually
independentof thepsychotherapeuticschoolsof thought.Beingan anthropologistof
the'cultureandpersonality'emphasis,Wallace was very muchinfluencedby psy­
choanalytic
thought.Also itshouldnotbethoughtthathisworktells how crisis­
orientedculturalchangeactuallytakesplace; ratherhisworkis anabstract construction
of thisprocess.Also his workwasnotbasedon his own fieldstudies, butratheron
literaturesources.Ifithadbeenbasedonfieldstudies,it isquitepossible thathis
conclusions(especially
aboutthecharismaticleader)wouldhave beenvery
different.
"-LutherGerlach

166. Table7
STAGESOFCRISIS
RESOLUTION INMYTH,CULTURE,SCIENCE,PSYCHOTHERAPY, AND ESSEN­
TIALCREATIVITY
Monomyth
(1.Campbell)
1.Separation
2.Initiation
3.
Return
Culturalrevitalization
(A. Wallace)
1.Steadystate
2.Periodofindivid­
ual stress
3.Periodof cul­
turaldistortion
4.Periodof revital­
ization
-reformulation
-communication
-organization
-
adaption
-culturaltrans-
formation
-routinization
5. Newsteadystate
Scientificresolution
(T.Kuhn)
1.Normalscience
2.Growthofanom­
alies
3. Crisis
4.Revolution
5.Normalscience
in new
paradigm
Psychotherapy
(0.Markley)
1.Normaldefence
mechanisms
2.Anxiety
anddis­
integration
3. Blame
andguilt
4.Acceptanceof
responsibility
5.Lookingfor new
solutions
6.
Insight/reformu­
lation/reinte­
gration
7.
Testingandap­
plication
8.
Open-ended
changeandgrowth
as
"normal"
Generalcreativity
(G. Wallace)
1.
Preparation
2.Incubation
3.Illumination
4.Verification
~
~
~
~
t.o>
~
~
..a,
~
~
~
c
a....
c
~
~
~
~
.~
~
..a,
~
~
......
~
(.0

167. 150 ChangingImagesofMan
cessationof deliberateattemptstoforceinsight.*'Twoquotationsdescribe
theprocess:
"Ceasestriving; thentherewill beself-transformation."
(Chuang-Tse,Book XI)
"Whosoevershall seek togainhis life shall lose it; butwhosoevershall lose his life shall
preserveit."
(Luke17: 33)
Themomentofinsight(illumination),as we observedinconnection
withtheculturalrevitalizationmovementsandcreationofscientific
paradigms,occurswithvividclarity andsuddenness,isabruptand
dramatic,"abriefperiodofrealizationof relationships"(A.Wallace,
1956, p. 270)
that"inundatesapreviouslyobscurepuzzle,enablingits
componentsto beseenin a new wayforthefirsttime"(Kuhn,1962,
pp.122ff.).Thus,themomentofsuddeninsightseemsto be an
elementcommontoradicaldiscovery andtransformation-bothmythic
andscientific.We mightwellapplyto thistypeof reconceptualization
oftheGreekwordforreligiousconversion,metanoia,thatis, afun­
damentaltransformationofmind(Pearce,1971).
Finally
thereisthetaskof validatingtheknowledge(verification)and
bringingit tofruitionforselfandsociety.
Suchprocessesofdiscoverymaybetermedheroicnotsomuch
becausetheyparalleltheclassicstagesof separation,initiation,and
returnoftheherointhemonomyth,butbecausetheyrequirein­
ordinatecourageintheface offear. Theyinvolvenotonlythe
possibilitiesoffailure, butrequireconfrontingthetrulyunknown;and
confrontingas wellthesureknowledgethatsuccessfuldiscoverywill
inevitably
upsettheestablishedpatternsofone'sexistence.It will likely
meandrasticpersonalandpsychicchange.Inthisconnection,Abraham
Maslow (1962) haswritteneloquentlyabout"theneedtoknowandthe
fearofknowing."
Whatdoesall ofthis meanforoursocietytoday? Arewe toconclude
thattheanswertoourproblemsis to befoundinthechanceoccur­
renceof arevelationorintuitivebreakthroughbyoneora few
individuals
whowillthenbecomethecharismaticleadersof atrue­
believerrevitalization movement?Suchanoccurrenceisnotat all
unlikelyif
otherapproacheshavenotbeendevelopedbeforetheprob­
lemsof ourlateindustrialerareachtrulycrisisproportions,andit
•"[Regardingthe]operationalfeasibilityof transformation,RezaArasteh'sworkshould
beincluded.Like
Chuang-Tse,he calls for an'existential moratorium'sothatsociety
can
reintegrateat ahigherlevel.Dabrowskialso calls for whathe calls'positive
disintegration'sothatahigherlevelindividual integrationmay takeplace."-RobertA.
Smith,
III.

168. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 151
would
undoubtedlyresultin ahighdegreeofdisruptionandchaos
throughoutsociety.Butotherapproachesarepossible.
We nowknow
somethingaboutthenatureofthecreativeperson.
Forexample,astudyofresearchobservationsthatweremadeduring
theprocessofscientificdiscovery foundthatscientistsconsideredto be
unusuallycreativein productivewaysare:
(1)ofsuperiormeasuredintelligence;(2)exceptionally independentinjudgment
andresistantto group-endorsedopinions;(3) markedby astrongneedfororder
andforperceptualclosure,combinedwith aresistanceto prematureclosureandan
interestinwhatmay
appearasdisorder,contradiction,imbalance,or verycomplex
balancewhose
orderingprincipleis notimmediatelyapparent;(4)unusuallyap­
preciativeof theintuitive
andnon-rationalelementsin theirownnature;(5)
distinguishedby
theirprofoundcommitmentto thesearchforesthetic andphiloso­
phical
meaningin allexperience.
(Barron,
1969,p. 102)
Additionally,it now appearspossibleto combinetheinsightsof
science,art,andreligionso assystematicallyto reducethefearof (yet)
unknowndiscoveryandtofostertheabilitiesof normalpersonsto
discover
andapplymoreoftheircreativepotential.Suchapproachesas
Synectics
(Gordon,1961),groupdynamics(Bradford,Gibb,andBenne,
1964),Psychosynthesis(Assagioli,1965),Scientology (Hubbard,1954),
psychedelic
drugs(MastersandHouston,1966;-Aaronsonand
Osmond,1970),integralyoga(Chaudhuri,1965),self-hypnosis (Kripp­
ner,1969),biofeedbacktraining(Rervik,1973),small conferencing
(MeadandByers,1968),imagistic thinking(Krippner,1967),specific
educationalprograms(Barron,1969),andothers(Peterson,1971)typify
thediversityof ways inwhich oneoragroupofindividuals,with an
appropriate"setandsetting.':"canbehelpedtomakethetypeof
conceptualbreakthroughsherebeingdiscussed.Iftheemerging
"scienceofconsciousness"discussedin Chapter4 isturnedtoward
theseends,itseemsobvious thatevenmoreeffectiveapproacheswould
result.]
•"Set"refersto theexpectationsof the participantand"setting"to thephysical,
psychological,
andspiritualcontextinwhicha given growthortherapeuticprocessis
experienced.
Thesetwovariableshave beenfoundtosignificantlyaffect theoutcomes
ofcreativeprocesses.SeeSherwood,J. N.
et al.,"Thepsychedelicexperience-Anew
conceptinpsychotherapy,"
Journal of Neuropsychiatry,Vol. 4(December 1962),pp.
69-80.
t"All ofthesetechniquesareaimedat theindividual, ratherthanhis socialsetting.Until
you can makeinstitutionsreceptiveif
notpromotive(see JohnGardner,Self-Renewal­
infinitelybetterthananythingyoumentionhere)tocreativity,therewill be a dis­
junctionbetweenindividual andinstitution,creatinggreaterfrustrationfor thechar­
ged-upnewlycreativewith no place to go.Incidentally,I would muchpreferthat
emphasisbe on the broaderconceptof excellence."-MichaelMarien
Note:See also EliseBoulding'scompelling statementof"TheSpiritualDimensionof the
HumanPerson"inAppendixA.

169. 152 ChangingImages of Man
Wearenotsimplisticallyadvocatingthatsocietyneedsagreatmanto
leadus to a new
imageofthenatureofman.Itmaybethatbecauseof
thenewapproachesforself-exploration,thecommunicationflow
whichmakesesotericideas
andprocessesmoreavailable,andthe
exchangeofsharedandvicariousexperience,manypersonsmayfind
themselves
onthepathoftheadventurer,reflectingfirst thestressand
problemsofthesociety,thenopeningthemselvesto newinsights and
directperceptionsofrealitywhich arelessstronglyfilteredby the
currentparadigmsandmyths,andfinallyemergingto seetheworldin
new ways.
As
JosephCampbell(1968) hasobserved:
Forevenin the sphereofWakingConsciousness,the fixed andthesteadfast,thereis
nothingnowthatendures.TheknownGod cannotendure.Whereasformerly,for
generations,life soheldtoestablished
normsthatthelifetimeof a deitycouldbe
reckonedinmillenia,todayall
normsarein flux, sothattheindividualisthrown,
willy-nilly, back
uponhimself,intotheinwardsphereof his ownbecoming,hisforest
adventurouswithoutway orpath,tocomethroughhis ownintegrityinexperienceto
his ownintelligibleCastle of the
Grail-integrityandcourageinexperience,in love,
in loyalty,
andin act.Andto thisendtheguidingmythscan no longerbe ofany
ethnicnorms.No soonerlearned,theseareoutdated,outof place,washedaway.
Therearetodaynomythogeneticzones. Orrather,themythogeneticzone is the
individual
heart.Individualismandspontaneouspluralism-thefreeassociationof
menandwomenof likespirit, undertheprotectionof asecular,rationalstatewith
nopretensionsto
divinity-arein themodernworldthe onlyhonestpossibilities:
each
thecreativecenterofauthorityforhimself,inCusanus'scirclewithout
circumferencewhose
centeriseverywhere,andwhereeachis the focus ofGod's
gaze.
(p,677)
Wewouldthushopenotforahandful,butforathousandheroes,
tenthousandheroes-whowillcreateafutureimageofwhathuman­
kindcanbe.
InstitutionalandPersonalChange
Theneededtransformationcannotoccurwithoutbothpersonaland
institutionalchange.Institutionalchangedependsontheactionsof
individuals,
butit isunrealisticto expectpersonalilluminationto
becomeeffectivein anywidespreadwayunless ourinstitutions-which
arelockedinto themoresofindustrialism-aresuitablymodified. How
canwebreakthis cycle?
ImaginingMakes It So
As aresultof acareerinpsychotherapyandfacilitationof personal
growth,FrederikS.Perls,theoriginatorofGestaltTherapy,concluded

170. TheFeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 153
that"wecannotdeliberatelybringaboutchangesinourselvesorin
others,"thatpeoplewhotryto do soenduptypically"dedicatingtheir
lives toactualizea conceptofwhattheyshouldbelike,ratherthanto
actualize
themselves.Thisdifferencebetweenself-actualizingandself­
imageactualizingis veryimportant"(Perls,1969, p. 19). Thisisperhaps
theessenceof thedifferencebetweenwhatBoulding(1964)termedthe
"scientific"approachandthe"ideological"approachtoprogress.The
contrastprovidesaneededprecautiontooverzealousattemptsto
proselytize
onbehalfof a newimageofhumankindforoursociety.
AlthoughPerls'assertionmayseemparadoxicalto us,caughtupas
we
areintherational-manipulativeparadigmofindustrialism,it is a
view
thathasbeenrepeatedthroughhistory.Forexample,froma
varietyof
periodsanddisciplinescomethefollowingconclusions:
• Every idea whichexclusivelyoccupiesthe mindistransformedintoanactualphysical
ormentalstate.(Brooks,1022, p. 18)
•
Theeffortswemaketo conqueranideaby exertmgthewillonlyserve tomakethe
idea
morepowerful.(Brooks,1922, p. 19)
• Solongas theimaginationisadverseto theconscious
mind,effortof theconscious
will
producesacontraryeffect. Wemustthinkrightly,or rathermustimagine
rightly,beforewe can willrightly.
Inaword,ourformulamustnotbe"whowills
can,"but"who imagines can."(Baudouin,1922, p. 10)
•
Themostsignificant phenomenaofautosuggestionoccurin the domainof the
unconscious.(Baudouin,1922, p. 10)
•
Thebasic law ofautosuggestionis: Everyideawhich enterstheconsciousmind,ifit
isaccepted
bytheUnconscious,istransformedby itintoarealityandformshenceforth
apermanentelementinourlife.(Brooks,1922, pp.54-55)
•"Merelyto
beattractedto any set of ...ideasdoes notbringwith it any
realisation
....Amerementalactivity willnotbringachangeofconsciousness,it can
only
bringachangeofmind.Andifyourmindissufficientlymobile,it will go on
changingfromone thingtoanothertill theendwithoutarrivingat any sureway or
anyspiritual
harbour.Themindcanthinkanddoubtandquestionandacceptand
withdrawitsacceptance,makeformations andunmakethem,passdecisions and
revokethem, judgingalways on thesurfacearid bysurfaceindications andtherefore
nevercomingto any deepandfirmexperienceofTruth,butby itself it can do no
more.
Thereareonlythreeways by which it canmakeitself achannelorinstrument
ofTruth.Eitheritmustfallsilentin the Self andgiveroomfor awider andgreater
consciousness;or it mustmakeitself passive to aninnerlightandallowthatlightto
use it as ameansofexpression;or else it
mustitselfchangefromthequestioning
intellectualsuperficial
mindit now is to anintuitiveintelligence,a mindof vision fit
for thedirect
perceptionof thedivine Truth."-SriAurobindo(On Yoga:II,Tome
One,p. 174).
•
Underneathall thereasoning,inductions,deductions,calculations,demonstrations,
methods,
andlogicalapparatusofeverysort, thereissomethinganimatingthemthat
isnotunderstood,thatis theworkof thatcomplexoperation,theconstructive
imagination.
(Ribot,
Essayonthe Creative Imagination,quotedinJohnson,1957, p. 38)
• [In
experimentsusingalteredstatesofconsciousnesstoincreasecreativity,we find
that]peopleget intoimagisticthinking.
Thatis,pictorialthinkingasopposedto
sequential,verbalthinking.Withimagisticthinking,
thereis atendencyto see whole
constellationsof
informationas apicture,a codedsymbol,ora series of flowing
symbolicforms
...suchfreeinter-space explorationwas alwaysblockedbyreligious
dogmaon theonehandor by scientificdogmaontheother....Visionaryexperience
Cf M - L

171. 154 ChangingImagesofMan
doestendto beheretical.It is a tuningin on thecreativeprocess, andso it will not
obey the laws of anyparticularreligionor political system
....Andthisimagistic
thinkingisoftenattendedby anincreaseofenthusiasm.(Masters andHouston,
quotedinAvorn,1973, p. 17)
• Man is
madeby hisbelief.. . as he believes, so he is.(BhagavadGita)
• As
manthinkethin hisheart,so he is.(Proverbs23: 7 of the Bible)
• In
orderto live wisely,menmusthave a sense ofparticipationin a unitingpurpose
understandableto all, vitalenoughandnobleenoughto be theobjectof a common
sense ofdedication. (Andrea,ca.1700, cited in Hall, 1958, p. 107)
•
Theriseandfall ofimagesof the futureprecedeoraccompanythe rise andfall of
cultures.(Polak, 1973, p. 19)
Iftheseobservationsareat all valid(andtheirvalidityisessentially
untestablewithinthepresentlydominantparadigmsofscience),they
areimportantinsightsfromwhichtodrawsocial-policyimplications.
First,itbecomes
imperativetonotethelikelyconsequencesofthe
typeof imagethatisportrayedinthevariousartistic media.Ifthe
futureisportrayedinprimarilydystopianterms,adystopianimageof
humankindwillprevailin thecollectiveunconsciousoftheculture.But
asMargaretMeadhasnoted(1957):
...all visions ofheaven,in this world andin thenext,have acurioustasteless, pale
blue
andpinkquality....Beside anypictureofheavenabove orheavenon earth,the
picturesof hell
anddestructionstandoutin vividandcompellingintensity,each
detail
strongenoughtogriptheimaginationas the horridcreationsof a Wells, an
Orwell,
oranAldousHuxleyunroll beforeourhorrifiedeyes. Wherepositive
utopias
areinsipidandadetailedheavenisunbearableto thinkof as apermanent
abode,thecreatorsof terrorhave nosuchproblem.So, if utopianvisionsarethe
stuffby which
menlive, it would seem alegitimatesubjectofinquiryto askwhatis
the
matterwiththem?Why is Hell always so muchmorevividthanHeaven?(p.
958)·
OrasAldousHuxleyonceobserved,"AdualisticperceptionofGod
maybebadmetaphysics,butitmakesgoodart."
Theseobservationsseemperfectlyvalidinsofarastheyapplytostatic
conceptionsofutopiasortostaticmetaphysicalviews, butthereappear
to be nonecessarylimitations onartisticcreativityto portraythe
excitementofconstructive,positiveimagesof continuinghuman
evolution,andinthatsensebeableto createavisionof "morevivid
utopias."
Second,theseinsightssuggestthatthemostimportantcomponentof
planningisbasednotontherealmoftherational,butratherinthose
realmsofconsciousnessthatliebeyondtherational.In manyifnot
•"Likeso manyquotes,thereal point-theimaginationof children-isomitted."­
MargaretMead

172. The Feasibility of anEvolutionaryImage of Man 155
mostculturesthroughouthistory,theexecutiveleadersmaintained
access toseers (shamans,prophets,"fools,"medicinemen,etc.)."In
keepingwiththeseriousnessof theproblemsoursocietyfaces andthe
resultingneedforamorevalidsenseof thewholecontextinwhichwe
live,
theopeningupoftheseaspectsof consciousness-notforthefew
butforthemany-seemsof vitalimportance.
Third,theseinsightssuggestthat"ordinary"attemptstoshiftthe
prevailingimageofhumankindbyrational-manipulativemeanswould
likelyproveineffectual.Otherevidence,however,suggeststhatsucha
strategy(if it uses"extraordinary"means)mightwell beeffective, but
ultimatelydysfunctional:KinserandKleinman(1969)havewrittena
provocative
book,The DreamThatWas No More a Dream: A Search for
Aesthetic Reality in Germany1890-1945,
whichcontendsthatduringthis
recentera,theGermangovernmentundertooktodeliberatelyshape
theimageofman,tocreatea"myth"thatwouldresolvetheGerman's
identitycrisis.Usingall meansattheirdisposal,someconventional(e.g.
visual
art,songs,slogans, andpropaganda)andsomeunconventional
(e.g.arm-in-armrocking,goose-stepmarching,andothersomewhat
moreesotericways of releasingprimalenergiesin astructuredform­
someofwhichhave appearedfromtimetotimeintheAmerican
humanpotentialmovement),Germanycreatedforitself"asenseof
nationaldensityinaccordwiththeuniverse."KinserandKleinman
assertthatthecentralequationin thisprocesswasthat:
Mythsshapeperception.Perceptionsproducepolicies,policiescauseevents and
situations.Andeventsrequireexplanation.Howcanoneseparatethebeginningof
thecirclefromtheend,themythicinvention fromthearchetypalsituation,or the
fabricationfromthe candidrecognitionof ageopoliticalfact? Thefirstfeedsthe last,
andthe lastvindicates-andreinstates-thefirst.Thiscycle iswhatFreudmeantby
"self-fulfilling
prophecy"-themanufacturedstatementthatcreateshistoricalreality
therebyvalidatingitself.
TherecentappearanceofsuchwntmgsasThe Image(Boorstin,
1971),TheSellingof the President (McGinnis,1968), Catch aFallingFlag
(Whalen,1972), The Image Makers(LawtonandTrent,1972),and
"Friendlyfascism"(Gross,1970) wouldindicatethattheGermanap­
proachofimagemanipulationandmythcreationis all toofeasiblein
.."Todaytheseers arescientistsand'experts.'See GuyBenveniste, ThePoliticsof
Expertise,GlendessaryPress, 1972."-MichaelMarien
Agreed,which is why thenecessary futureemphasisisonholisticknowingasopposedto
specializedknowing.

173. 156 ChangingImagesofMan
theUnitedStates."Imagemanipulationispracticedinoursociety,but
it hasnotyetreachedtheproportionsthatwerepracticedinGermany
beforeWorldWarII.As wenoteinthenextchapter,however,an
extrapolationofcurrenttrendsmakesthispossibilityseemalmost
expected.Martin,writingalmosttwodecadesago,concludedthat:
Thewhole world is inimminentperilfrom thetotalitariantechnique ....Thefree
peoples,becausethey are stillfree,have
themeansofmakingthewithdrawal-and­
return,ofrediscoveringthecreativecontactbyrediscoveringthemselves. Therecan
be noassurance
thatthey will fully realize this peril or make use of thesemeans.But
if they do, a
fundamentalchangecan come overthe world....Thereis in this
presentage a possibility ofgreatnessexceedingall thathas gonebefore,the
possibility
thatourtime oftroublescanbecomethe timelessmoment,the momentof
vision
andcommitment.(1955, pp. 264 ff.)
And,
Infairnessto the reader,itshouldbeemphasized thatthiscreativecontactis not an
armchairpursuit.Whatisproposedis anexperiment,anexperimentinvolvingrisk,
makingheavy
demandsonthosewho undertakeit, with noguaranteeofresults.
Mythosmeantoriginallythewordsspokenin aritual,themeansof approachto the
God
...thereare avarietyof modernmeansof approachto thecreativeprocess
workingin
andthroughman.And,as always, thecreativeisdangerous.(1955, p. 15)
Althoughnotwithoutdanger,thedemocraticassumptionisthat
pluralisticcreativityis alwaysmoreto betrustedthanisfascistic
manipulation(d.Meadand
ayers,1968).
New Paradigms from Old
Wespokeearlieroftheneedforwhatwetermeda"moralscience"
anda"moraleconomics"denotingbytheterms"moral"paradigms
thatwouldbeconsistentwithwhatDunn(1971) hastermeda"process
teleology"
...wherehumanbeings...establishtheprocessof humandevelopmentas the goal
of theprocessof socialevolution,boththeprocess
andthe goalbeing understoodto
be
opentofurthertransformationas weadvancein thepractice andunderstanding
ofthem.
• "While you notebrieflythe societalmampulationsof the
ThirdReichunderHitler,
you do not deal with theconsequencesof thistragedy.I would
urgethatErnst
Cassirer'swork, The Myth of the State,beincludedin yourreview ofrelevantliterature.
I alsosuggestthe
tremendousimpactof Maoshouldbeincluded andthatthe classic of
EdgarSnow,Red Star Over China,showingthetransformingeffect
ofthegreatmarch
on a totalpopulation
cannotbeignored.Theimageof thepilgrimremains important
anditsconsequencesdramatic. "-RobertA.Smith,III

174. The Feasibility of anEvolutionaryImageof Man 157
Thetranslationofsuchaconceptionintooperationaltermsseems
especiallycrucialgiven
theproblemsdiscussedearlier.Asthe
economistRobertHeilbronerobserved(1968),
...thecentralproblemwhich is likely toconfrontthesocienesof tomorrowis
nothinglessthanthecreationof a newrelationshipbetweentheeconomicaspectof
existenceand human lifeinitstotality.(p.631)
Itseemsevidentthatthecharacteristicswe postulatedforan
adequateimagecannotbefulfilledunless sucha newtypeofpolicy
paradigmcomesintoexistence-aparadigmthatprovidesafarcloser
reconciliationof C. P.Snow's"two
cultures"(thesciencesandthe
humanities)thanhasheretoforeseemedfeasible.Centralinthispur­
suitwouldbe thereconciliationof theobjectiveinquirymethodsfound
suitableforlearningtomanipulatetheexternal/physicalenvironment
andtheinquirymethodswhichareemergingtosimilarlyexplorethe
subjective/internal/psychicalenvironmentofourliving.
Likely
suchanumbrellaparadigmwillnotbepossiblewithoutthe
emergenceofother,somewhatmorespecializedbutneverthelessholis­
tic,paradigmstosupportit.Anadequatepolicy-relevantparadigmfor
understandingthesubtlecomplexitiesofecology, forexample,will
likely
requireacreativesynthesisof thosedisciplineswe callbiology,
anthropology,ethology,andpossiblyevenparapsychology.Similarly,
anadequatenewscienceof "internalstates"(whichwoulddealwith
topicsas
variedaspsychosomaticmedicine,creativity,qualityof life,
andso-calledpsychicabilities),if presenttrendsareanyindication,will
requireasynthesisof Easternwisdom,Westernpsychology,electronic
engineering,physics,physiology,etc.
*DonaldMichael'sbookOnthe
SocialPsychologyof
LearningtoPlan-andPlanningtoLearn(1972)
containsnumerousinsightsonhowthisdifficulttask mightmore
adequatelybeapproached.
ConsiderationsofOperationalFeasibility
Butwhatindicationsaretherethatpervasivepersonalandin­
stitutional
transformationandacreativemushroomingof new
paradigmsarefeasiblewithouttheirbeing"caused"?
•"You...fail toindicatehowthese mightmerge.Perhapsif youupdateAssagioli,using
Youngblood'sExpanded Cinema,andsuggestnewmusical andartformsfor global
audiences
throughthemoogsynthesizer,ballet andsatellitecommunication,youcould
provideaworldstage
forTransformation."-RobertA.Smith,III

175. 158 ChangingImages of Man
Therecanbe no easyanswerto thisquestion,ofcourse. Theforces
against
fundamentalconceptualchangeappearalmostinsuperable.
Virtuallyeveryinstitutionalizedaspectofoursociety,butespeciallythe
image-creatingmedia(whoserevenues,henceeditorialpolicy, cur­
rentlyderiveprimarilyfromadvertising),indirectly supportthecur­
rentindustrialparadigm.Thephysicalaspectsof ourculture(urban­
centeredfactories,freeways,automobiles,etc.) all reinforceit by
shapingourperceptions,incentives,andhabits.
However,thereappearsufficientindicationsof a new imageemerg­
ingthatcontinuedworkin thisdirectionisindeedappropriate.We
outlinedinChapter4anhistoricalanalogybetweenthepresentandthe
post-Medievalperiodthatissuggestiveofvariousforcesat workwhich
arecreatingtheconditionsforatransformation.Addedtothatlineof
argumentarethefollowingassessmentsofsocietalconditions that
togetherindicate,with appropriatestimulation,thefeasibilityofa
"newrenaissance"whichwouldhave thecharacteristicssetforthin
Chapter5.
•Thereisneed.Societalproblems(such asthosedescribedin ChapterII)are
mountingthatappearto beintrinsicto the very structureofthematureindustrial
society.Similarly
thereisgrowingevidencethatavarietyof goals cannotbe
adequatelyrealizedduetointrinsiclimitationsof theessentiallyobjective and
reductionisticparadigmofsciencethatiscurrentlydominantinoursociety."
•
Therearemotivationandprogress.Althoughthesocietaltrendsthatappeartobe
dominant(e.g. the"multifoldtrend"notedinChapter1)andtheoverallmomen­
tumofindustrialismdo notpointtotheemergenceof a newandmoreadequate
imageof the human,therearevarioussignsindicating increasingdesire forthe
progresstowardsuchan emergence.Forexample:
1.Interestinculturalsurvival,in Easternthought,inself-exploration,inholistic
understandingofcomplexsystems,in personalandculturaltransformationis in
theascendant.Surveysandpolls show thisgrowingtrend,mostnoticeablyin the
Yankelovitch
dataonthenewnaturalism amongsuchgroupsasstudentelitesand
corporateexecutiveswho areincreasinglyturningawayfromeconomicvalues
(Yankelovitch,1972;Seligman,1969). Asurveyof
majorpubliclibraries madein
connectionwith thisstudyrevealsanunusually strongdemandfor bookson
wholesomeliving (natural/organicfoods,yoga forhealth,etc.); theoccult
(extrasensoryprocesses,divination,esotericwisdom,etc.);
andEasternpractices
(zen, yoga,
meditation,etc.).While themorefundamentalistof thetraditional
churchesaregrowingat arateaboutequalto thedeclineof the moreecumunical
•"Thereis still a vastamountofsupportforthenotionthatavarietyof goals canbe
adequatelyrealizedby moreofthesametypeofscience andtechnologythatwe have
had.Youarenotprovidinganadequatecounter-argumenttoDanielBell, Herman
Kahn,theNixonadministration,andmostofacademia andtheAmericanpeople.
Consonantwithestablishedcognitivesystemsis thefactthatsocietalproblemsarenot
seenassevere enoughtorequirethesystembreakthatwouldleadto the 'new
renaissance.'
"-MichaelMarien

176. The FeasibilityofanEvolutionaryImage ofMan 159
traditionalchurches(Kelley, 1972),othervoluntaryorganizations,especiallyin
whatiscalled
the"humanpotentialmovement,"aregrowingfarmorerapidly."
2.
Populationgrowthisdeclining,environmentalismisgrowing,newlegislationis
beingconsideredthatmightpromotemoreholisticunderstandingsofsocietal
problems-forexample,SenatorHumphrey'srecentbillonnationalgrowth
policy.Increasingnumbersoftechnicalsymposia andadhocgroupsarebeing
formedon thethemeofsurvival-motivatedtransformation,e.g. theWorldOrder
ModelsProject,theClubofRome, theBlueprintforSurvivalProject, The
InternationalInstituteofAppliedSystemsAnalysis,Projectsof theNational and
WorldCouncilof Churches.
•Therearerecognizableprocessesof transformationaldiscovery. Thehistoricalrecord
ofculturesandindividualswhichsuccessfully copedwithcrisis-motivatedchange,
theprocessof "new paradigm"discoveryinscience, andtheprocessof general
creativityshowsome remarkableparallels.Twocharacteristicswhich standoutfrom
therecordofsuchdiscoveries are:
1.Thattheyareintuitivelyratherthanrationallybased.Inmostdescriptionsof
transformationaldiscovery,thetappingofimagistic,intuitive, andsupra-rational
aspectsofconsciousness appearsas acentralelementofdiscovery.Onlybefore
andafterthe newGestaltisrecognizeddo the morerationalprocessesserve the
usefulfunctionsofevaluation, planning,andsoforth.
2.Thattheyreformulateratherthanreplacepreviousideas. Althoughbothtypes of
creativity
occurin times of crisis,thetype ofdiscovery thathas led torevitalizationof
a
cultureisthatin whichthecreativethrustwasmoreareformulationand
combinationof ideas alreadyhavinggoodcurrencythanarevolutionarychangeto
radically
differentideas.Thusculturaltransformationseemsfeasible without
revolutionarydisruptions,to the extentthatthetransformedsocietycan meetthe
uniqueandhabitualneedsofdiverse groupswhile at thesametimeprovidinga
unifying
frameworkfortheentireculture.Techniquesexistwith whichtrans­
formationaldiscoverycan
befostered;otherscan bediscovered.
•
Thereistimelystimulationof attempts-bothindividualandcollective-tofosteran
evolutionary
transformation.Themajorityof thesocietydo notperceivethe needor
have themotivation
notedabove.Thisisperhapsfortunate,forit gives time to
createtheneededideasbeforecharismaticleadershipand/orsimplisticattemptsat
reformaredemanded.Althoughthereis(amonganincreasingnumberof elites) a
perceived
need,motivation,someprogress,andpropertools (yet small inproportion
to theneed), mostfundingunderstandablygoesintowork thatfitswithinthe
presentparadigmsofourculture.Theefficacy oftransformationalresearchand
workingtowardmoreadequateparadigmshas yet to bedemonstratedto the
mainstreaminstitutionsof society. Thussupportof thiskindof activitycould prove
to have"highleverage"intermsofbuildingthekindsofknowledge andnecessary
experiencethatmightturnculturalcrisisintocreative transformation.
Weemphasize thestimulationof transformationalthinkingand
experimentationnotbecausewe see it asnecessary fortheemergence
of a newimageof humankindand/ornew"moral"paradigms,but
becauseof urgency.rAlthoughit isimpossibletoprove,wesuspect that
• SeeNoteC, p. 161.
t"Again,Istress thatthe'urgency'isnotperceivedby others;or,ifperceived,thereare
totallydifferentprescriptions."-MichaelMarien

177. 160 ChangingImages of Man
ifeitheris toemergeat all,theywilldosowhetherornotanygiven
individual,
group,foundation,orgovernmentagencychoosestodeli­
beratelysupport-ortofight-theiremergence.Tobesure,their
emergencedependsontheactionsofindividuals, butscientificand
culturaltransformationis afarbiggerandmoreamorphousagenda
thatcanbedealtwithby rational/deliberateattemptstomakeit
happen,as,onewouldsay, amoonshot.Theemergenceof a new
imageand/ornewparadigmcan,however,behastenedorslowedby
deliberatechoice.Furthermore,andmostimportantly,thedegreeof
social
disruptionaccompanyingsuchachangecanbeaffectedby the
degreeofunderstandingoftheforcesbringingitabout.
Giventheuncertaintyas tothelikelyseverity andthetimingofthe
societalcrisis thatmaybeahead,appropriateactionswhich preparefor
thecrisisneedto bestimulated.Onlyif wehavethenecessaryconcepts
andtools-bothindividuallyandcollectivelyandintime-canwehope
torideat allsmoothlythroughto abettersocietyontheothersideof
thetransition.Thusthefosteringofconceptualreformulationswhich
do
notrejectbutratherreconcilepreviouslydominantideasintoa
higher-level
integrationappearsmosttimely.
NOTES
Note A
"Twocriticisms:one, thattherehavebeenaconcomitantincreaseinconsciousness
togetherwith thegenerallyincreasingcomplexity anddifferentiationofevolvingbiologi­
cal systems
doesnotmeanthatthethrustofevolutionistoward greaterconsciousness(as
the
studyinfers);it couldmean,forexample,thatconsciousnessismerelyan
epiphenomenonofcomplexorganization.In my view it is morereasonabletoassume
thatconsciousnessis a resultantofbiologicalevolution ....I believethatthespectacleof
evolutioncan give
meaningtoexistenceandasenseofholisticdirection without
embracingthecontroversialpremiseof avitalistic-anthropomorphicthrusttoward
consciousness[see
Chapter14 in Laszlo (1972)],andit ismorerationalto place one's
hopesfor a new meaningin life on anobjectivelyevolutionary, ratherthanananthro­
pomorphizingthesis.
"Mysecondcriticismis
thatthemeaningof'consciousness'is not madeclear.
...Consciousnessasself-awarenesscan be explainedwithoutrecourseto grand
assumptionsaboutevolutionarythrustssimplyby notingthe selectiveadvantageit
confersonsystems
thatincreasinglyrely on computed-extrapolatedstrategiesfor their
existence.Like aprehensivetail, it is an instrumentofsurvivalandafactorin ...biolo­
gicalevolution.
"-ErvinLaszlo
Note B
"I believe
manyreaders,especiallythosein thestrictersciences,will not appreciatethe
diffusive
andwildlyambiguousqualitiesof theword paradigm,which isusedexcessively
(even
fromthepointof view ofgoodprose!)in thelatterpartsof thedocument.Myearly
classical
trainingforces me toassociatetheword paradigmwith thesoberword example.
Itsmainuse is ingrammar,whereit isusedas an exampletoillustrateadeclensionor a
conjugation.
Itmightalsomean,moregenerally,anillustration. Butit hasnoneofthe

178. TheFeasibility of anEvolutionaryImage ofMan 161
farflungmeaningsyou haveassignedto it(followingKuhn).You have employedit as a
synonymforgeneralbelief,tenet,hypothesis,
dominanttheory,prevalentview,prevail­
ingphilosophy,
generalunderstanding,acceptedthesis, scientificworldpictureof the
time,temporarilyconfirmed
assumption....Eachphrasein this list isclearerthan
paradigm,andIsupposeitmightbe well tochoose fromit onoccasion."-Henry
Margenau
Ourusageof theword paradigmisindeedextendedfromitsoriginalmeaningandis in
keepingwith
oursearchfor metaphorswhichcatchthe "sense"ofourtime. We use it to
referto a scientific (orgenerallyheld)worldview,includinganyassumptions about
realityandrulesof operation.Kuhn(1962)describeshisusageas referringto'universally
recognizedscientificachievements
thatfor a timeprovidemodelproblems andsolutions
to a
communityofpractitioners'(p. x). Thiscorrespondsto thecommonmeaningof
paradigmas amodelor pattern.
NoteC
"Do you
thinkthattheculturalsurvivallobby,broadlydefined, outnumbersthe
supportersofMaharajJi?TheJohnBirchSociety? Wouldyou care tocontrastthe
readershipof any five newcultureperiodicalsto the 160,000subscribersto Street
Chopper
Magazine,orthe 175,000subscribersto Off/RoadVehiclesMagazine (thelattergroup,I
understand,isdestroyingtheCaliforniadesert).
"Also, I
thinkit is veryproblematicas to whetherenvironmentalismisgrowing,
particularlywith newly
announcedscarcitiesinelectricity, naturalgas,andgasoline.Ifit
isgrowing,we needasoberheadcount:growthfrom3% to 4%doesn'tcountformuch,
if 80%arereadyto vote tomaintain theircomfort.
"Infact, Idisagreewith this entiresection.Iwould liketo see the signs of a positive
emergingimage,butI will not let myenthusiasmbeconfusedwith asoberanalysis of the
dataaroundme. As isquiteclear, studentsareturningawayfrom'TheNewNatural­
ism'toward
quietude,fundamentalChristianity,alcoholinsteadof drugs.Shows the
hazardsof
extrapolatingdataandcheeringwhenwhatwearewatchingis acultural
pendulum.As for the'culturalindicators'you hadbest bemorespecific, e.g.whatbooks
readby whomandwithwhatresult?(As aquickindicator,look at the top tennon-fiction
list for the last few years to seewhatis infashion.Whereas
Future Shockwas big acouple
of years go,
thereisnothingin the toptentoday-otherthanThe Sovereign State of
ITT-thathasanythingto do with the newnaturalism,publicpolicy, or wholistic science.
Rather,people
areconcernedwith Dr.Atkins'diet, andtheJoy of Sex.)Bepreciseabout
anyinterestin thegrowthof holisticscience;I fail to see anygoodsigns,suchas the
RANN
budgetin NSF orsignificantdevelopmentsin SGSR. Thecontrolofinternal
states,booksonwholesomeliving, theoccult,etc.,
aretosomedegreecurrentfads-and
thereis agreatdeal ofbalderdashmixedin withserioussentiments thatyouandI favor.
Failuretodistinguishbetweentheserious
andtherip-offis oneof thequickestways to
weakenif not kill off theevolutionarytransformationalist
movement(orwhateverwe
wish to call
it-anotherproblembeinga profusionof titles).
"Finally,youshouldbe verycautious
aboutthe'humanisticcapitalism'professedby
thecorporations(mostnotablyin
JohnRockefeller'srecentbook,The SecondAmerican
Revolution).
Haven'tyouever heardofco-optation?SeeRoszak'scommentson 'suave
technocracy'inWhere the WastelandEnds."-MichaelMarien
Weagree.See
our"lastwork"(p. 268).

179. Reproducedbypermissionof the New YorkerMagazine,Inc.Drawing byStarke.
©1977.
162

180. CHAPTER 7
SocietalChoices andConsequencesofChangingImages
Massiveandrapidchangeconfrontsvirtuallyeverypersonandsector
ofoursociety.Paradoxically, suchrapidchange-leadingto"future
shock"inthewordsofTofHer-seemsto betheonlyconstantofour
time.Thischangehascontributedto acontemporaryfeelingofpur­
poselessnessandmeaninglessness:
• Itcreates uncertaintyaboutthefutureandlessensthetime"durability"ofour
imagesof humankind.
•Associatedwith this changehasbeentheemergenceof asocietal structureof
virtuallyincomprehensiblesize
andcomplexity.
• Also
correspondingto thisrapidchangehasbeenaproliferationofsegmentedroles
for
theindividualto play, supportedbyfragmentedimagery.
Suchrapidratesandmagnitudesofchangewouldbetolerabletomany
peopleif itseemedpurposeful.
Indeed,asGeraldHeardoncenoted,
"Lifedoesnotneedcomfort,whenitcanbeofferedmeaning,nor
pleasure,whenitcanbeshownpurpose."Sincea primaryfunctionof
imagesis to
providemeaningin life,ourpresentalienationandloss of
purposeisreflectiveof theinabilityof contemporaryimagesto inspire
withinpeopleafeelingof meaningfulness.
Oursurvivalandourcontinuedevolutiondependuponouracting,
soonandwisely.Onwhatbasis do wechooseonesocietaltrajectory
overanother?
Manyofthedifferentimagesthatwehavesurveyedprovideddiffering
normativestandardsfromwhichto evaluateethicaldecisions.Precisely
because
differentconceptualparadigmsprovidedifferingstandardsfor
evaluation,it isnotpossibleto provethatoneimageofhumankindis
ultimately
betterormorevalidthananother.
'*'Itisthereforeusefulto
comparethelikelysocietal outcomesofthedifferentimages.
Wechooseto
comparethesocietalconsequencesof twoimages, both
ofwhichseemfeasible withinthenear-termfutureoftheUnited
•"Butyou canprove thatoneis heldmorefrequentlythananotherthroughtheuse of
surveyresearch.Animageof
mansurveyofwhatisandwhatoughtto be,parallelto
HopesandFearsof the AmericanPeople(Universe,1972), shouldbeconducted."­
MichaelMarien
163

181. 164 ChangingImages of Man
States,eachofwhichwouldleadto avery differenttypeof future.One
oftheseisbased onanextrapolationoftheimagesthatunderlaythe
industrialstate(i.e. itportendsapost-industrialfuturewithindustrial
imagesof thehuman);theotherisbasedonatransformedimageof
thehumansimilarto thatwehavepostulatedasbeingneededfora
desirable
post-industrialsociety.
Increatingsuchanidealizedpolarity, ordialectic,we do notexpect
thateitherwillcometopassin a pureform,butratherhopethata
clear-cut
contrastbetweenpossibilitieswillfostera continuingdebate
whichwill initself helpcreateamoreresponsiblefuturesociety.
CONTRASTING FUTURETRENDSAND IMAGES
Thenatureof afuturebasedoncontinuingdominanceofthe
industrialstatementalityisaptlycharacterizedby adistillationofthe
"multifoldtrend"developedattheHudsonInstituteanddescribed
earlier.
Itenvisionsasocietywith thefollowingdevelopmentaltrends:
1.Increasinglyempirical,secular, pragmatic,manipulative,explicitly
rational,utilitarian.
2.
Centralizationandconcentrationofeconomicandpoliticalpower.
3.
Continuedrapidaccumulationofscientificandtechnicalknow­
ledge.
4.
Increasingrelianceuponspecialistsand"knowledgeelites"des­
piteanti-intellectualtrends.
5.Increasingaffluenceandtheinstitutionalizationofleisure.
6.
Increasinguse of social,economic,political, andbehavioral
engineering.
7.Increasingurbanconcentrationandtheemergenceofmegapoli-
tan/regionalurbanareas.
Thistrendsetmightwell betermeda"technologicalextrapolationist"
future.Animageof humankindthatissupportiveof thisfuturewould
likelyhave
thefollowingcharacteristics:
•Theindividualby natureisaggressiveandcompetitive,largely determinedin his
behaviorbyhereditary
andenvironmentalforces.
•
Thegroupisemphasized,to therelative detrimentofindividualism.
•Sexuality,territoriality,materialism,rationalism,
andsecularismareemphasized.
•
Thereis anincreased demandforandimpliedreliance upontechnologicalsolutions
to
oursocietalproblems, anduponcentralizedregulationoftechnologyapplication
toprovide
neededcontrols.
Contrastingrathersharplywiththeforegoingtrendsandsupportive
imageis aclusterof trendsthatiscompatiblewith thecharacteristics

182. Societal ChoicesandConsequences 165
postulatedasdesirablein Chapter5.Thesetrendsandsupportive
imagemightleadto whatcouldbetermedan"evolutionarytrans­
formationalist"future.Thisfuturedoesnotassumethelogicalexten­
sionofexistingsocietal trendsasdoesthetechnologicalextrapolationist
view;ratheritpresumesasubstantialdeparturefromcurrenttrends,
withthefollowingtrendcharacteristicsresulting:
I.Increasingly
balancedbetweendimensionssuchas empirical/in­
tuitive,
manipulative/pan-determined,rational/intuitive,utili­
tarian/aesthetic.
2.Stabilizing
population;decentralizationofurbanareassothat
populationisdistributedwithgreaterbalance;a greaterdiversity
ofliving
environmentstoexpressalargerrangeoflife-style
alternatives.
3.
Increasingaffluenceforatimebutthentendingtowardasteady­
statesociety
withoutsubstantialincome/wealthdifferentials;a "do
morewithless"technology; morecreative/participativeleisure
activities.
4. A
decreaseintheuse of social,economic,political, andbehavior
engineeringexceptwherethiswas chosenby agroupasthe
preferablemodeoforganizinganddirectinglife-activitieswithin
theirsocietalsubsystem.
5.
Increasingrelianceuponspecializedandgeneral(holistic)skills of
"knowledgeelites"with greaterlegitimizationanduse ofdiver­
gentthinking;alsogreaterparticipationintheplanningprocesses.
6.
Continuedaccumulationofscientificandtechnicalknowledgebut
of asortwhichfitswithin theframeworkofa new"moral"
paradigm.
7.Decentralizationanddeconcentrationofeconomicandpolitical
powerto allow"full valuedparticipation"ofpeopleintheir
politicalandproductiveprocesses.
Animageofhumankindthatwouldbesupportiveof thistrend
clusterwouldlikelyhave thefollowingcharacteristics:
•Theindividual'sbehavioris determinedpartlybyhereditary(biological) and
environmental(social)sources,which can be for eithergood or ill,butalsothereis a
significantpotentialwithin theindividualforbehaviorwhich is freefromsuch
deterministicinfluences.
•
Theindividualhasprimacy buttherearerecognizedneedsof the societal system for
its ownmaintenanceas asupportive
environmentforindividualgrowth/actualiza­
tion.
•
Thus,the self,alongwith societalstructures,evolvestoward higherstates of
awarenesssuch
thatsocietalandindividual-diversityishopefullyintegratedat a
higherorderofcomplexityand"self"becomesanexperientialconcepthaving
transpersonalas well asindividualaspects.

183. 166 ChangingImages of Man
• Anemphasis uponlovingsexuality leadingto adeemphasisofpossessiveness.
•Rationalism
andsecularismarebalancedby an equalregardfor thesignificanceof
theintuitiveandspiritual.
• Animpliedrelianceisplaced
upontheindividual'salterationof internalstates for
thesolutionof
manysocietalproblems.
Clearly,thetechnologicalextrapolationistandevolutionarytrans­
formationalistimages presentuswithsharpcontrasts-bothdirect,and
intermsofthesocietaltrendstheysupport.Theplausibilityof eachof
these
divergentimagescanbepartiallyinferredfromanexamination
ofthepotencyoftheirhistoricalroots-thesearepresentedinTables8
and9.Table10contraststheethicalattributesthatwemightassociate
with
thesetwoimages. Withthis asbackground,we nowconsiderthe
societalconsequencesthatwouldaccrueinthetechnologicalextrapola­
tionistandtheevolutionarytransformationalistfutures.
Table8
HISTORICALROOTSOFTHETECHNOLOGICAL EXTRAPOLATION 1ST
IMAGE
1.HobbesianMan-Hobbessawhumankindaselaboratemachineswhose"vital
motions"weredeterminedbyoutwardstimuli.Oneseeksthepowertoinsurethe
continuationoffavorablestimuli andinthategoisticconcernonecomesinto strong
conflictwith otherpeopleactingin like manner.Whatisrequiredtoinsurepeaceis
asovereignwithabsolute
poweroverthecitizenry.
2. EconomicMan-Isrationalistic(able tocalculate whatwillmaximize one'sutility),
self-centered(acquisitiveness
constrainedonlyby theself-seekingofothers),
mechanistic(afactorin the
productionprocess),individualistic(responsible for
takingcareof one'sself),andmaterialistic(with an overridingconcernforone's
ownmaterialwelfare).
3.
FreudianMan-Freudsawpeopleasbeingdrivenby thedualinstinctualforces of
eros(thesexdrive) andthanatos(thewill todestructionof selfor,whenturned
outward,the wilI toaggression).Civilizationsuppressesthesepotentiallydestructive
instincts
andindoingso itincreases theindividual'sinternaltensions.Therefore,
civilizationis boughtatthepriceof anincreasein personalfrustration.
4.EthologicalMan-Anaggressiveanimalwith aveneerofcivilizationholdingthis
aggressionback. Man isinstinctualIy
programmedfromhis hunteroriginstoward
war,
destruction,andterritoriality,andthiscannotbeunlearnedoroutgrownbut
canonlybesublimated, redirected,orrepressed.Thisanycivilized societymustdo.
5. BehavioristicMan-One'sactionsarecompletelydeterminedbyhereditaryand
environmentalfactors.A recentemphasisisuponbehaviormodification througha
stimulus-reinforcement-responseprocess.Freedomanddignityarethoughtto be
theillusoryconstructsof anindividualwho viewshimselfashaving autonomy.The
survivalof a cultureis likelydependentonthesystematic"shaping"ofhuman
behavior.
SOCIETALCONSEQUENCES OF ATECHNOLOGICAL
EXTRAPOLATIONIST IMAGE
Assumingthattheclusterofsocietaltrendsandimagesidentified
undertherubricof"technologicalextrapolation"becomesdominantin

184. Societal Choices and Consequences
Table9
HISTORICALROOTSOFTHEEVOLUTIONARY
TRANSFORMATIONALIST IMAGE
167
1.LockeanMan-ForLocke, thepre-socialconditionof the humanbeingwas not
mutualhostilitybutmutualtolerance.Norwasman'ssocialcontracta surrender
pactdrawnupbetweenthepeopleandthesovereign;it was alimited agreement
amongthepeopleto allowregulationof some naturalrightsso as to gainprotection
for the
remainingones.Innateideasorinstinctswere notthesourceofknowledge
andcharacter,butratherexperienceandawareness.
2. Emergent"HumanisticCapitalism "-Wouldreplacetheeconomicgrowthethicwith
self-realization
andecological ethics,andholdsthattheappropriatefunctionof
socialinstitutionsis tocreate
environmentsconduciveto thathuman-growth
processwhich wouldultimately transcendamaterialisticorientation.
3. PerennialPhilosophy-" ...themetaphysicthatrecognizesadivineRealitysubstantial
to the world ofthings
andlivesandminds"(Huxley,1945). Theindividualcan,
undercertainconditions,attainto a higherawareness,a"cosmicconsciousness,"in
which state he hasimmediateknowledgeof areality
underlyingthephenomenal
world."Rudimentsof thePerennialPhilosophymay be foundamongthe
traditionallore ofprimitivepeoplesineveryregionof theworld,
andin its fully
developedformsit has a place in
everyoneof thehigherreligions."Itisthen,the
highestcommondenominatoramongthereligionsandtherebyhas tremendous
integrativepotentialwhilerecognizingthediversityofpeoples.
4. The"Other"Ethology-From thisperspective,aggressionis not inherentinhuman
nature.Theenvironmentmorethaninstinctsis thesourceofaggression. Tothe
extentthataggression,territoriality,etc., are learnedratherthaninnateattributes,
thentheycan be unlearned.
5.SystemsTheory-Thepersonis aninterdependentpartof theprogressive
differentiation
andhigher-orderreintegrationof bio-social systems; thenextphase
in thisevolutionaryprocessis for the
persontobecomeconsciousof his own
evolution
andtomaketheprocess purposefulsothattherecan bereconciliationof
subsystemsintolargesystemswithoutloss ofuniqueness.
Theunderlyinggoal is the
enhancementofindividualfulfillment throughtheactualizationof the best
potentials
therearewithintheperson.
oursociety,whatmightbethelikelyconsequences?Oursocietysuffers
fromfundamentalproblemswhichareintrinsicto theverystructureof
matureindustrialism.Theclusterofmultifoldtrendsembodiedinthe
extrapolationistperspectivewilllikely exacerbatetheseproblems.In­
deed,giventhepresentnatureofoursocietalproblems,wecanexpect:
•Continuedaccelerationofindustrial developmentthroughmassivetransnational
corporationswhich,becausethey
transcendnationalboundaries,will be difficultor
impossibletoregulateadequately.
•Intensificationofecologicalproblems,
andofmarathoncompetitiontoexploit
vanishingresources.
•Increasingdiscrepanciesin thedistributionofaffluence;
•Intensificationof"revolutionsofrisingexpectations"
andofstrifeamonginterest
groups.
•Increasingdangerofsabotage,andincreasingconcernforpersonalandinstitutional
security;
developmentof new"securitytechnologies."
• Ashiftfrombasicresearchtoappliedresearch
anddevelopment.
•Increasinglyunwieldy
urbanagglomerationswhosepolitical,financial, andtotal­
systemic stabilitybecomesuncertain.

185. Table10
ILLUSTRATIVE CONTRASTS BETWEENALTERNATIVE IMAGES
...-
O"l
00
1.Mindand Matter:Is the
humanessentiallya com­
plex
andsophisticated
butphysicalmachine,or
is hisessence
thatof
mindorconsciousness?
2. Freedom andDeterminism:
Towhatextentis the
humanfree in his choices
andactions?
3. Good andEvil: Isthe
human'snatureessen­
tiallygoodor evil?
4.Individualand Collec­
tive:
Doesultimate
significance
restwith
theindividualor the
societal collective?
Istheindividualmore
subjectto the collec­
tive, or vice versa?
Technologicalextrapolationistimage
Thehumanisdefinitelyviewed asmecha­
nistic,rationalistic,materialistic.
Thehumanis viewed asbeingmoreor less
determinedin hisbehavior patterns­
eitherbyinstinctualforces orby the
behavior-shapingforces of his
external
environment.
Thepersontendsto be viewed as in­
nately
antisocial-aggressivein the
ethologicalperspective,competitive/
acquisitivein theeconomic
pointof view
In spite of thestronglyindividualistic
rootsof thiscompositeimage,the
collectiveaspectsof
humanexistence
areemphasizedto thevirtualexclusion
of theindividualaspects.(Behaviorism
deniesindividuality.)A collectivist
responseisnecessarytocontrolthe
antisocialaspectsofbehavior.
Evolutionarytransformationalistimage
Both
mindandmatterareembracedas
interdependentandinteractivecomponentsof an
evolvingsystem whichincludesthe
personand
his society. While sometendtoemphasizethe
humanasbeingessentially mindorspirit,the
evolutionary
thrustistowardincreasing
consciousness.
Thehumanispotentiallymoreorlessfree.
Althoughhe has ageneticinheritancewhich has
strongerinfluenceat the"lowerlevels"of his
functioning,he issomewhat
determinedby the
social
environmentlearningprocess,andto the
extentthathe is thecreatorof hissocial/cultural
learningenvironment,thenhe isrelativelyfree to
fosterhis ownevolution.
Thepersonisessentiallyneithergoodnorevilbut
conditionedby his environment,unlessoruntil
he wakes up
andsees howthingsare or can be at
a
moreprofoundlevel ofawareness.
Individuality
andwiselychosen autonomyare
paramountconcerns,althoughthereis utility in
the collectiveaspectof
existence-particularlyin
the ways it can besupportiveofevolutionary
development.
Q
~
;:!
aq
....
;:!
aq
l
~
~
;:!

186. SocietalChoices and Consequences
•Increasingdominanceofinstitutionalneedsoverhumanneeds.
•Increasingly
questionedlegitimacyof the entiresocioeconomicsystem.
169
Whatkindofsocietymightemerge?Ontheonehand,ourwisdomand
goodluckcouldcombinewithineptitudeandmisfortuneinsucha way
as tocause
ournationtojustaboutbreakeveninoureffortsto deal
withthegrowingproblems.Theremaybe(thoughitappearsunlikely)
neitherdisastrousfailuresnorremarkablesuccesses.Ourshortcomings
couldbeoffsetby thetraditionalpoulticeofanincreasingincomefor
themajority,agreateramountoftimeforleisurepursuits,andthe
certaintyof agreaterquantityandvarietyof goodsandservicesto be
consumed.
Ontheotherhand,itseemsentirelyplausiblethatthesetrendscould
exacerbateoursocietalproblemsandbringdemandsforimmediate
anddrasticsolutionsto ensurethestabilityandsurvivalofthesociety.
Methodsofregulationthatseverelyreduceindividualfreedomscould
bewelcomedin thefaceofseveredisruptions.Wecouldquicklyor,
morelikely,graduallyemergeintothekindofsocietythatBertram
Gross(1970) has termed"friendlyfascism."Thisis afascismthat"will
comeundertheslogansof democracyand100percent
Americanism...intheformofanadvancedtechnologicalsociety,
supportedby itstechniques-atechno-urbanfascism,Americanstyle"
(p. 44).Grossdescribesit as:
...a newformof garrisonstate,ortotalitarianism,builtby olderelites toresolvethe
growingconflictsofpost-industrialism. Morespecifically:a managedsociety[which]
rulesby a faceless
andwidelydispersedcomplexofwarfare-welfare-industrial­
communications-policebureaucraciescaughtup indevelopinganew-styleempire
basedonatechnocraticideology,a cultureofalienation,multiplescapegoats, and
competingcontrolnetworks....Pluralisticin nature,techno-urbanfascismwould
neednocharismaticdictator,no one-partyrule,no mass fascistparty,no
glorificationof thestate,nodissolutionoflegislatures,no
discontinuationof elec­
tions, no
distrustofreason...this style ofmanagementandplanningwouldnotbe
limitedto theeconomy;itwoulddealwith
thepolitical,social,cultural, and
technologicalaspectsof society as well ....Thekeytheme,therefore,wouldnotbe
the
managedeconomy,butrather,themanaged society.·(pp.46 ff. Someemphases
omitted)
Whatconditionswouldberequiredforsuchaperniciousfutureto
emergeoutoftheextrapolationofthepresent?Wethinkthefol-
•"Asomewhatlater andconsiderablymorescholarlypiecebyGross, contrasting
techno-urbanfascism vs.humanistreconstruction,isofferedin alengthyessay,
'Planningin an Era of SocialRevolution,'PublicAdministrationReview, May/June1971,
pp. 259-297. Gross is alsowritinga
bookonfriendlyfascism,to be publishedin late
1974."-MichaelMarien
Thebookfinally appearedin 1980andis amost soberingappraisalof (now)current
trends.
Cl M _ M

187. 170
lowing:
ChangingImages of Man
• Theneed-Oursocietalproblemsmightcombinewith themultifold trendtocreate
theneedforsuchafriendly sortoftotalitarianism.Perhapsthisfeelingof benign
needwaspresagedin arecentstatementby theWhite HouseChiefofTelecom­
munications:"A
greatmanypeoplein '1984' likewhatBigBrotherwasdoing
becausehe was doingit intheirinterestandconcern"(Whitehead,1973).
• Theability-Althoughonemayfaultthemetaphysicalimplicationsofbehavior
modification,
onecannotdenythatitworks.Todayweareseeingthe rapid
emergenceof"psycho-technologies"whichcouldefficiently shapeandmodifypat­
ternsofbehavioras well asmotivational andemotionalstates. Thiscouldtake the
formof
directedemotionalconditioninginchildhood;objectivelyconstructedrein­
forcementpatternsinadultlife; the use of a widevarietyof drugs;electricalbrain
implants;themodificationofgenetic makeuptoactivatedifferenthumanpotentials;
the use ofsophisticatedelectronicsurveillancemechanismstodetect
"aberrant"
behaviorpatterns.
• A supportive image ofman-Theuse ofanddependenceuponsuchpsycho-tech­
nologies
mightwell leadgraduallyto aperniciousformof theextrapolationistimage
of
man.Thisisplausiblein aself-validatingway, since manyaspectsof the current
formof theextrapolationistimageseem supportiveof theincreasinguse and
dependenceuponthesetechnologies.Man is viewed as asophisticated machine
(therefore,masterhumannatureas we havemasteredphysicalnature); manis
thoughttobelargelydeterminedin hisbehavior (therefore,objectivelyshapehis
behaviorin themostefficientway); manisinnatelyantisocial(therefore, restrain
antisocialtendencieswith theaid of newtechnologies);individual manissubordinate
to theneedsof thecollective (therefore,imposeupontheindividualwhateveris to
thebenefitof the
largersociety).
• Theacquiescence-Many psycho-technologiesarealreadyinlimiteduse in oursociety
andtheywould appearto bequitepalatableto the generalpubliciftheywere
assimilatedgraduallywhile
beingcouchedin theappropriatelanguage;e.g. rather
thandiscuss thecontrolofemotionalandmotivationalstates,we can talk of insuring
peaceandharmonybymodifyingthebehaviorofthose"irrational"personswho
threatenthestabilityandsecurityof oursociety.
Quarton(1967)examinedtheplausibilityof widespreaduse ofsuch
processesandconcluded:
Iftheseprotective andavoidancepatternsaregreatlyextendedin thefuture,one
canimaginea society thatallowswidespreaduse ofdrugstopreventpainand
anxiety,brainsurgerytopreventbothsufferingandanyaggressiveactionsby
individuals,
andextensiveuse of monitoringequipmenttorestrictindividual
behaviorwith adestructivepotential.(p. 850)
TherearealreadysignsoftheemergenceofkeyelementsInGross's
"friendly
fascist"scenario:
•Applicationofmilitarysurveillancetechnologiesto urbanpoliceproblems.
•Utilizationof
behavior-changingdrugsandoperantconditioningin schools.
•
Governmentattemptsatmanagementof news.
•"Personality
screening"andmaintenanceof files on"pre-delinquent"children,
throughcooperationbetweenelementaryschooladministrations andlocal,state, and
federalauthorities.

188. Societal Choices and Consequences 171
•Thecross-correlationof computer-basedfilescontainingpersonaldata(e.g.credit,
employmentrecords,taxstatus, insurance,criminalrecord,education).
•
Theintroductionoflegislationtocontrolaccess totechniquesforself-initiated
alterationofconsciousness(both
non-druganddruginduced).
Althoughtheabovepicturesanextremeoutcomefromthetech­
nological
extrapolationistimageandtrend,nonethelessit isanalter­
nativefuturefortheUnitedStatesthatisevennowprovingits
feasibilityby its
growingemergence.Thisfuturewouldseemunin­
tendedtomostpeople;yet, bynot"rockingtheboat"andbypursuing
whatis afamiliarsocietal path,itseemsclearthatwecouldreacha
societal
futurewhichwas quitedifferentandfarworsethanwas
originally
anticipated.Thisfutureis by nomeansinevitablebutitdoes
confrontuswithprofoundlyimportantchoices-bothindividualand
collective.
'*'
SOCIETALCONSEQUENCES OF ANEVOLUTIONARY
TRANSFORMATIONALIST IMAGE
Whereasthetechnologicalextrapolationistresponserepresentsthe
logicalextensionofcurrentlydominantsocietaltrends,theevolu­
tionarytransformationalistresponsepresumesaqualitativeandquan­
titativedeparturefromthem.However,intheearlystagesatleast, the
transitiontoanevolutionarytransformationalistpost-industrialsociety
wouldcreatesomedegreeofdisruptionanddisorientation.
Assumeforamomentthattheindustrialstatedoeshaveproblems
thatarefundamentallyunresolvablewithinthecontextofthepresent,
andfurtherassumethattheevolutionarytransformationalistimage
pointstheway to aresolutionofthedifficultiesengenderedbythe
industrialera.Itmightseemthatoursocietywouldwelcomethe
comingofsuchatransitionwithopenarms.Morelikely,we would
welcomesuchasocietalchangenomorethantheMiddleAgeswel­
comedGalileanscience,no morethantheneuroticwelcomesthe
changesinperceptionandbehaviornecessaryto extricatehimselffrom
hisunhappycondition.Sucha newimageandthesocietalcon­
sequencesitimplieswouldbeviewedas a realthreattotheestablished
order.Theemphasisoninnerexplorationwouldlooklikeescapism,
andthenewinterestinpsychicphenomenaandspiritualexperience
wouldbeputdownas areturntothesuperstitionsof a lessscientific
andmoregullibleage. Theincreasedrelianceonintuitiveprocesses
• SeeNoteA, p. 179.

189. 172 ChangingImages of Man
wouldbe interpretedasanabandonmentofrationalism.Theshiftin
prioritiesaway
frommaterialandtowardspiritualvalueswould appear
as aweakeningoftheworkethicandas aturningawayfromeconomic
goals-imperilingboththestateof theeconomyandthestabilityof
economicinstitutions.Theethicof loveandcommunitywouldseem
subversiveto thenationaldefense.Suchinterpretationswouldnotbe
totallyunrealistic,since
theworldingeneralisfarfromreadyforsuch
drasticvalue-changes,andpartialmovesinthese directionswould
likely be
interpretedasweakness.
At a
morefundamentallevel,theimpliedresponsibilityof the
individual forhisowngrowthanddevelopment,intheevolutionary
transformationalistview,canbyitselfevokearesistanceto entertaining
this newimageofhumankind.Maslow (1962)describedthis
phenomenonsuccinctlyin a chapterentitled"TheNeedtoKnow and
theFearofKnowing":
Thegreatcauseof muchpsychologicalillness is thefearofknowledgeofoneself ....
Wetendto beafraidofanyknowledgethatcouldcause us todespise ourselvesor
makeus feelinferior,weak,worthless,evil, shameful.Weprotectourselvesandour
idealimageofourselvesby repressionandsimilardefenses,which areessentially
techniquesbywhichweavoid
becomingconsciousof unpleasantordangerous
truths....Butthereisanotherkindoftruthwetendtoevade.Not only do we hang
ontoourpsychopathology,butalso wetendtoevadepersonalgrowthbecausethis,
too, can
bringanotherkindof fear,of awe, offeelingsofweakness andinadequacy.
Andso we findanotherkindofresistance,a denyingofourbest side, ofourtalents,
of
ourfinestimpulses,of ourhighestpotentialities,of ourcreativeness....It is
preciselythegod-likeinourselves
thatweareambivalentabout,fascinatedby the
fearfulof,motivatedto
anddefensiveagainst.(pp.
60-61)
Thus,atboththeindividualandsocietallevels, theimplicationsof an
evolutionarytransformationalistimageareboundtoengenderstrong
resistance.Thiswouldcontributetothedisruptionthatinevitably
accompaniesaperiodofrapidsocietalchange,suchasthepresent
transitionfromanindustrialtosometypeof apost-industrialsociety.A
paradoxicalsituationthusarises:eveniftheevolutionarytransfor­
mationalistimageisessentialto asatisfactory resolutionoftheprob­
lemsofadvancedindustrialism,actionsdesignedtoforcetheemer­
genceofsuchatransformationcouldbesociallydisruptive.'*'
Letusturnnow to alongertimeperspectiveandtheplausible
characteristicsof asocietyinwhichthis
imageofhumankindhad
becomeestablished.Thesemustbeconsideredtentativeandincom­
pletespeculations;buttheydoprovidea basisforfurtherdiscussion.
• SeeNoteB, p. 179.

190. SocietalChoices and Consequences
Individualand Social Goals
173
Theevolutionarytransformationalistimagemustbeginwiththe
relativelydeterministicconfinesof oursocio-economicsystem. Thisis
simplya
recognitionthat,to asubstantial degree,people'sgeneral
patternofbehavior,perception,andmotivationisconditionedbythe
imprintingforceof oururban-industriallivingenvironment:
Insteadof the economybeingembeddedin socialrelations,socialrelations are
embeddedin theeconomicsystem ....Foroncetheeconomicsystem is organizedin
separateinstitutions,basedon specificmotives andconferringa specialstatus,society
mustbeshapedinsucha manneras to allowthatsystem tofunction accordingto its
own laws.
(Polanyi,1944, p. 57)
Ratherthanacceptandadapttothissocietal context,theevolutionary
transformationalistresponsewouldaffirmtherelativeprimacyand
existentialautonomyoftheindividualwhilestill recognizingthe
deterministicsocializationandstringentdemandsmadeby ahighly
developedsociety.Given thepoweroftheindustrialdynamic,the
natureofthetransformationalisttaskissubstantial, anditseemsnot
unfeasiblethatavarietyof social andpsychotechnologieswouldbe
embraced-butnotinthemodeofcontrol.Thus,forexample,
behaviorsconsistentwithoperantconditioningmightbecomecom­
monplacenotasthelinearcontrol(whichmostpeoplefear),butas
reciprocalinfluence(whichis whatitseemsSkinneristalkingabout).
*
Takingprecedenceoverthedominanteconomicgoals ofgrowthand
efficiencywouldbe twocomplementaryguidingethics,theecological
ethic
andtheself-realizationethic. Theecologicalethicexpressesa
concernforallpeoplesandlifeontheplanet(ageographicdimension),
forfuturegenerationsof life (atimedimension),andfortheinter­
relationsof peoples,theirstatesofconsciousness, cultures,andin­
stitutions
overtime(asocietaldimension).Theself-realizationethic
wouldhighlyvalue"life,liberty, andthepursuitofself-actualization."
A
centralactivityof theself-realizationethicisthepursuitofone's
vocation,which wouldincludework-play-learning,allintertwined.A
centralsocietalgoal, then,shouldbethefullparticipationinthis
expandedvocationso thatallindividualshaveaccess tooneormore
satisfyingwork-play-learningways of life.Thisexpandedsenseof
vocationwouldvastly
increasetheactivitiesinwhich personscould
receiveaffirmationbysociety andtherebydevelopandholdahealthy
•"I amnotsurethat'reciprocalinfluence'isexactlywhatI amtalkingabout.I am very
muchconcernedaboutthefutureandcertainlyadoptwhatyou call theecologicalethic
ratherthantheself-realizationethic,whichI regardas arationalizationof
selfishness."-B.F.Skinner

191. 174 ChangingImages of Man
self-image.Itwouldalsolegitimate thepurposefulthrustofsociocul­
turalrevolutiontoincludeindividualself-evolution-of-consciousness.
Forsuchanexpandedsenseofvocationto becomeareality,material
goalswouldhaveto be deemphasized,wewouldtendtowardasteady­
state
economy,routineworktaskswouldbecomeincreasinglycyber­
nated,andonlyafractionofthework-play-learningforcewouldbe
requiredtopursueactivitiesdirectedatsupplyingmaterialgoodsand
servicestosociety. Themanyotheractivitiesinindividualisticcom­
binationshouldbemeaningful,non-stultifying,andnon-polluting.
Thereisoneareaofactivitywhichin particularmightmeetthese
conditions-learning-whichinthebroadsenseincludes personal
explorationandresearchas well as sociallearningactivity.Robert
Hutchins(1968)describes "thelearningsociety"as onethatwillhave
transformed:
...its values in such a waythatlearning,fulfillment,becoming human,hadbecome
its aims
and all itsinstitutionswere directed to this end. ThisiswhattheAthenians
did
....Theymadetheirsocietyonedesignedto bringall itsmembersto thefullest
developmentoftheirhighestpowers ...Educationwas not asegregatedactivity,
conductedforcertainhours,incertainplaces, at acertaintime of life. Itwas the aim
of the society
....TheAthenianwaseducatedby theculture,byPaidea.
ThecentraleducationaltaskfosteredbyPaideawas"thesearchfor
theDivineCenter"(Jaeger,1965).Butthepost-industrialsocietywould
differfromthatofAthensinimportantrespects.Its slaves will be
machines,withtheFaustianpowersof itstechnologyintroducedto a
new level ofresponsibility.
Itthusmustbecomenotonlyasocial­
learningsocietybutasocial-planningsociety.Helpingtochoosethe
future,then,wouldbe a primaryresponsibilityofcitizens.
Anotherimportantareaofchangewouldbe in thegoalsof cor­
porationsandparticularlymultinationalcorporations.Asthelatter
becomemorepowerfulthanmostnation-states,itbecomesessential
thattheiroperativegoalsshifttoresemblethoseofpublicinstitutions.
Thismeans,specifically,thatthepriorityincorporategoalswould
becomesomethinglikethefollowing:(1) to carryonactivitiesthatwill
contributetotheself-fulfillmentof thepersonsinvolved,(2) to carryon
activitiesthatcontributedirectlytosatisfactionof social needsand
accomplishmentofsocietalgoals, and(3) toearnafairprofiton
investment,notsomuchas agoalinitself(as at present)butas a
controlsignalwhich monitorseffectiveness.Howmightsuchautopian­
soundingsituationcomeabout?Doesit notsoundimpracticaland
preposterousthatcorporationswouldbewillingto relegateprofitmak­
ingtothirdpriority?Thesocialforcethatmightbringaboutsucha
revolutionarychangeinoperativegoalsis thesubtlebutpowerful(and

192. Societal Choices and Consequences 175
poorlyunderstood)influenceofgrantingorwithholdinglegitimacy.
Governmentshaveoftenfeltthepotencyoflegitimacywithdrawal. In
mid-eighteenthcentury,as wehavealreadynoted,thesuggestion
wouldhaveseemedpreposterousthatamonarchywouldsoonbe
declarednotlegitimateby contrastwithgovernments"derivingtheir
justpowersfromtheconsentofthegoverned."Giantcorporations
todayarefeelingthechallengeputtothedivinerightofkingstwo
centuriesago.Itassumesmanyforms-movementsofconsumersand
environmentalists;civilrightsandwomen'sliberation;truth-in-ad­
vertisingpressures;workerdemandsforimprovedqualityof work
environment;stockholderrevolts.Awarenessisgrowingthatthelargest
corporations,atleast,areinanimportantsensepublicinstitutions.
Directly
orindirectly(throughlifeinsurancepolicies,annuities,mutual
funds,etc.)theyareownedby alargefractionofthepublicandemploy
alargeportionofthepeople;thepublicuses thegoodsandservices
theyproduce,andsufferstheenvironmentaldegradationthey
produce.Thewave ofpublic challengeisforming.
Institutions
Manyofourinstitutionsseemtohaveinadvertentlyreachedacritical
size
beyondwhichtheyarevirtuallyuncontrollableinanycoherent
fashion.Thisfactof life wasaptlydescribedbyRichardBellman,in
acceptingthefirstNorbertWienerprizeforappliedmathematics
(1970):
Ithinkit'sbeginningto berealized thatoursystemsarefallingapart.Wedon'tknow
how to
administerthem.Wedon'tknow how tocontrolthem.Anditisn'tat all
obvious
thatwe cancontrolalargesystem in sucha waythatitremainsstable.Itmay
very well be
thatthereis acriticalmass-thatwhena system gets toolarge,it just
getsautomaticallyunstable.
We seetheseproblemsinoureducationalsystems,in ourlegalsystems,
in
ourbureaucraticsystems,in ourtransportationsystems,in our
garbage-collectionsystems, andsoon.Theinabilityto sustainstable
subsystems(let
alonethemacro-system)suggests thatastrongthrust
towarddecentralizationwouldbe aplausible concomitanttothetrans­
formationalistimageofhumankind."Relativelyautonomoussub­
systemswould
enhancediversityin oursociety,whichisincreasingly
confrontedwithanunderlying(and,attimes,overriding)homogeneity
•SeeNoteC, p. 179.

193. 176 ChangingImages of Man
ofphysical
structures,life-styles,andlivingenvironmentsgenerally.
Relatively
autonomoussubsystems(whetheringovernment,business,
education,orelsewhere)thatareorientedtowardhumangrowth
wouldgive manymorecitizensa greatersenseofsignificance and
meaningin amoreapproachableinstitutionalenvironment.
Asthesocialsystem becomesincreasinglyinterdependentandcom­
plex,
theneedforaccurateinformationbecomesgreater.Suchac­
curacypresumesafairlyhighdegreeoftrust,honesty,andopenness.
Highlycomplextaskoperations,suchasputtingmeninspaceor
resolvingtheimpendingenergycrisis,requireahighlevel ofhonesty
andtrust;so toowould buildingahumanesociety.Forquitepractical­
ascontrastedwithmoralistic-reasons,then,thedemandedlevel of
honestyandopennessinanevolutionarytransformationalisttypeof
post-industrialeracouldbeexpectedtoincrease,especiallyaffecting
suchactivitiesas advertisingandmerchandising.
'*'
Similarly,as thecomplexityofsocietaloperationsincreases,auto­
craticallyandhierarchicallyorganizedbureaucraticstructures(whether
business,education,government)tendtodevelopcommunication
overloadsnearthetopanddiscouragementstoentrepreneurshipand
responsibilitylower down.Inordertosustainourcomplexsocietal
system,we
maysystematicallyreconstitutemassivebureaucraticstruc­
turesintoorganizationswithrelatively autonomoussubsystems(in
effect,decentralization).
Thisadaptiveformoforganizationwould
seembettersuitedbothtocopewithcomplextasksandtoprovide
moresatisfyingworkforthepeopleinvolved.']
Anothersocietalconsequencemightbethegrowthofthefamily
fromanatomisticunitofrefugetoanextendedunit,alargersourceof
meaningandsignificance.Experimentswithavarietyoffamily struc­
tureswouldbe alegitimate endeavorin asociety thatencourages
individualandinterpersonalexplorationofhuman-growthprocesses.
Inanextendedcontext,thefamilymightregainsomeof itstraditional
meaningas asourceofeducation,broadlydefined,andas aunitfor
work.
Givenarelative
deemphasisofeconomicgrowthandefficiency,and
anenhancedconcernforsocial,psychological,political andenviron-
•"Ifhonestyandopennessarecorrelatedwith anevolutionarytransformationalist era,
thepossibilitiesforsuchan erawouldseembleakif, as Ifear, trustiseroding.Wemust
stillhope,butwemustaccuratelyassess thestrengthof theenemyamongstus."­
MichaelMarien
t"Ibelieveyoucould makearealcase for computerconferencingalaMurrayTuroff,
andelectronicconsensustaking,alaEtzioni,as meansfordecentralizingor making
moredemocraticwhatcouldbecomea terrifying'robopathic'way of life inaffluent
bureaucracy."-RobertA.Smith,III

194. Societal Choices and Consequences 177
mentalmatters,itseemsplausibleto thinkthatthetrendtowardhuge
urbanagglomerationswouldbe reversedandpopulationswouldbe
redistributedwithgreaterbalance.Therewouldlikelybe experiments
withadiversityofliving environmentsto allowpeopleagreaterrange
oftrade-offsinselectinga community.Insuchacontext,theremay
emergeincreasinglysophisticated communaltypesofliving environ­
mentswhichexperimentwithnew institutionalforms.
Thesocietalchangeswehavediscussedundertherubricofthe
"evolutionarytransformationalist"mayappearat first to be tooradical.
Onthecontrary,theyareprobablytooconservative.Ourtaskis the
equivalentofstandingintheMiddleAgesandattemptingtodescribe
thecultureandinstitutionsaftertheIndustrialRevolution.
We
canhardlyclaimto havedemonstratedthatashifttowardthe
evolutionarytransformationalistimageofhuman-in-the-universeis
well
underway-especiallysincesuchafundamentalshiftishistorically
so
improbable.Wemaysimplyhavemadethehypothesisplausible.If
so,thenthequestionsraisedhereaboutthecharacteristicsof asociety
dominatedbythenewimageareofextremeimportance.Thegreatest
hazardinsuchatransitionisthattheanxietylevelcanraiseto where
thesocietyrespondswithirrationalandself-destructivebehavior.The
bestsafeguardsarewidespreadunderstandingoftheneedfortrans­
formationandreassurancethatthereissomeplacegoodtogettoon
theotherside."
SUMMARY
WinstonChurchillstatedthat,"Weshapeourbuildingsandthenour
buildingsshapeus."Similarly,butin alargerandmorepervasive
sense,we
arebeingirrevocablyshapedbyourunprecedentedurban­
industrialenvironmentwhichis premiseduponimagesofhumankind
whosehistoricalorigins arefarremovedfromcontemporaryreality.
Thedecisionto suppressimagechangeorto allowsocietal andimage
transformationconfrontsuswithanimportantbranchpointinour
history.Theconsequencesofourdecisionsin thenextfewdecadeswill
•"Well, Iagreewith that! I find the'hazard'almostinevitable, andthe'safeguard­
widespreadunderstanding'veryunlikely!I do notwantto be naively'super-sophisti­
cated'or on the side ofthose saying'I told you so' whenwesternciv. ormankind
collapses...in fact I find the'someplacegoodto get to'bothin thepresentandin the
futureImageyoupostulate...butI do feelthatyourpresentationof the'evolutionary
transforrnationalist'imagerysuffers(as doesReich's'Greening')fromaone-sided
optimisticorromanticized
Imagerythatunderminesitscredence."-DavidCahoon.

195. 178 ChangingImagesofMan
endurelongintothefuture:
Theenvironmentmencreatethroughtheirwantsbecomesa mirrorthatreflects
theircivilization;
moreimportantlyit alsoconstitutesabookin which iswrittenthe
formulaof lifethattheycommunicatetoothersandtransmittosucceedinggenera­
tions.
(Dubos,1968, p. 171)
Humanbeingscanbecomeadaptedtoalmostanythingand,since
ourphysicalandpsychologicalendowmentsgive us a widerangeof
adaptivepotentialities,it iscrucialto distinguishbetweenthoseimages
thatfostera short-termtolerablelivingenvironmentandthosethat
fostera long-termdesirablelivingenvironment.Thedynamiccharacter
ofadaptabilityis illustratedby alaboratorydemonstrationinwhicha
frogwasplacedin a beakerofboilingwaterandimmediatelyjumped
out;whenthefrogwasplacedin a beakerofcoldwaterthatwas slowly
warmedtoboilingtemperature,however,thetemperaturechangewas
gradualandthefrogadaptedinincrements,makingnoattemptto
escape
untilhe finallydied.Analogously,themerefactthatasociety
cangenerateanimageofthehumanand,foratime,adaptto itdoes
notnecessarilyensurethatitwouldbe adesirable thingtodo.Wecan
makeerrorsandinadvertentlyacceptimageswhichmay provelethal
bothtoourexistenceas beingseekingtounfoldourpotentials,andto
our'physicalexistenceas anevolvingspecies.Given ourcapacityto
adapt-eventothepointofvirtualself-destruction-itisdifficultto
know
whetherornotwemayhavealreadygonetoofarwithour
industrialimages.Giventheapparentmomentumoftheindustrial
dynamic,it isdifficulttoknow whetherwecouldturnbackevenif it
seemedwehadgonetoofar.
Nonetheless,we
arestillconfrontedwiththeexistentialchoice:
"
...inmattersof life...itdoesnotmatterwhetherthechanceforcure
is 51percentor5percent.Life isprecariousandunpredictable,andthe
onlyway to live is tomakeeveryeffortto save it aslongasthereis a
possibilityof
doingso"(Fromm,1968, p. 141). Wecaneitherinvolve
ourselvesin
therecreativeself andsocietaldiscoveryof animageof
humankindappropriateforourfuture,withattendantsocietaland
personalconsequences,orwecanchoosenottomakeanychoiceand,
instead,adapttowhateverfate,andthechoicesof others,bringalong.
Life isoccupied bothinperpetuatingitselfandinsurpassingitself; if all it does is
maintainitself,
thenliving is onlynotdying.
(SimonedeBeauvoir)
Toasignificantextent,society iswaiting, hopingthattheimpulsefor changewill
settle
aroundcertainfundamentalattributesof theAmericanethic. At the present

196. SocietalChoices andConsequences 179
time,however,noconsensus aboutthenatureofthesefundamentalsexists. Weare
alllookingfor values thathavedeeprootsas we attempttosortoutthedurablefrom
the
ephemeral.
(WallStreetJournal)
NOTES
Note A
"Givenmy own pre-paranoidselective-perception'set', themostconvincingdiscussion
of all is the
driftintothe Gross 'friendlyfascism'! It iscomfortingtohearyou affirmthat
this is 'anextremeoutcomefromthetechnologicalextrapolationistimage andtrend',
and'unintendedtomostpeople'butitseemsto me we arewellintoit!Thevery crisis
natureofourfutureseems to me tomostlikelyincrease thegarrison-statedynamic:
•dissent,repression;
moredissent,morerepression;
•complexity-breakdown,engineeredsolution;morecomplexity-breakdown,more
engineeredsolution;
•fear,surveillance;
morefear,moresurveillance...etc.,etc.,ETC.!!.
"I wish Icouldsee this whole
thingmorepositivelyandcreatively,butso far Ican't,and
yourdiscussionjustseems toreinforcemypessimism,thoughI'mcertaintheoppositeis
yourintent!"-DavidCahoon
Note B
"The'genius'of theindustrial-stateparadigmisthatitdid appeal to and
unifythe three
levels
ofthe self(unconscious,conscious,super-conscious)youidentifyin Ch. 6. Thiswas
notarational,conscious, intentionalevent,butwhatTillichcalls a'kairos'historicalform
of a
God-Destiny-Evolutionconsciousness-transformation('anideawhose time has
come').
Our'transition'periodinhistoryandevolutionconsistsin this; thatthe oldkairos
paradigmimageis tarnishedanddysfunctional,has lost its'spirit'in thesense thatit
doesn'tunifyandinspire,andnolonger'pointsbeyonditself toBeing-Itself'consciously
orunconsciously(Tillich's
languageinThe Courage To Be,'TheReligiousSymbol'). The
newunifying'kairos'imagery andvision ofthepost-industrialerahasnotyetcoalesced,
beenevoked,beencreated,germinated.
"Now,whatseemsrightto me inyouranalysisis thatthe'evolutionary-trans­
formationalist'symbols,
metaphors,images,etc ....catchuptheconsciousandsupercon­
scious
componentsof the newemerging'kairos'imagery; whatseemsweak ormissingis
theunconscious
component,andas yourightly emphasizein thisbeautifulparagraph
thiscannotbeconsciouslyengineeredorspeededup."-DavidCahoon
NoteC
"Thereareacoupleof places in the textwhereyou uselanguageandmakeassertions
thatarenotfullyconsistentwith yourgeneralsystemtheoryconcepts,[e.g.] thenecessity
fororganizationaldecentralization.I am
afraidthatinthemindsofmostpeoplethis
languageevokesthe classicalcentralization-decentralizationdichotomy. Theworkof
Lawrence
andLorschat the HarvardBusinessSchoolmakesclearhowmisleadingthis
imagecan be (seeLawrence,Paul R.,
andLorsch,Jay W., OrganizationandEnvironment,
Irwin,1969). In asimilarvein [below] you speakofthecommunicationoverloadthat
attendshierarchicalorganization. Thiswouldbe trueonly inthecase of alinearnested
hierarchythatseeks tomaintaindirectpoint-by-point control. General
systemstheory
makesplain thatit is thepartial decouplingofinformationprocessingsystems thatyields

197. 180 ChangingImages of Man
preciselythathierarchicalformoforganizationnecessaryto theconservationof in­
formationandtheregulationofcomplexity.Butthis is a far cryfromsimpledecen­
tralizationasconceivedby classicalorganizationalconcepts.
I'mafraidthatthe'New
Federalism'suffersfromthissamedefect.Thereis anessentiallyvalidprinciple herethat
foundersbecausetheconventional expressionfails tounderstandtheepistemologyof
socialprocesses.
"Ingeneral,theprincipalweaknessof [yourreport]reflectstheprincipalweaknesses
of the
literaturethatitsynthesizes.Thereis noreal understandingorexpressionof the
natureoftheverydifficultproblemsoforganizationaltransformationthatmustattend
thetransformationprocessesadvancedasessentialfor thesurvival andevolutionof an
'opensociety.'My Wiley bookdealspartiallywiththese issues."-EdgarS.Dunn,Jr.

198. ReproducedbypermissionofJulesFeiffer. ©1980.Distributedby Field Newspaper
Syndicate.
182

199. CHAPTER 8
GuidelinesandStrategiesforTransformation
Inthisfinal chapterweapproachthedifficultQuestion fromthe
practicalperson-whatis to bedone?Whatsortsofactions andprograms
dotheforegoingargumentssuggest?Whatcouldbeaccomplishedby
corporations,foundations,politicalagencies, voluntaryassociations?
We
havenotfounditpossibleto respondsatisfactorilywithout
castingthisdiscussionat a morepersonallevelthanthematerialofthe
firstsevenchapters.Thisismainlybecausetheactionsthatappear
appropriatedependuponhowoneinterpretsthesubstanceofthe
precedingdiscussion.Oneofthemorefrequentresponseswereceived
to
anearlierversionof this reportwas arequestforcandor,fora
forthrightstatementoftheconclusionswe reachedafterimmersing
ourselvesforsomemonthsin thismaterial. Thischapterstartswith
suchastatement.Thediscussionreflects hope.Itisanaffirmationthat
whatcouldbe isworthexaminingevenifthelikelihoodof its comingto
passseemssmall.
Ourhonestobservationisthatoursocietyis traveling
fullspeeddownthetechnologicalextrapolationistpathdescribedin
Chapter7,andthatbythetimethedangerlightsbeginto glow
brightly,it will be
terriblylate.
No
blueprintwillemergefromthisexamination,nospecificset of
researchprogramsandinstitutionalchanges.Ifthereareforcespush­
ingtowardanevolutionarytransformationofthesortdescribedin
Chapter7,theyarefirmlyrootedinthepastandtheirpresentmomen­
tumswillhavea majorshapingeffectonthefuture.Thus,asuccessful
strategyprobablyneedsto beanincrementalandanadaptiveone.
SOME PREMISES FOR THEPRESENTDISCUSSION
Westartwithfive premisesthatgrowoutoftheprecedingdiscussions.
1.Aninterrelatingset offundamentaldilemmas,growingapparentlyever
more pressing, seem todemandfor theirultimateresolution a drastically
changedimage
ofman-on-earth.Weseemableto tolerateneitherthe
ecologicalconsequencesofcontinuedmaterialgrowthnorthe
economiceffectsof a suddenstoppage.Wefeartheimplicationsof
183

200. 184 ChangingImages ofMan
greatlyincreasedcontroloftechnologicaldevelopmentandapplication,
yetsense
thatsuchcontrolisimperative.Werecognize thefatal
instabilityof
economicnationalismandagrowinggapbetweenrichand
poornations,yetseemunabletoturnthetrendaround.Weseem unable
toresolvethediscrepancybetweenman'sapparentneedforcreative
meaningfulworkandtheeconomicimperativesthatcausemuch
humanlabortobecomesuperfluousorreduceit tomakework.A
massive
challengeisgrowingtothelegitimacyof a business-govern­
mentsystemwhereinpursuitofeconomicendsresultsin suchcoun­
teractingofotherhumanends.We face aculturalcrisis ofmeaning-it
isnotclearwho isatthehelm,howtheshipissteered,norwhatdistant
shoresweshouldbeaimingfor.Ina way it is a crisis ofawareness,a set
ofsituationswhichwithless
awarenessmightseemmoretolerable.
Aserviceable
imageofhumankindmustreflectinterdependenceof
theNaturethatmodernmanoncemisguidedlysoughtto"control,"
andwiththesocial-technologicalsystems onwhichhissurvival has
cometodepend,andwhosecomplexityhe is yetunabletocom­
prehend.Itmustprovidehumanitywitha meaningforitsstruggles,
above
andbeyondthatinvolvedin learningtomanipulatethephysical
environment.Itmustenablehumankindtoappreciateanddealwith
theperilwhichits unbridledFaustianpowersof technologyhave
broughtuponit.
2. There areincreasinglyevidentsigns of theimminentemergence of new
"imageofman."Itis a newimageinthesenseof beingverymucha
challengertothedominantscientificworldview as thathasevolved
overthepastfewcenturies,andalso totheimageofmaterialis­
tic
"economicman"thatbecomeenshrinedintheinstitutionsand
economictheoriesoftheindustrialera.Yet it isnotnew,sincetracesof
it
canbefound,goingbackforthousandsofyears,in thecore
experiencesunderlyingtheworld'smanyreligiousdoctrines,asrepor­
tedthroughmythsandsymbols,holywritings, andesotericteachings.
Thestayingpowerofthenewimageissuggestedbythefactsthatit
reactivates
theculturalmythswhosemeaninghadbecomeforgotten,
anditseemsto be substantiatedbythefurtheradvancesof thescience
which
earlierplayedaroleinseeminglydiscreditingit (seeChapter4).
Chapter6describedsomecharacteristicsof the"imageofman"
whichis at oncecompatiblewiththereemergent"PerennialPhiloso­
phy"andis welladaptedfordealingwithhumankind'scontemporary
dilemmas.OfspecialinteresttotheWesternworldis thatFreemasonry
traditionwhichplayedsuchasignificantrolein thebirthoftheUnited
Statesof America,attestedto bythesymbolismof theGreatSeal(on
thebackof thedollarbill).

201. GuidelinesandStrategies 185
Fig. 17. U.S.one-dollarbill.
Inthisversionofthetranscendentalimage,thecentralemphasisis
ontheroleofcreativeworkinthelifeoftheindividual.(In"true
Freemasonry"thereisonelodge,theuniverse-andonebrotherhood,
everythingthatexists.Eachpersonhasthe"privilegeoflabor,"of
joiningwiththe"GreatArchitect"inbuildingmorenoblestructures
andthusservinginthedivineplan.)Thusthisversionofthe"new
transcendentalism"(perhapsmorethanotherversionsimportedfrom
theEastmorerecently)has thepotentialityofreactivatingtheAmeri­
cansymbols,reinterpretingtheworkethic,supportingthebasic
conceptsof afree-enterprisedemocraticsociety,andprovidingnew
meaningsforthetechnological-industrialthrust.Atthesallietime,it is
compatiblewithotherversionsmoreindigenoustootherpartsofthe
globe.
3. There is a seriousmismatchbetweenmodernindustrial-statecultureand
institutionsand theemergingnewimage
ofman.Thismismatchproduces
suchreactionsas thegrowingchallengetothelegitimacyofbusiness
institutionswhose
primaryallegianceappearsto be totheirstock­
holdersandmanagers,thegrowingdisenchantmentwiththetechnocratic
elite,thedecreasingtrustandconfidenceingovernments,allrevealedin
recentsurveydata.Themismatchcouldresultinserioussocial dis­
ruptions,economicdecline,runawayinflation,andeveninstitutional
collapse.Ontheotherhand,institutionscanmodifythemselvesandadapt
to a newculturalparadigm,thoughprobablynotwithoutarelatively
traumatictransitionperiod.
4. There is, and willcontinueto be, deep psychological resistance to both the
newimageand to itsimplications.
Noaspectof aperson'stotalbelief-and­
valuesystemis so
unyieldingtochangeas hisbasicsenseofidentity,his
Cf M - N

202. 186 Changing Images of Man
self-image.Itis awell-known phenomenoninpsychotherapythatthe
clientwillresist andevadetheveryknowledgehemostneedstoresolve
his
problems.Asimilarsituationprobablyexistsinsociety andthereis
suggestiveevidence
bothinanthropologyandinhistorythatasociety
tendstohidefromitselfknowledgewhichis deeplythreateningto
thestatus quobutmayinfactbe badlyneededforresolutionofthe
society'smostfundamentalproblems.Thereasoncontemporary
societalproblemsappearsoperplexingmaywell benotsomuchtheir
essentialabstruseness andcomplexityasthecollectiveresistanceto
perceiving
theproblemsin adifferentway.
5. Thedegreeto which theneededcharacteristicsdescribedin Chapter5are
realizedmay well determine the
degreeto which highlyundesirablefuture
outcomes(economiccollapse,agarrison-policestate) can beavoided. The
emergingimageofhumankindhasincreasinglywidespreadacceptance
andlonghistoricalroots. Itcanbeopposedandsuppressed,but
probablyatgreatsocial cost.Thenecessaryconditionforastable
societyin
themedium-termfuture(say 1990) isthatthebehavior
patternsandinstitutionsofthesocietyshallhave transformedthem­
selves to becompatiblewith thenewimage.
Thesefivepremises areintheiressencenotdemonstrable.Thus,we
makenopretenseofhavingproven,theminanysense.Theyarein
generalsupported,however,by theevidenceandargumentspresented
inthepreviouschapters.Theycanbecheckedagainstnewinformation
as itbecomesavailable,toverify whetherornottheyreceivefurther
support.Thus,it isappropriatetoexplorewhatsortsofactionswould
be
indicatedifthesepropositionswereto beaccepted.
COMPARISON OF BASICSTRATEGIES
Inthefollowinganalysiswe concentrateonstrategiesfortheUnited
States.Theywouldbesimilar, butwithimportantdifferences,forother
partsoftheindustrializedworld,especially thenationswith planned
economies.Significantly differentstrategieswouldbe appropriatefor
thoseThird-Worldnationswithresourcesvaluedby theindustrialized
world(mainlyfossilfuels
andminerals).Thesituationis stillmore
differentforthatresidual"fourthworld"ofnationsthathaveno
resourcesotherthanpoorlandandpoorpeople.
Furthermore,weemphasizetherolesofthepowerfulpoliticaland
economicinstitutionsofthetechnologicallyadvancedworldbecauseit
appearsto betherethatthemaindecisionswill be madewhichwill
determinethesmoothnessordisruptivenessofthetransformation.Itis

203. Guidelinesand Strategies 187
ourpurposenotto listspecifictactics, otherthanasexemplars,but
rathertoindicateguidingcriteriafordecisionsandactions.
Itwill beusefultocontrastfivedifferentbasicstrategies through
whicha desiredtransformationmightbefostered.Thesearerestorative,
stimulative,manipulative,persuasive,
andfacilitative.
Thefundamentalgoalof a restorativestrategywouldbe torestorethe
vitalityandmeaningofpastimages,symbols,institutions, andap­
proachestoproblems,whicharebelievedto haveworkedsuccessfully
in
somepriorperiodandhencearejudgedto beappropriateinthe
present.Wallace,in his studyofculturalrevitalizationmovements
(1956),foundthatthisstrategyhasparticularappealduringthebegin­
ningstagesof therevitalizationcycle, whentheextentofthecrisis has
notyetbeenrecognized.Inlaterstages,however,attemptstorevertto
earlierformscometo beseenasclearlyinadequate;hence,other
strategiesarethenadopted.
Astimulativestrategyhas as itsfundamentalgoaltheemergenceof
newimages,
approaches,oractionsthataredesiredbutthatare
"premature"-theydonotfittheprevailingparadigmandhence
wouldnotbeverylikelyto attractsupportfrommainstreaminstitutions
in
thesociety.Thefociofstimulativestrategies wouldtendto be
actions
thatanticipatea newparadigm,butdonotyethavemuch
visibilityorlegitimacy.Suchastrategyisespeciallyappropriatewhenit
is
becomingclearthata crisisexists andtheinadequaciesoftheold
structuresandconceptsin-asociety(orascience)arebeingrevealed.
(Wallacecalls this
"culturaldistortion"andKuhntermsit a"crisis"
involvinga breakdownoftheoldparadigm.)
Whileastimulative strategyseeksto altertheinstitutions,values, and
behaviorpatternsofsocietyin sucha way as tohonororincreasethe
freedomofchoiceof individualsinthesociety,a manipulativestrategy
attemptstoaccomplishasimilar resultthroughovertlyorcovertly
reducingindividualfreedoms.Somemanipulativetacticsmaybedirect
(aswith thepassageof a law); othersmaybemoreindirect(aswith
editorialpoliciesin themedia,or"confrontationpolitics"in thecoun­
ter-culture).Thisapproachismorelikely to beusedbywell-established
interests
thatarechallengedbynewerones.As we saw, however,it was
effectively
usedinGermanytobringaboutdominanceof a newimage
ofmanandoftheFatherland,anditcouldbe sousedagain.
Apersuasiveorpropagandisticstrategyhas as itsgoal persuading
othersoftherightness,utility,andattractivenessof agiven image,
conception,orway ofacting. Thisstrategyisanessentialpartofthe
politicalprocess, whetherinthegovernmentalactivitiesofpluralistic
democraciesandtotalitarianstatesalike, orinthedecidingbetween
competingscientifictheories.

204. 188 ChangingImages of Man
Afacilitativestrategyseeksto fosterthegrowthof newimages and
patternsthatarevisiblyemerging.Themainpurposeofthesupport
maybe less tohastenorensurethedevelopmentthantohelpbringit
aboutwithloweredlikelihoodofsocialdisruption.
Ifweexaminethesefiveapproachesinthecontextofthefive
premiseslisted
earlier,someseemappropriateandothersmuchless so
to
thetransformationunderconsideration(fromtheindustrial-era
imagetotheemergenttranscendental-ecologicalone).Themanipula­
tivetype ofstrategy,forinstance,is in suchdirectconflictwith the
self-realizationethic thatitcouldnotbeusedwithoutriskingsevere
distortionofthestateitseeksto bringabout.
Restorativestrategies canplayanimportantrolein thepresent
transformationbecauseofthefactthatthenew,emergingimageis
essentially
thatoftheFreemasonryinfluencewhichwas of suchim­
portanceintheshapingofthenation'sfoundations.Theactivitiesof
the"Heritage"segmentoftheAmericanRevolution Bicentennialare
mainlyanattempttorecaptureawaningAmericanspirit,although
theycouldserveto promotethenewimagebyremindingus ofthe
transcendentalbasesofthenation'sfounding(e.g.theall-seeingeye as
thecapstoneofthepyramidalstructureintheGreatSeal).
Itisrelativelyeasy to generatestimulativestrategies fromthe
discussionsofearlierchapters.Forexample,practicallyall theareasof
scientific
researchlistedin Chapter4wouldfurnishlikelycandidates­
alteredstatesofconsciousnessandpsychicresearchtonameacouple.
Also,various
educationalandinstitutional-changestrategiescometo
mind.AppendixE lists anumberofsuchstimulativestrategies. There
is acautionto bekeptinmind,however.Onceasocietaltrans­
formationisunderway,as thisoneappearsto be, socialstability
becomesa
centralproblem.Itisessentialtohaveas accurateapicture
aspossibleofthetotalstate ofaffairs,so thatresearchrelatedto
anticipatingthenatureandcharacteristicsofthetransformationrightly
assumes
highpriority.Widespreadanxietyandthehazardofinap­
propriateandirrationalresponsescanbekeptlowerwith accurate
information.Ontheotherhand,stimulativeactions thatresultin too
rapidachangecouldbeoverlydisruptive. Itisevenconceivable that
onceintothetransitionperiod,actionscontributingto socialcohesion
mightbemuchmoreconstructivethanactionstoincrease thepolariza­
tion
betweenthetransformation
enthusiastsandtheconservatives.
Otherthaninthepassageof laws, manipulativestrategies,insofaras
thefiveinitialpremisesholdup,wouldappearto beincompatiblewith
theemergingimage.No doubtexistingconsciousness-changing,
behavior-shaping,subliminalpersuasion,andotherconditioningtech­
niques
couldbeusedtoaccomplishsomesortoftransformationof

205. Guidelines andStrategies 189
soberingproportions(weoughtto beableto be moreeffectivethan
NaziGermany).However,theuseofmanipulativetechniquesforthis
particulartransformationconflictsfundamentallywiththegoalsim­
plicitin
thetransformation.Thus,theywouldprobablyintheendbe
disruptiveandcounterproductive.
Persuasivetechniquesthatfallshortofmanipulationareunlikelyto
beveryeffective.
Thereasonisthatonecharacteristicof sucha
transitionperiodas weseemto beenteringis lowfaithin, dis­
enchantmentwith,andcynicismregardingbothscientificandpolitical
leadership.
Themostappropriatestrategies,iftheinitialpremisesareaccepted,
wouldappearto befacilitativeones.Thetransformationhasitsown
dynamic;itcanprobablynotbesloweddownorspeededupverymuch
bypoliticalaction, onceithasenoughmomentumto be visible.Butthe
traumaofthetransition,theamountofsocialdisruption,economic
weakening,andpoliticalconfusioncanprobablybeaffecteda great
dealbythedegreeofunderstandingofwhatthetransformation
processis, why it isnecessary, andwhattheinherentgoalsare.Touse a
biological
metaphor,thewomanbeginningtoexperiencelaborpains
andassociatedphysiological changesismuchmorelikelyto approach
thebirthexperiencewithlowanxiety, andhencetoavoidtensingup
anddoingthewrongthings,ifsheunderstandsthenatureofpreg­
nancyanditsinherentgoal,thanifshehadnoideaoftheprocessor
whereitleads.
Perhapsanothercomparisonisevenmorepertinent.Wehaveearlier
notedthatsocietiesin transformationbearacertainresemblanceto
individualbehaviorsaccompanyingapsychologicalcrisis. Thedis­
location
knownas apsychotic breakissometimesbroughtonbythe
totalunworkabilityof theperson'slifepatternandbelief
system,such
thatthewholestructureseemstocollapse andneedrebuilding.Priorto
thecrisistheperson,to adisinterestedobserver,isseento beengaging
in allsortsof irrationalbehaviorin hisfranticattemptstokeepfrom
himselftheawarenessthathispersonalbelief,value, andbehavior
systemwas onacollisioncoursewithreality.Underfavorablecircum­
stancestheindividualgoesthroughthecrisis,uncomfortablyto be
sure,andrestructureshis life in amoreconstructiveway.Inan
unfavorableenvironment,ofcourse,theepisodecanescalateintoa
catastrophe.Inthecase of asocietya parallelconditiontothepsychotic
breakcanoccur,witharelatively sharpbreakinlong-termtrendsand
patterns.Theanaloguesofirrationalindividualbehaviormayappear
(socialdisruptions,violentcrime,alienationsymptoms,extremesof
hedonism,appearanceofbizarrereligiouscults,etc.).Massive denialof
realities
mayoccur(e.g.with regardtoexponentialincreasesin popu-

206. 190 ChangingImagesof Man
lationorenergyuse).Thesocietymaygo toextrememeasurestohide
fromitselftheunworkabilityoftheoldorderandtheneedfor
transformation.Thetransformationitself,like thepsychoticbreak,
maycomealmostineluctably-andaswiththeindividual,favorable and
unfavorableoutcomesarebothpossibilities.Whatwehavetermed
facilitativestrategies canbelikenedtothesortofcarethatmayhelp
bringaboutafavorableoutcome.
SALIENTCHARACTERISTICS OF THETRANSFORMATION
Assuming,then,thatprimaryemphasisshouldbeplacedonstrategies
to
facilitateanon-disruptivetransformation,it followsthatthosestra­
tegieswill be
incrementalones,dynamicallyadaptingto arapidly
changingsituation,andguidedbyanunderstandingofthenatureand
necessityof thetransformationandoftheessentialconditionsfora
favorable
outcomefromatraumatictransitionperiod.Weneed,
therefore,toexaminethesalientcharacteristicsof thetranforrnation."
NatureoftheFundamental Anomaly
Thecentralfeatureofthehypothesizedtransformationisthatits in­
eluctabilitycomes
about,asindicatedinChapter3,becauseof a major
andgrowingdiscrepancybetweentheculturalandsocialproductsof
industrialization,ontheonehand,andgenerallydesirablehumanends
ontheother.Afundamentalanomalyexistsof thefollowingsort:
•Thebasic system goalsthathavedominatedtheindustrialera(materialprogress,
private
ownershipofcapital,maximumreturnoncapitalinvestment, freedomof
enterprise,etc.),
•
andthathavebeenapproachedthrougha set ofintermediategoalsthatinclude
efficiency,economicproductivity,
continuedgrowthoftechnological-manipulative
power,
andcontinuedgrowthofproductionandconsumption,
• haveresultedinprocesses andstates(e.g. extremedivisionoflabor andspecializa­
tion,compulsive
replacementofmenbymachines,stimulated consumption,planned
obsolescence,exploitationof commonresources,environmentaldegradation,wor­
seningworldpoverty)which
•
culminatein acounteractingofhumanends(e.g.enrichingworkroles,self­
determination,conservation,wholesome environment,humanitarianconcerns,
worldstability).
Putanotherway,thefundamentalanomalyisthat"good"micro­
decisions,i.e. localdecisions madeinaccordancewithprevailingrules
andcustoms,currentlydonotadduptosociallygoodmacro-decisions.
•AnthropologistVirginiaH. Hine'sthinkingabout"TheBasicParadigmof aFuture
Socio-culturalSystem" (reprintedinAppendixF) isrelevantto thisdiscussion.

207. Guidelinesand Strategies 191
Individuals,corporations,governmentagenciesin thecourseoftheir
activitiesmakemicro-decisions(e.g. to buyacertainproduct,toemploy
apersonforaparticulartask,to developandmarketa newtechnology,
to
enactaminimum-wagelaw)thatareguidedby a web ofculturaland
habitualbehaviorpatterns,commonvaluesandbeliefs.Thesemicro­
decisions
interacttoconstitutea set ofmacro-decisionsof theoverall
society(e.g. a 4
percentannualgrowthrateinenergyusage,degrada­
tionoftheenvironment,depletionofnon-renewableresources)which,
if
AdamSmith's"invisiblehand"wereworkingproperly,wouldbe
compatiblewiththeculturalaimsandobjectivesofthesociety.The
degreeofcompatibilityhas forsometimebeenvisiblydeteriorating.
Theresponsetothisfundamentalanomalyis amassive andin­
tensifying
challengefromconsumers,environmentalists,minorities,
workers,civillibertarians,youth,andothers,to bethelegitimacyof basic
systemgoals
andinstitutions.Ifeconomicandbusinessgoalsdo not
appearto becongruentwithsocialgoals,if "good"businessdecisions
leadto"bad"socialdecisions,thissuggests theneedforfundamental
changesindominantinstitutionsandsocialparadigms,tobringthe
functioningofthesocietyintoharmoniousrelationshipwiththe
dominantculturalimageofhumanlife.Tothisendsomehavepro­
posedoneandanotherformof"newsocialism"toincrease the
governmentalregulatoryresponsibilitiesoverthemicro-decision-mak­
ingofthecitizenryandprivate-sectorinstitutions.
It is
importanttonote,inthisconnection,thatthefundamental
anomalydescribedaboveisessentiallyacharacteristicoftechnological
andindustrialsuccess,notof aparticularformofgovernment.Thus,
althoughitsformissomewhatdifferent,asimilarsortoffundamental
dilemmaisfoundinindustriallyadvancedcollectivistnationswith
centralizedsocialplanning.
EssentialConditionsforResolutionoftheFundamentalAnomaly
Thisisnottheplaceforanexhaustivediscussionof thechanges
necessaryforsocietytoresolvethis basic dilemma.It isimportantto
ouraims,however,to understandsomeoftheconditionsthatwillhave
to be
metas wemuddleorplanourwaythroughto asatisfactory
resolution.
Inthefirstplace, therewillhaveto besomesatisfactorycomingto
termswiththe"newscarcity."Scarcity(of food,potablewater,con­
structionmaterials,etc.) has always beenanaspectoftheconditionof
humanlife.Ithas inthepastrathersuccessfullybeenconsideredas
remediablebyadvancingfrontiersandadequatetechnology.Insome
senseit has thusbeenallbuteliminatedintheadvancednations.The

208. 192 ChangingImages of Man
"newscarcity"is of a differentsort.Itarisesfromapproachingthe
finiteplanetarylimits(1)naturalstorehousesof fossilfuels andstrate­
gicmaterials,(2) theabilityof thenaturalenvironmenttoabsorbthe
wasteproductsofindustrializedsociety,(3) freshwater,(4)arableland,
(5)habitablesurfacearea,and(6)theabilityof naturalecological
systemsto
absorbinterventionswithoutriskingecologicalcatastrophes
thatthreatenhumanlife.(Inspeakingof"finitelimits"werecognize
thatthelimitsarenotrigidconstraints,andareinterdependent.Were
"clean"fossilfuelsavailablein unlimitedsupply,forexample,limitsin
theothercategorieswouldbealtered.)Therehas to be areconciliation
of
the"newscarcity"andof acultureoffrugalitywiththeconditions
forahealthyeconomy.Totheextentthatthiscanbeaccomplished
throughinstitutionalandculturalchangesguidedby a newimageof
"man-on-earth,"fewerconstraintswill beplacedonenterpriseand
individualliberties.
A
secondessentialconditionistheprovisionofsufficientoppor­
tunitiesforfullandvaluedparticipationinthesociety.Inotherwords,
therehas to be asolutiontothepsychological-culturalproblemofthe
growinggroupofpersonsinanindustrializedsocietywho aredefined
asoutofthemainstream,ashavinglittleornothingtoofferinwhatare
takento betheprimaryactivitiesof thesociety,andwhocometoaccept
forthemselvesthedamningself-imageof superfluousness.Ina
modernsocietywhereproductivenesscomesfrompositionin a
productiveorganism,theindividualwithouttheorganizationisun­
productiveandineffective;unemploymentandunderemployment
endangerself-respectandeffectivecitizenship.Because ofthedeep
individualneedforproductiveandsignificantwork, noneofthe
currentwelfareandjob-creationapproachesoffersmuchhopeof
reachingtotherootsoftheunemploymentproblem.Treatingwork
opportunityas ascarce commodity(e.g.raisingwork-entryageand
loweringretirementage,inflating entrycriteria,refrainingfrom
cybernationofroutineoperations,maintainingdisguisedfeatherbed­
dingandmakework)is intheendanunsoundapproach.Adequate
resolutionwouldofferfullandvaluedparticipationintheongoing
societalevolutionto allwhowantit.
Thesetwo basicconditionsimplyathird,namely,asatisfactory
resolutionofthecontroldilemma.Ontheonehand,todealwiththe
problemsofthe"newscarcity,"with thecultural(asdistinguishedfrom
theeconomic)goal of full employment,andwiththegrowingpowers
oftechnologytochangeanyandallaspectsof thetotalenvironment
(physical,social,political,psychological), thereis ademonstratedneed
forsomeformofeffectivesocietal planningandcontrol.Ontheother
hand,therearewell-foundedfearsof theconsequencesofoptingfor

209. Guidelinesand Strategies 193
moregovernmentalcontrol.Itremainsto beshownthatademocratic
societycandealwiththe"newscarcity,"providesufficientandsuitable
socialroles,
anticipateandguidetechnologicalimpacts,andprotectthe
interestsoftheoverallsociety, andyetpreservethebasiccharacteristics
of afree-enterprisesystem.
Fourth,theproblemofobtainingmoreequitabilityin distributionof
theearth'sresourceswillhaveto bedealtwith.Inequitiesandmaldis­
tributionsarenotnew inhumanhistory,butwiththeappearanceof
the"newscarcity"theypresenta newface. Theachievementofa level
of life in
accordwithfundamentaldignityfortheworld'snearlythree
billionpoordoesnotappearpossiblewithoutcontinuedeconomic
growthinbothdevelopinganddevelopednations.Andyeteconomic
growthonthepatternofthepastposesanundeniablethreattostocks
ofnon-renewableresources,totheenvironment,andtothehealthof
man.Furthermore,theexpectationsanddemandsofthelesser
developedworldmaywellcomeatsuchapacethattheycanbemet
onlyby aloweringofthestandardoflivingin therichnations.
Thus,intheprocessofresolvingthefundamentalanomalyofthe
industrial-statesystem,all fourofthecriticalproblemareasenu­
meratedabovewill haveto bedealtwith.Anessentialpreconditionis
animageofman-on-earthsomethinglikethatdescribedinChapter6,
oratleastmeetingtheconditionslaiddowninChapter5.
Twoadditionalcharacteristicsofthe"necessarytransformation"
deservemention.Bothhavetodowiththeways inwhichthechanges
arestimulatedandguided.Thefirstrelatesto AdolphLowe'sobser­
vation(1965)thatthestateofaneconomicsystemdependsupon
behaviors,whichinturndependuponmotivations,whichdepend
uponimages,beliefs, andvalues-andthusinterventionsforchange
couldbecontemplatedatanyoftheselevels.Behaviorpatternscanbe
alteredbyauthoritariancontrols,motivationscanbeaffectedby psy­
chological
conditioning,andbeliefsandvaluesaremodifiedbyeduca­
tion.Becauseoftheimagesimplicitinthis particularhistoricaltrans­
formation,itwouldseemthatatleastin thelongterm,authoritarian
measuresandmanipulativeconditioningapproacheswouldbe in­
compatiblewiththeemergentstateandhenceofdoubtfuleffectiveness.
Thepossibleexceptiontothismightbe atemporarymeasuretohelp
holdthingstogetherduringadisruptivetransitionperiod,buteven
herethesocietywouldbe welladvisedtousesuchapproacheswith
.caution.
A
secondandrelatedcharacteristichastodowithcontrastingres­
ponsestothechallengeofthefourkeyproblemsabove.As Galbraith
andothershavenoted,whenthethousandlargest(mainlymulti­
national)corporationsintheworldattainedsuchsizeandpowerthat

210. 194 ChangingImages of Man
theirincomesarelargerthanthemajorityofnation-stateincomes,
theirrolein contributingtosocietalmacro-decisionsissignificantly
altered.Nolongeraretheysimplysubjecttomarketforces;in an
importantsensetheyexertcontroloverthemarket.Nolongerarethey
simplysubjecttothecontrolsimposedbynationalgovernments;inan
importantsensetheyexertcontrolovernationalgovernments.Thus,
therearisesa demandthatthelargestcorporationsassumea social
responsibility
towardallthose(aworldwidegroup)whoselives they
affect.Oneway inwhichthis mightcomeaboutisrepresentedin
argumentsfora"newsocialism"in whichimportantindustriesmight
benationalized(e.g.energysupply)andbusinesswouldbe subjectedto
morecontrolbygovernmenttoensurethatsociety'smacro-decisions
wouldbestronglyinfluencedbyelectedrepresentativesofthepeople
affected.Analternativeresponsemightbetermed"newprivatism"by
contrast.Thisresponsewouldinvolverecognitionthatlegitimacyis
conferredorwithdrawninvariouswaysbesideselected representation,
anditwouldentailmodificationsto theoperativegoals ofcorporations
suchthattheyinclude,onaparwithearnedreturntostockholders,the
twoadditionalgoalsof providingopportunitiesformeaningfulwork
(asoutput,inadditiontogoodsandservices)andprovidingtangible
benefitstosociety.
Stockholders,afterall,representonlyonegroup
whohaveaninvestmentinthecorporations-employeesinvestsome
portionoftheirlives,andthesocietyinvestsits trusttowardthe
shapingofthefuture.
DifficultyofAchievingaNon-disruptiveTransition
Torestatethepremiseswithwhichwe beganthischapter,wecansee
two
importantdynamicsbringingaboutamajorhistoricaltrans­
formation,fromtheindustrialeraas wehaveknownit tosomesortof
"post-industrial"society(thoughnotinthesenseinwhichDanielBell
has
usedtheterm,whichismuchmorethetechnological-extrapola­
tionistfutureoftheprecedingchapter).Oneofthesedynamicsis the
growingespousalof a new imageofhumankind,asdescribedearlierin
this
volume.Theotheristheprogressiveawarenessof theultimate
unworkabilityof theindustrialparadigmas wehave knownitthusfar.
Itdailygrows
moreabundantlyclearthattheIndustrialAgeis
runningintotrouble.Theculturalpremisesandimagesthatfostered
scientific,technological, industrial,andeconomicgrowthareprovingto
be
maladaptedtothehumaneuse oftheproductsofthatgrowth.The
emergent"imageofman,"withitsimplicitecologicalethic andself­
realizationethic,
pointstheway toresolutionofthecontradictionsof

211. GuidelinesandStrategies 195
theindustrialera.Ontheotherhand,as waspointedoutinChapter7,
institutionalchangesmayalreadybelaggingbehindbasicchangesin
theculturallydominantimages,andactionstakentofurtherhasten
emergenceofthenewimagecouldbesociallydisruptive.(Something
likethisseemsto havetakenplaceduringthepsychedelicperiodwhen
TimothyLeary'sadviceto theyoungto"tunein,turnon,anddrop
out"addeditsbittothedisorderofthetimes.)
Thus,theappropriatequestionmaybenotsomuchhowtobring
aboutatransformation(evenif oneisquiteconvincedthesituationis
exigent),
butratherhow tofacilitatea non-catastrophictransitionwhen
thedynamicsfortransformationarealreadythere.
ELEMENTSOF ASTRATEGY FOR ANON-CATASTROPHIC
TRANSITION
Basedontheforegoingconsiderations,sixelementsofanoverall
strategyforaminimallydisruptivetransitionarediscussedbelow. Itis a
provisionalstrategy,in
thesensethatweassumeeventsofthenextfew
yearswill
continuetosupportthefiveinitialpremises.Butweofferno
apologyforstronglyrecommendingthestrategy,as longasthisis
coupledwiththerecommendationtocontinuetestingthepremises.
1.Promote awareness of theunavoidability ofthetransformation,as a first
essential
elementofthestrategy.Pulledby theemergenceof a"new
transcendentalism"andpushedbythedemonstratedinabilityof the
industrial-stateparadigmtoresolvethedilemmasitssuccesseshave
engendered,thefactandtheshapeofthenecessarytransformationare
predetermined.Growingsignsof economicandpoliticalinstability
indicate
thatthetimeis at hand.Nomorethanthepregnantwoman
approachingthetimeof herdeliverycanwe nowstopandreconsider
whetherwereallywantto gothroughwithit.Thetimeis ripefora
greatdialogueonthenationalandworldstageregardinghow weshall
pass
throughthetransformation,andtowardwhatends.
2.Constructa guidingversionofa workable society,builtarounda new
positive
imageofhumankindandcorrespondingvisionof asuitable
social
paradigm.Astheoldordershowsincreasingsignsoffalling
apart,someadequatevisionof whatmaybesimultaneouslybuildingis
urgentlyneededformobilizationof constructiveeffort.
Perhapsthemostcrucialneedofourtimeis tofosterthedialogue
about,andparticipativelyconstruct,suchasharedvision.(Itisalmost
self-evidentthataneffectiveimageof ahumanehigh-technology

212. 196 ChangingImages of Man
society,
congenialtothenewimageofhumankind,wouldhaveto be
participatively
constructed-notdesignedby atechnocraticelitenor
revealedby acharismaticleader.)Chapter7describessomeofthe
broadcharacteristicsof anevolutionary-transformationfuture.But
theguidingvisionmustbemorespecificthanthis.Inparticular,the
fourdilemmasofthe"newscarcity,"thechangingroleofwork,
controloftechnology,andmoreequitablesharingoftheearth's
resourcesmustbesatisfactorily"re-visioned."
Theremustbe aneweconomics,if notsteadystatein astrictsense, at
leastcompatiblewiththeconstraintsofthe"newscarcity."An
economictheoryandpracticealwaysimpliesapsychology or,more
particularly,a setofassumptionsabouthumanmotivation.Ifmotiva­
tions
change,becausethebasicpictureofman-on-earthandman-in­
the-cosmoshas altered,theneconomicsmustchange.Iftheold
economicsrequiredsteadymaterialgrowthas anecessaryconditionfor
ahealthyeconomy,itdoesnotfollowthattheneweconomicswill
likewise.Similarly,
thedefinitionsof goodcorporatebehaviorandgood
businesspolicy dependupontacitsocialagreementsaboutthebasesfor
legitimation,andchangewhenthosebaseschange.Itmayseemwildly
utopianin 1974 tothinkofthemultinationalcorporationsaspotentially
amongourmosteffectivemechanismsforhusbandingtheearth's
resourcesandoptimizingtheiruseforhumanbenefit-thecurrent
popularimageofthecorporationtendsto bemorethatofthespoiler
andtheexploiter.Butthepoweroflegitimationisstrong,asdiscussed
in
Chapter7,andtheconceptisgrowingthatbusinessmust"deriveits
justpowersfromtheconsentofthoseaffectedby its actions."The
visionof aworkable futuremustincludearesolutionofthepresent
unsatisfactorysituationwherewhatisapparentlysoundbusinessprac­
ticeandgoodeconomicsis oftenveryunwise whenviewedin thelight
ofthe"newscarcity."
Second,theguidingvisionhas to includesomeway ofprovidingfor
fullandvaluedparticipationintheeconomicandsocialaffairs ofthe
communityandsociety,especially forthosewhoarephysicallyand
mentallyableto contributebutfindthemselvesin astateofunwilling
idleness
anddeteriorationofspirit.Heretoothereseemsto be a
fundamentalwrongheadednessintheconventionalway offormulating
oureconomics.Itisimplicitin thatformulationthatlaboringissome­
thingmantendstoavoid.Theoutputsoftheprivatesectorsare
consideredto begoodsandservices,which personsproduceforpay.
Butaccordingtotheemergentimageofmanthiscalculusis basedon
faultypremises.Humanbeingsseekcreativework, andfind it isthe
meansoftheirownself-realization.Thus,theoutputsoftheprivate
sectorshouldbegoods,services,and opportunitiesformeaningful

213. Guidelines andStrategies 197
work.Thenewsocietywill havetoprovideforsignificantexpansionof
social-learning
andsocial-planningroles,asdiscussedin Chapter7,and
alsoforexpansionofproductiverolesforthosewhosecapabilities are
moremodest.
Thecontroldilemmarequiresforitsresolutionaneffectivenetwork
forparticipativeplanningatlocal,regional,national,andworldlevels,
andagainmodificationsto theeconomicincentiveswhichat present
makeitgoodbusinessto doviolenceto theenvironment,squander
naturalresourcesof allsorts, andtreatpersonsasmanipulableobjects.
Thefourthdilemma,theneedformoreequitabledistributionof
resources,mayproveto bethemostdifficultofall toresolve, consider­
ingtheexplodingnumbersoftheearth'shumanbeings.We have
founditcomfortabletobelieve,forsometime,thatthesolutiontothe
problemoftheworld'spoorisnotredistributionofwealthbuthelping
thepoorbecomeproductive.Buttheconstraintsofthe"newscarcity"
precludesolvingtheproblemthis way. Atanyrate,thepoorofthe
worldcannotbecomeproductiveasAmericadid,byexploitingcheap
energyandinstitutionalizingwasteas a way oflife.
3.Fostera period of experimentation andtolerancefor diversealternatives,
bothin life stylesandin socialinstitutions. Experimentationisneeded
to findoutwhatworks,butthereis amoreimportantreasonfortrying
tomaintainanexperimentalclimate.Thatis toreducehostiletensions
betweenthosewhoareactivelypromotingthenewandthosewhoare
desperatelyattemptingtoholdontotheold.Inpubliceducation,for
instance,it isequally importantthatnewexperimentalcurriculabe
triedandthatthetraditionalsubjectsbeavailable forthosewhoresist
movingprecipitouslyintothenew.
4. Encourage a politics ofrighteousness,and aheightened senseof public
responsibilitiesin the private
sector.Surveysandpollsdisplaydrastically
loweredfaithoftheAmericanpeopleinbothbusinessandgovernment.
Atthesametime,anatmosphereoftrustisneededforthetasksahead,
theemergentimageofmansupportsamoralperspective,andprivate
lapsesfrommoralandethicalbehaviorarehardertoconceal.Apolitics
of
righteousnessmighthavebeenlaudableinanygeneration;itmaybe
indispensableforsafepassage throughthetimesjustahead.Agreatly
heightenedsenseof stewardshipandpublicresponsibilities forpower­
fulinstitutionsin theprivatesectoris,theappropriateresponseto
risingchallengesto thelegitimacyof largeprofit-seekingindustrial
corporationsandfinancialinstitutions. Iftheseareto be
morethan
merelypiousstatements,changesininstitutionalarrangementsand

214. 198 ChangingImages of Man
economicincentiveswill needto beinstitutedsothatindividualsand
institutionscanaffordtobehaveinthesecommendableways.
5. Promotesystematicexploration of, and foster education regarding,man's
inner life.
AttheendofChapter4 wepostulatedanemergentscientific
paradigmplacingfarmoreemphasisthaninthepastonexplorationsof
subjective
experience-ofthoserealmsthathaveheretoforebeenleft
tothehumanitiesandreligion,andtosomeextenttoclinicalpsy­
chology.
Thepresentsituationleavesfartoomuchofthissocietally
importantresearchtoinformalandillicitactivities.Interestedpersons,
notallyoung,resorttocultishassociations, bizarreexperimentation,
andillegaldrugusebecausetheyfindlegitimatedopportunitiesfor
guidedexplorationinthesociety'sreligious, educational,scientific,and
psychotherapeuticinstitutionsto be inadequate,inappropriate,orin­
accessible.
Thisnation'sguaranteesofreligiousfreedomhavebeenin a
curiouswaysubvertedbythepreponderatingorthodoxyof amateri­
alisticscientific paradigm.
6. Accept thenecessityof socialcontrolsfor the
tranHtwnperiod while
safeguarding against longer-term
lossesoffreedom.Thetransformationthat
isunderwayhas aparadoxicalaspect,accordingtothefiveinitial
premises.Inconsiderablemeasureit hasbeenbroughtaboutbythe
successof materialprogress(throughbetternutrition,higherstandard
ofliving,education,andthemedia)inraisingmorepersonsabove
excessive
concernwithsubsistence needs.Ontheotherhand,asthe
transition-relatedeconomicdeclineandsocialdisruptionsset in,they
will
tendtoaccentuatematerialisticsecurityneeds.Politicaltensionswill
rise,
anddisunitywillcharacterizesocialaffairs. Regulationandres­
traintofbehaviorwill benecessaryin ordertoholdthesocietytogether
while itgoes aroundadifficultcorner.Themoretherecan
Begeneral
understandingofthetransitorybutinescapablenatureof thisneed,the
higherwill bethelikelihoodthatamorepermanentauthoritarian
regimecanbeavoided.
Thisis nostrategyof"businessasusual,"ifthesesixelementsare
takenseriously.Theycancontributeto amoreorderlytransformation,
withfewersocial woundsto behealed,thanwouldbe otherwisethe
case.AppendixE listssomeexemplaryspecificactions thatmightbe
partofimplementingsuchastrategy.
Onelastword.Thegeneraltoneofthisworkhasbeenoptimistic,
whichisfittingsince
theredoesindeedappearto be apath-througha
profoundtransformationofsociety,thedynamicsforwhichmayal­
readybe inplace-toasituationwherethepresentmajordilemmasof
thelate-industrialeraappearatleastresolvable. Thatoptimism,

215. Guidelinesand Strategies 199
however,relatesto thepotentialitiesonly.It shouldnotbemistakenfor
optimismthatindustrialcivilizationwill developtherequisiteunder­
standing,earlyenough,toenableit tonavigate thesetroubledwaters
withoutnearlywreckingitselfin theprocess.Inhopingthis,someof us
wouldbe less
sanguine.

216. (Sourceunknown.)
200

217. Summary
Imagesofhumankindwhicharedominantin acultureareoffun­
damentalimportancebecausetheyunderlietheways inwhich the
societyshapesitsinstitutions,educatesitsyoung,andgoesabout
whateveritperceivesitsbusinessto be. Changesintheseimagesareof
particularconcernatthepresenttimebecauseourindustrialsociety
maybeonthethresholdof atransformationasprofoundasthatwhich
cametoEuropewhentheMedievalAgegaveway to therise ofscience
andtheIndustrialRevolution.
Inthisstudywehaveattemptedto:
1.illuminatesignificantways oursocietyhas beenshapedbymyths
andimagesorthepast;
2.
explorekeydeficienciesof currentimagesof manandidentify
characteristicsneededinfutureimages;and
3.deriveguidelinesforactionstofacilitate theemergenceofmore
adequateimagesof humankind,andof abettersociety.
We
haveconcentratedparticularlyonananalysisofimageswhich
derivefromindustrialismandscience,exploringways inwhich these
mightbetransformedso as tofurtherbothpersonalandcultural
evolution.
Therecentindustrial-stateeracanbetypifiedby a numberofalmost
certainlyobsolescent premises,suchas:
•Thatprogressissynonymouswitheconomic growthandincreasingconsumption.
•Thatmankindisseparatefromnature,andthatit isthehumandestinyto conquer
nature.
•Thateconomicefficiency andscientificreductionism arethemosttrustworthy
approachestofulfillmentof the goals of humanity.
Suchpremiseswereveryappropriateforthetransitionfromaworld
madeupoflow-technologyagrarianendeavorsandcity-statesto one
dominatedbyhigh-technologynation-states;theyhelpedprovidea
seeminglyidealway toincrease
humankind'sstandardoflivingandto
bringproblemsofphysicalsurvival undercontrol.Buttheirsuccessful
realizationhas
resultedinaninterconnectedset ofurgentsocietal
problemswhichlikely cannotberesolvedif we continuetoacceptthose
premises;theynowappearill-suitedforthefurthertransitionto a
planetarysocietythatwoulddistributeitsaffluenceequitably, regulate
Ol M - 0 201

218. 202 Changing Images of Man
itselfhumanely,andembodyappropriateimagesof thefurtherfuture.
Ifthepost-industrialeraofthefutureisdominatedbytheindustrial­
erapremises,images,andpoliciesofthepast,thecontrolofdeviant
behaviorneededtomakesocietalregulationpossiblewouldin all
likelihood
requiretheapplicationofpowerfulsocio-andpsycho-tech­
nologies.
Theresultcouldwell beakintowhathasbeentermed
"friendlyfascism-amanagedsocietywhichrulesby afaceless and
widelydispersedcomplexofwarfare-welfare-industrial-communica­
tions-policebureaucracieswitha technocraticideology."Evidence
exists
thatthissortoffutureisalreadynascent.
Incontrasttosucha"technologicalextrapolationist"future,this
reportenvisionsan"evolutionarytransformation"forsocietyas a more
hopefulpossibility.
Somecharacteristicsof anadequateimageofhumankindforthe
post-industrialfuturewerederivedby:(1)notingthedirectioninwhich
premisesunderlyingtheindustrialpresentwouldhaveto changein
ordertobringaboutamore"workable"society;(2) fromexamination
oftheways inwhich imagesofhumankindhaveshapedsocietiesin the
past;and(3)fromobservationofsomesignificantnew directionsin
scientific
research.Afuture"imageofman"meetingtheseconditions
would:
1.conveya holisticsenseofperspectiveorunderstandingof life;
2.
entailanecologicalethic,emphasizingthetotalcommunityof
life-in-natureandtheonenessofthehumanrace;
3.
entailaself-realization ethic,placingthehighestvalueon
developmentofselfhoodanddeclaringthatanappropriatefunc­
tionof all socialinstitutionsis thefosteringofhumandevelop­
ment;
4. bemulti-leveled, multi-faceted,andintegrative,accommodating
variouscultureandpersonalitytypes;
5.involve
balancingandcoordinationofsatisfactionsalongmany
dimensionsratherthanthemaximizingofconcernsalongone
narrowlydefineddimension(e.g.economic); and
6. beexperimental,open-ended, andevolutionary.
Itappearsto be atleast conceptuallyfeasiblethatafutureimageof
humankindhavingthesecharacteristicscould"work."Further,specific
steps
canbeundertakenthroughwhichthefacilitationandpromul­
gationofsuchanimagemightbeaccomplished.Bycomparingthe
conclusionsdrawnbyinvestigatorsin fields rangingfrommythologyto
thehistoryofscience,a numberofstagesin aseeminglyuniversal
"cycleof
transformation"arepresentedtohelpformulatesuchnext
steps.

219. Summary 203
Butthereexistslittle evidencetosuggestthatachangeinthe
dominantimagecouldbeaccomplishedbyrationaldeliberation,plan­
ning,andorganizedactivity-orthattheresultsofsuchmanipulative
rationalitywouldnecessarilybe benign.Ontheotherhand,whetherby
fortunatecircumstanceorcreativeunconsciousprocesses,anemerging
imagewithmanyoftheneededcharacteristicsdoesseemtohavemade
its(re)appearance.
Thisemergingimagereinstatesthetranscendental,spiritualside of
humankind,solongignoredordeniedbythatofficialtruth-seeking
institutionofmodernsociety,science. Thenewimagedeniesnoneofthe
conclusionsofsciencein its contemporaryform,butratherexpandsits
boundaries.Inamannerreminiscentofthewell-wornwave-particle
examplefromphysics,thenewimagereconcilessuchpairsof
"opposites"asbody/spirit,determinism/freewill,andscience/religion.
Itincludes
theinnersubjectiveas well as theouterobjectiveworldas
valid
areasofhumanexperiencefromwhichknowledgecanbe
obtained.Itrestores,in a way, thebalancebetweentheMiddleAges'
preoccupationwiththenoumenalandtheindustrialera'spreoc­
cupationwiththephenomenal.Itbringswithit thepossibilityofa new
scienceofconsciousness
andecologicalsystems notlimitedby the
manipulativerationalitythatdominatesthescienceandtechnologyof
thepresentera.
Theissuesraisedin thisreportarecrucialones. Indeedifthe
analysisis accurate,oursocietymaybeexperiencingthebeginningof
aninstitutionaltransformationasprofoundin itsconsequencesasthe
IndustrialRevolution,andsimultaneouslyaconceptualrevolutionas
shakingastheCopernicanRevolution.
Historygives uslittle reasontotakecomfortintheprospectof
fundamentalandrapidsocialchange-littlereasontothinkwecan
escapewithouttheaccompanyingthreatofeconomicdeclineandsocial
disruptionconsiderablygreaterthananythingwehaveexperiencedor
caretoimagine.Ifinfacta fundamentalandrapidchangeinbasic
perceptionsandvaluesdoesoccur,suchachaoticperiodseemsinevit­
ableas
thepowerfulmomentumoftheindustrialeraisturnedin a new
direction,andasthedifferentmembersandinstitutionsof thesociety
respondwithdifferentspeeds.Thus,agreatdealdependsupona
correctunderstandingofthenatureof,andtheneedfor,thetrans­
formationwhichis uponus.
Whileactions
andpoliciesin keepingwiththe"technological
extrapolationist"imagewouldinvolveno greatwrenchinginthenear
term,theycouldleadtocatastropheorto"friendlyfascism"in the
longerterm.Actionsandpoliciesin keepingwithan"evolutionary
transformationalist"image,ontheotherhand,mightincreasethelevel

220. 204 ChangingImages of Man
ofseemingdisorderandchaosduringatransitionperiodinthenear
termbutlaterleadto amoredesirablesociety.While thechoiceis not
necessarilyonethatoursocietyas awholewill orshouldmakecon­
sciously
anddeliberatelyatthistime,it isonethatconfrontseach
individualwhoiswillingto acceptresponsibilityforthefuture-rather
thansimplyadapttowhateverthefuturemaybring.

221. Glossary
Conscious,consciousness-thestateorfactof awarenessapplied
eithertoone'sself-existenceortooneormoreexternalobjects,
states,
orfacts-characterizedbysensation,emotion,volition,and
thought.
Economicimageofman-theimageofhumankindas"cogsin the
industrialmachine,"valuedchieflyfortheirrolesas producersand
consumers,andmotivatedprimarilybythoseroles.
Entropy-inthermodynamics,thedegreetowhich theenergyof a
systemhasceasedto beavailable
fordoingwork(aswhenthe
temperatureof aheatsourceandaheatsinkhasbecomeequalized).
As
expressedbythesecondlaw ofthermodynamics,whenaclosed
physicalsystemis
leftalone,itsentropyincreasesas theavailable
energydecreaseswiththepassageof time(leadingtospeculations
thattheuniverseis"runningdown").Ininformationtheory,
entropyis ameasureoftheuncertaintyordisorderofknowledgein
asystem.
Evolution,evolutionary-theprocessof continuousorstep-wise
changeinform,structure,orfunctionfromlower,simplerorless
desirablesystemstatesto thosethatarehigher,morecomplex,or
better-i.e.fromhighertolowerstatesof entropy.
Evolutionarytransformationalistimage-aview ofthefutureessen­
tiallyinvolving
transformationofthe"industrialstateparadigm"
suchthatkeydilemmaswithinitareresolvedandhumanevolutionis
accelerated.
Gradient-asequenceoftransitionalforms,states,orqualitiesconnect­
ingrelatedextremes.
Image-(n.)amentalpicture,descriptionorconception(oftenheldin
commonbypersonsof aparticularculture)ofrealitysymbolicof
basic
attitudesandorientation;(v.t.) toimagineorevokea mental
imagepicture.
Industrialstateparadigm-theparticularsetofattitudes,premises,
ethics,andlawsthatdominatehighlyindustrializedsocieties(see
Paradigmbelow).
Paradigm-thetotalpatternofperceiving,conceptualizing,acting,
validating,
andvaluingassociatedwitha particularimageofreality
thatprevailsin ascience,a branchofscience,asociety orsubculture.
Spiritual-relatingtoorconsistingofspirit,i.e. non-materiallevels
205

222. 206 ChangingImages ofMan
ofrealityavailabletoconscious andsuperconsciousexperience,often
inimagisticthought.
Subconscious-existinginthemind,butnotavailabletoconsciousness.
Superconscious,superconsciousness-thestateorfactof awareness
manifestingin waysthattranscendtheordinaryegocentric
experienceofexistence(suchasunitiveconsciousnesswith others,
oceanicor"cosmic"consciousnessinvolving heightenedintuition,
extrasensoryorso-calledtranspersonalprocesses,"directpercep­
tion,"etc.).
Technologicalextrapolistimage-aview ofthefutureessentiallyin­
volvinga
continuationofthedominantpremises,procedures,and
trendsthatcharacterizehighlyindustrialsocieties.
Transformation-atypeofchangeprocessinwhich the"shape"and
thecharacterofmanyormostinteractionsof asystem suddenly
change(as inthetransformationfromlaminartoturbulentflow in a
fluid;
fromunbelieftocommitmentin areligiousconversion; or
frompluralistictolerancetoxenophobic("in-groupsolidaritydueto
out-groupthreat")isolationismin asociety). Incontrastwithin­
crementalorrevolutionarychange(asthelattertermsarecus­
tomarily
used),transformationhererefersto a"top-down/inside­
out"changeofthedominantsocialparadigm,asanorganicprocess.

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235. APPENDIX A
AnAlternativeView ofHistory,
TheSpiritualDimension
oftheHumanPerson,
and a
ThirdAlternativeImage ofHumanness
ELISEBOULDING
AnAlternativeInterpretationofHistory
Yourimageofpsychicallyevolving manis, Ithink,incorrect.Astudy
ofthepapersfromTheUniversityof ChicagoSymposiumonHunting
andGatheringSocietiesheldinthelate1960s, plusexaminationofthe
anthropologistPaulRodin'swork(andlotsmore!),hasledme to a
differenthypothesis:humanshavehadtheintellectual-analyticand
spiritual-intuitiveskills ataboutthesamecapacitylevel foratleast
12,000years.I see a
historyas aseriesof thresholds:(1)theagricultural,
village-basedthresholdof 10,000 B.C.whenhumansreachedvillage­
typedensities;(2)
thefirsturban-basedkingdoms,3500B.C.;(3) the
firstattemptstoweave moralteachingsintolarge-scalepolitical
organizationwiththeavailabilityoftheteachingsofBuddha,LaoTse,
Confucius,andVedicteachings,500 to 200 B.C.withafloweringin
Asoka's
Empire;(4)JoachimdeFiore'svisionof thepost-bureaucratic
ageinthelate1100s,andthewholeconceptofthedemiseofecclesiasti­
cal
structuresofsocietyandtheruleoftheHolySpiritintheheartsof
men,whichtogetherwiththegreatinflowofIslamicscience and
cultureandIslamictranslationsofGreekmanuscripts,andtherise of
theDominicansandFranciscans(post-bureaucraticreligiousorders)
andthedevelopmentofschools,researchlaboratoriesandworkshops
withinthecraftguilds,createdafantasticthresholdandasenseof new
possibilities
beyondwhattwentieth-centuryvisionariesnowconceive.
Thresholds(1)to (3)youalso atleast identify,butyouskip overIslam
andthethirteenthcenturyentirely.My view is thatwhileeachofthese
thresholdsrepresentsa new level ofsocietal complexity,itdoesnot
representa new level ofspiritualevolution.Rather,ateachnew level of
complexitywestandagainbeforethepossibilityof blendingofour
219

236. 220 ChangingImages of Man
cognitiveandspiritual-intuitivecapacities,witha new set of supporting
toolsandsocialtechnology,andeachtimewehaveslid away fromthe
threshold.MyIRADESconferencepaperforSeptember1973 inRome
onReligiousPotentials andSocietalComplexityspellsthis outas I
cannothere.Ithinkit isimportantnotto fallintothetrapofthinking
wehavesomenewpotentialstodrawonbecauseit willmakeus
underestimatethedifficultyof thetask.I am fearfulof a"mindless
Teilhardism."
TheSpiritualDimension oftheHumanPerson
Yourconceptionofthespiritualdimensionisthinbecauseyouhave
saidnothingat allabouttheChristianmystictradition,onlyyogaanda
bitofConfuciusandahintofZenandSufism.I havespentawhole
yeardevelopingamodelofthelinkingofcognitiveandspiritual­
intuitivefaculties drawingonlearningtheoryandthepracticesof the
Christianmystics,also takingaccountofZenandYoga.Itcomesout
ratherdifferentlythanwhatyoupresent,andIcannotpossiblygive the
modelin ashortspacehere.Someindicators,however:youconfuse
transpersonalandtranscendental.Theyaredifferent.Also,writingof
thepassivewill withoutaknowledgeofMeister Eckhartandthe
Rhinelandmysticsmakesitinadequate.EvelynUnderhill'smysticism
givestheclassictreatmentofthekindofreworkingofthehuman
personinvolvedin themysticalpath.Shepointsoutthattheastral
realm,
whichis theoneyouareprimarilydealingwithwhenyouwrite
of
techniquesforinducingalteredstatesofconsciousness andheigh­
teningourpowersof ESP,precognition,psychokinesis,etc.,is onethat
thesaintsall recognizeandmovethroughasquicklyaspossible.Self­
realizationas
youconceiveit is verymuchanastral-realmconcept,and
whileno onecandenythatthesearefascinatingphenomenaandare
certainlyamenabletocurrentlydevelopingtechniquesofanalysisand
training,Ipredictthatweareinforatleasta10,000-year periodof
wallowingin
theastralrealmbeforewehave"useditup"as weare
now"usingup"thepotentialitiesof thescientificapproach.Maybethat
isnecessary,butlet noonethinkthatthose10,000yearswill be any
betterthanthe12,000 wehavebehindus, intermsofhumangoodness
andwelfare.We areinfora
long,badspellof demonismandare
boundtohaveperiodiceruptionsofwitchcraftscares-wearebegin­
ningtohavethemalready.ReadMastersandHouston'sMindGames,
takingtimetoinduceself-hypnosisanddoeachexerciseas yougo
along(as Idid),andthenstartevaluatingthenewmind-control
institutes-likeArica.We havesomedifficulttimes ahead.Thepointis

237. AppendixA 221
we
candoallthis,butit willnot"saveus"becauseitdoesnottransform
thewillordirecttheheart.JeanHoustonisherselfgettingvery
worriedaboutallthis,Iunderstand,andherapproachis todemo­
cratizemindcontrolbyteachingeveryonetodoit. Idonotthinkit will
work.
WhileI likeyouremphasisonwisdom,andtheecologicalethic,your
emphasisonself-realizationmakesmesad.Whatistheself,thatwe
shouldrealizeit? Youtreatcharismassomekindofsocialpoison­
whichIunderstandwellenoughwhenyouarethinkingincontextslike
Cohn'sPursuitof theMillennium, butcharism,eruptionsofgraceorspirit
intothepreparedorunpreparedhumanheart,is ahintofsomething
elsethatliesbeforeusbesidesmerelyself-realization.
A
ThirdAlternativeImageofHumanness
(contrastingwith the twopresentedin yourChapter
8)
Thiswouldbeanotherway toconceptualizenew image,counterpart
statements:
1.Ingeneticsubstrate,considerfindingsofEibl-EibesfeldtandHass
ongeneticsubstratefornurturantbehavior,notjustaggression;also
takeaccountofwholeKropotkintradition-ClydeAllee,etc.-on
cooperativetendenciesinanimalandhuman.
2.Developmentof asenseofthecreatorassomethingmorethanthe
otherendofadivinehumancontinuum.RespectfortheCloudof
Unknowing.
3.Theevolvingselfandevolvingsocialstructuresalsorecognizea
"beyond"selfand"beyond"socialstructure.
4.Deemphasisofsensuality,discoveryoffamilyastrainingground
forhowto behuman,overcomingofpathologicalfearoffamily
intimacy;familyas baseforever-expandingcirclesoffriendship,
extendedfamilya growthreality,butintimateenduringpairrelation­
shipsbasisforallotherlovingandcaring.(IsraelCharny'sMaritalLove
and Hate
hasanimportantconcepthereonfamilyas trainingground.
Myownfairlyextensiveobservationsonmultipleloverelationshipsis
thattheyarecostlyanddisastrousforadultsandchildren.Alsofamily
is
animportantsourceofimagesofthefuture-seemy"Familismand
CreationofFutures.")Discovertendernessoutsideofsexuality,widen
basesforhumanfriendships.
5.Balanceofrationalandintuitive-sameasin[yourevolutionary
transformationalistimage].
6.Growthofspirituallifebeyondconceptofalteredstatesofcon-

238. 222 ChangingImages of Man
sciousness,inpracticesof contemplativeprayerthatenrichcapacities
forsocialinteractionsinnewdimensions.
7.Beyondephemeralization,theethicoffrugalityitself, joyofdoing
withless.
Irealizeallthis
needsmuchmoreexplaining:
ThingsI miss inmanuscript,notalreadymentioned:
1.Recognitionofgrowthvalueof painandconflict.Painis a teacher
weprobablycannotdowithout.
2. Asalternativetohierarchicalmodel,AnthonyJudge'snon­
hierarchical"solar-systemmodel"whichhe uses forinternationalrela­
tions
butcanbeusedatanylevel.Publicationsin Journalof Union of
InternationalAssociations.
3.Notenoughemphasisonpracticalaspects oftheplanetaryperson,
thenewpersonathomein allkindsoftransnationalidentitiesand
networks.Nationstate,"America"tooimportantinmanuscript-these
arefastbecomingirrelevant.Toolittleemphasisonmultinational
businesscorporations(justonekindofnetwork,mustnotbeoverem­
phasized).Culturalinitiativesfromelsewhere.Assumptionisthatwe
chooseto
"use"whatwe likefromtheEast.Itwillnothappenthatway.
Westwillsoonbeby-passed,atleastvery possibly-oughtto beputin
perspective.
4.
YouhaveSriAurobindoinyourimagebutleftGandhiout
entirely.His conceptsofsanodya-notwantingwhatotherscannot
have-andalovingconcernforthewelfareofothersthatenhances,
ratherthandevalues,theselfarebadlyneeded.Yourimageismore
a-socialandself-centeredthanitneedsto bebecausethis emphasisis
lacking.
Themanuscriptis also abitpaleandlacks asenseof thetremendous
dynamicof love.Self-actualizationis buttheshadowofself-overflowing
love.

239. APPENDIX B
InformationSystemsand Social Ethics
GEOFFREYVICKERS
OnInformation Systems
In[earlierchapters]youalmostomitreferencetowhatIregardas
themostrevolutionaryscientificimagechangeofourtime(although
yourelyonit inlaterchapters).Andinsofarasyoudoreferto it in
Chapter4,youdonotdistinguishitfromotherlaterandstillpending
changes.Irefertotherevolutionaryimpactofthedistinctionwhich
sciencehas
learnedtodrawinthelast30years betweenenergyand
information.This,morethananythingelse (in my view),haschanged
thescientificimageofrealityby negatingreductionismandsubstituting
ahierarchicconceptof levels oforganization,eachdependentonbut
notexplicablein termsofthelevelbelow (thusconfirmingwhat
MichaelPolanyihas beensaying)[withoutitsaid].
Ithas alsolegitimized thescientificstudyofhumancommunication
(whichyoubarelymention)andthusintroduceda newscientific image
ofmanascommunicatingsocialmanandofthehierarchicdevelop­
mentofbothpersonsandsocietiesby attainingdifferentlevels of
communication.D. M.Mackay, forexample,hastriedtoshowwhy and
howdialoguediffersfromattemptsatmutualmanipulation
bywords.I
onceheardProfessorHamatTorontointerruptasimilardemon­
strationtoshowhow farthediagramhehaddrawnfellshortofthe
kindofmutualcommunicationdescribedbyMartinBuberinI and
Thou.SaulCornwrites,"Wespendthefirstyearofourliveslearning
thatweendatourskin,andalltherestofourliveslearningthatwe
don't."Thesemenareaphysicist,anengineer,andadesignerof
computerlanguages.
Notethatthishugechangeresultsnotat all (as yet)fromstudying
ESPandallthat.Itcomesfromstudyingthosefamiliarpowersatwhich
science
haddeclinedtolook,evenwhenittookthemforgranted.
Scienceitselfhas always developedfarmorebylistening,talking, and
reflectingthanbyobserving,experimenting,andreasoning.Know-
223

240. 224
ChangingImagesofMan
ledgeof(notmerelyabout)otherhumanbeingsdependsevenmoreon
socialcommunication.Ourmaininputcomesneitherfromourfive
acceptedsenses,norfromourmoreesotericones,butfromtheactivity
of
ourownmindsinintimatelinguisticcommunicationwithothers.
Thisfact,emergingfromscientifictabu,makesthehumandimension
respectable.
Briefreferencestothisrevolutionareto befoundinChapter4 (e.g.
thereferencetohierarchy).
I·wouldlike to seethemdeveloped,
separatedandputearlier....Therevolutionisitselfbothearlierin
timeanddistinctin characterfromthosetowhichyoulookforward.It
has
alreadytakenplace.Itis ashiftinscientificcategoriesas important
asthedistinctionof energyfrommatterwhichmarkedtheprevious
250years.And,incidentally,it isessentialto understandinghowany
kindofethicarises.
Letmeexpandalittleontherevolution.(Ihavewrittenaboutthis in
manypapers,e.g. in"Science andtheRegulationofSociety.")When
Drieschin the1890sassertedthathisdividedsea-urchinembryoscould
notgrowintocompleteseaurchinsunlesstheysomehowknewwhere
theyweregoing,hewronglypostulatedagoal-seekingforce(entelechy)
andwasreviled, becauseforcesmustnotbethoughtof asseeking
goals.Ifhehadadvancedthemuch moredaring, butmorecorrect,
hypothesisthateverycell wassaturatedwithinformationaboutthe
futureshapeofthewhole,he wouldhavebeenignoredbecause
informationwasnotthenascientificconcept.Itbecameascientific
concepthalfacenturylater-andwithinanotherdecadeCrickand
Watsonhadidentified(notbroken)thegeneticcode.Threecenturies
earlierDescarteshad hadtopostulateaspecialkindofmatter(res
cogitans)to
accountformind,justasDrieschhadtopostulateaspecial
kindofenergytoaccountforform-making.Bothmenlackedan
acceptableuniverseordiscourseadequatetoexpresstheirinsights.
Similarly
Freud,tryingtodescribeformintermsofenergy,was
drivenintodifficultieswhich wouldsimplynothavearisenif hehad
beenborna fewdecadeslater.Hissuccessorsarebeginningto fillout
hisconceptoftheegoas acreatorofform,ratherthanaresultantof
forces.
Ifthis view isacceptabletoyou,I hopeyouwill beableto squeezeit
in,
partlyasanexampleofprematurityandtabu,butchieflyas the
mostimportantconceptualrevolutionofourtime-hardlyadebtto
science(non-scientists
havealwaysknownthatmenlived in aconcep­
tualworldof theirownmaking)butthewithdrawalof ascientifictabu
whichlegitimizes humancommunicationasthemeansbywhichmen
humanizethemselvesandtheirchildrenandbuildahumanworld
hierarchicallydistinct
fromthebiologicalorganwithwhich theybuild

241. AppendixB 225
it.Everycomputerengineerknowsthatthereis acategorydifference
betweenaprogramandacomputer.Anun-programmedcomputer
cannotcompute.Andeventheactivitiesof a programmedcomputer,if
describedinphysicalterms,give noclueat all to whattheprogramis
all
about.Somepsychologistsandbiologistsmaystillthinkit ascandal
todistinguishmindfrombrainascomplementarycategorieshierar­
chicallyordered.Butsuchdistinctionsarecommonassumptionsto
programmersandelectronicengineers.
Soeveniftherewerenootherstatesofconsciousness,we shouldbe
in
foramajorrevolutionbybeingallowedto thinkabouttheoneswe
knowwehave.
I am
mostinterestedin allChapter4 has to sayaboutresearchinto
differentstatesofconsciousness andaboutpsiphenomena.Ifindall
this
muchmorerelevantandimportantthanIexpected.ButIthinkit
willgreatly
gainifyoucanseparateitfromthisotherelement.This
wouldalso enableyoutodealmoreadequatelywithgeneralsystems
theorywhichowes its developmentonthepsycho-socialsideto the
conceptofinformation.Itwouldbe well, indoingso, tomarkthe
distinctionbetweensystemsopenonlytotheexchangeofenergyand
thoseopenalsototheexchangeofinformation.Thisisanimportant
distinctionin generalsystemstheoryas Iunderstandit,andanessen­
tial
ingredientinthebuildingofhierarchiesoforganization.
On Social Ethics
Thislacuna(as I see it) inyourpresentationseemsto me also to
weakenChapter5....Ethicsappearassomethingweneedbutwehave
beentoldvirtuallynothingabouthowtheyoriginateexceptthatthey
areinfluencedbyimagesof man.Nowwhatevertheirorigin,ethicscan
onlybeunderstood(by me atleast)as standardsofwhattoexpectfrom
eachotherandfromourselvesin concretesituations.Theyarepossible
onlybecausewe canengagethroughcommunicationinthesesocialand
inter-personaltransactions.
Yourightlystress thatthesestandardsreflectimagesof mancurrent
intheculture.Butbecauseyouunderstress(in my view)thespecifically
socialnatureofman(humanizedbymembershipof aspecificsociety),
youleavethereadertoassumethatthecogencyofanethicinyour
viewderivesdirectly frombeliefin ametaphysic,i.e. thatthe"ought"
isderiveddirectlyfromthe"is."Apartfromthefactthatthis is
generallyregardedasveryimperfectlytrue,itleavesaweakness which
becomes
apparentinChapter5whenweareinvitedto planthe
developmentofanecologicalethicandself-realizationethic. Fromthen

242. 226 ChangingImagesofMan
onwesearch,almostinvain,foranindicationthatthenewimageof
manis toimplyanysenseofresponsibility towardshisneighbournext
door.
Now itseemsto meself-evident thataworldsuchasyoudescribe
wouldhavetopayforbeingde-politicizedanddecentralizedby ahuge
increasein socialresponsibility andthatthiswouldgreatlylimitall this
self-actualization
exceptinsofaras itbecame(as itshould)amain
channelthroughwhichindividualsactualizethemselves.A more
humanworldwill be amoresociallyresponsibleworld andthisres­
ponsibilitywill
havecosts as well asbenefits,limitationsas well as
enlargementsintermsof"self-actualization."Thisverityis thegreat
tabuofthecounter-culture.Itseemsto me tohave infectedyoualso.
Theresolutionorcontainmentofconflictisnotexplained,butsimply
assumed.
EveryoneknowsthatIdonotfurthermyneighbour'sself-actualiza­
tionbyseekingmyownanymore(orless)thanIfurtherhiswealthby
seekingmyown. Ontheotherhand,to findone'sownself-actualiza­
tionsimplyin helpingotherstofind theirshas alwaysbeenone
definitionof asaint.Yet yoursummaryof"anadequateimageof
man,"suddenlyrepletewithethics,seemstohaveno roomforsocial
ethicsat all. A
dutytotheecosphereistheonlydutyexpectedof this
abstractMan-exceptthedutyto"actualizehimself."Itdoesnot
expresslydenythatnoonecanactualizehis potentialinoneway
withoutdenyingitsactualizationin another,oractualizeit in anyway
inisolation
fromhisneighbour.Butitmakesno referencetothesocial
demandsandconstraintswithinwhichthis personalartistryis to be
performed,andwhichareinseparablefromitsvalue.
So my basic
question(ifnotyours)remainsunanswered.An
adequateimageofmanfortheU.S.A. in A.D. 2000wouldfind ajointly
acceptableposition
forthenegro,assureintegrityintheWhiteHouse
andproduceamarkedlydifferentdistributionofwealth,earnings,and
incomes(I couldproduceasimilarcatalogueforBritain).It is notclear
to me howthesewouldflowmerelyfromthechangedimagesofman
describedinChapter5.
Thiscommentistheresidueof myoriginalobjectionthatchanging
imagesof manwillnotofitselfchangesocialethics andcannotevenbe
convincingly
describedwithoutincludinganaccountof socialethics
andthereciprocaleffectof socialethics onit.Inotherwords,it
complainsthatall thisthinkinglacksanadequatesociologicaldimen­
sion.(Philosophical thinkingnearlyalwaysdoes.I regardManwitha
capital
letteras adangersignal.)Youcannotfullymeetthispointeven
if youwantedto,butIthinkitwouldhelpifyouwereto give more
importancetotheemergenceofhumancommunicationas asubjectfor

243. AppendixB 227
studyat itsfamiliarlevels andnotonlyatthehigherlevelswhich most
interestyouandthustothecurrentchangeintheimageofcom­
municating,socialman,member,creator,andcreationof aspecific
social
group.

244. APPENDIX C
AViewofModifiedReductionism
(excerptedfromTheMethodofScienceandtheMeaningofReality)
HENRYMARGENAU
Theproblemof"levelsofexplanation"recursfrequently...andit
meritsattention.
Itneedsto befaced ...becauseitinvolvesthequestionwhetherall
phenomenainthisworld,includingthemostcomplex,canfindtheir
ultimateexplanationintheconstructsofthesimplersciences.The
answerisnotanunqualifiedYesorNo.
Firstof all, it isnecessaryto
drawacleardistinctionbetweenlevelsof
explanationandlevels oforganization.Thetermlevelsof explanation
refers,strictlyspeaking,todegreesofabstractnessof theexplanatory
scheme,towhatonemightcallmetaphoricallythedistanceofthe
constructsofexplanationfromtheprotocolplaneofexperience.
Levels oforganization,ontheotherhand,designatestagesof complexity
ofphenomena.Theorieswhichpostulatetheneedofdifferenttypes of
law,i.e. ofdifferentmodesofexplanationatdifferentlevels ofcom­
plexity,
arealsocharacterizedastheoriesofdifferentlevels ofexplana­
tion.Inthepresentcontextthesenseofthisphrasewill bethus
construed.
Theproblemof levelsappearsalso astheproblemofreducibility
of
phenomena.Itaskswhetherobservationsonaplaneofhighcom­
plexity
arereducibletothelawsactive onalowerplane,forinstance
whetherbiologicalphenomenasuchasgrowth,cellularorganization,
teleologicalfunction,etc.,areultimatelyexplicableby referencetothe
laws ofphysics andchemistry.Everyquestionaboutlevelscanthere­
forebetransformedtoonewithrespecttoreducibility.
Twoessentialresolutionsoftheproblemsofreducibilityhavebeen
proposed.Oneistheradicalnegativeonewhichclaims thatdifferent
lawsactatdifferentlevels ofcomplexityandthattheselawsmaywell be
logically
unrelatedorevencontradictory.Accordingto this view,there
is nocontinuityofexplanationbetweenlevels.Theotherthesisinsists
uponacontinuousconnectionbetweenexplanatorymodesatdifferent
stagesofcomplexity. Thislatterviewmaytaketwoforms:
229

245. 230 ChangingImages of Man
(a)Thelaws at the lowest levelandsufficienttoexplain phenomenaon all levels.
Thesebasis laws, to besure,may notbe fullyknownat the presenttime,butit is
expected
thatwhenthey are at handtheywillexplainall possibleobservationsin
theentireuniverse.
(b)
Thesecondview ismilder. Itdoesnotclaim, forexample, thatthe laws of physics
andchemistryarenecessarilysufficient toaccountforhappeningsin the biological
realm,
butit insiststhatthe laws in themorecomplexbiological field, while not
identicalwith those of physics
andchemistry,areneverthelesslogicallycompatible
withthem.Thislast view, (b), whichassertslimitedreducibilitywill beespousedin
thisdiscussion
andin thisbookweproceedtodescribeit now in moreexplicit
terms.
Perhapsatthelowestlevelofscientific interestisthemechanicsof
particles.
Herethephysicistisableto operatewithsimple theories
involvingNewton'slawsandtheideaofforces.Thestateofasmall
systemofparticlesisfully
describedintermsofthepositionsand
velocitiesoftheparticlesandtheforcesthatactbetweenthem.
Greatercomplexityis
metatthelevel oflargeaggregatesofparticles
suchasgasesandliquids.Hereit isuselessto describeconditionsin
termsofpositionsandvelocitiesof all individualmolecules.Higher
levelconceptsliketemperature,pressure,phase,entropy,etc.,are
needed.Theseconcepts,whileperfectlyclearintheirreferenceto
aggregates,havenomeaningwithrespectto asinglemolecule;asingle
moleculehas no
temperature,nopressure,noentropy,etc. Yetthereis
nological
contradictionatallbetweentheassumptionthata gas has
temperatureandasingleoneof itsconstituentshasnot.Furthermore,
knowledgeofthepositionsandvelocitiesofeachindividualmolecule
permitsaninference(throughwell-knowntheoremsofstatistical
mechanicsof all
thecollectivepropertiesofthegas.Thereverse,
however,is nottrue:knowingthetemperature,pressure,entropy,etc.,
of a gas
onecannotinferthepositionsandvelocitiesof theindividual
molecules.Thisstateofaffairsis bestcharacterizedbysayingthatthere
iscontinuity of explanation frombelow,butnotfromabove.Onecango
continuallytowardanunderstandingofmattersonthehigherplaneif
onestartswith knowledgeonthelowerplane,thoughnotinthe
reversedirection.Butinthisascent, knowledgeonthelowerplane
becomesirrelevantbecausenewconceptsliketemperature,etc.,emerge,
andthesehavenodirectreferencetoparticles.
Anotherexamplemayfurtherclarifythesituation.Manyproblems
ofatomicphysicscanbeunderstoodonthebasis ofso-called dynamical
laws,thelawswhich controlthebehaviorofindividualelectrons,
protons,andother.so-calledelementaryparticles.Theseareregulated
bytheSchrodingerequation(orsomeother"wave"equation)whichis,
in a
certainsense,theequivalentofNewton'ssecondlaw in classical

246. AppendixC 231
mechanics.If,however,severalelectronsorseveralotherparticlesof
thesamekindarepresent,another,moreimportantlawsupervenes
upontheSchrodingerequation;thisisPauli'sExclusion Principle
whichrulesthatno twoelectronscanbe inthesamestate.Itisthis
remarkableprinciple,dealtwithmorefullyin thenextchapter,which
makespossibleallso-called
cooperativeeffectsin inorganicmatter:the
uniqueregularitiesofatomicstructure,chemicalbinding,crystal
shapes,magnetism,electricalconductivity, andmanyothers.This
principle,ontheotherhand,hasabsolutelyno relevanceforsingle
electrons;itssignificancearises
onlyinconnectionwithcollectives.
Oncemore,explanationiscontinuousfrombelowbutdiscontinuous
fromabove.
Thereis atpresentnoroadtowarda fullexplanationofbiological
effects
fromthedomainsofphysicsandchemistry.Inaccordancewith
thepresentinterpretationofleveltheory,however,higherlevel
"organizational"lawswhichwill be discovered
'inresearchesonbiolo­
gical
phenomenaarelikelyto be sui generis,notderivablefromwhatis
knownatpresentinthephysicalrealm.Yetwhendiscoveredtheyare
expectedto becompatiblewithwhatisknownonthislowerlevel.
Itis thiscautiousview ofreducibility,this modernversionofthe
theoryof levels ofexplanation,thatisbeingheldin thisbookwhen
referenceismadetotheproblemsofreducibility,orof levels of
explanation.Manyaspectsof theselevelsareclarifiedandusedexten­
sively byTaylor(Chapter5);theyplayanimportantroleinour
understandingof socialorganization.

247. APPENDIX D
ScientificImages ofManandtheManlnthe Street
CommentbyReneDubos
I donotsharethecommonbeliefthattheimagesof manhavebeen
profoundlyinfluencedbyscience.ButIrealizethatthereportis
organizedpreciselyaroundthisassumption.Toquoteyourownwords,
"Thefocusof thestudyisdirectedatimagesthatarelargelyderivative
fromindustrialismandscience...." It isobvious,of course,that
technologyhasinfluencedsomewhattheattitudeofthemaninthe
streetbutI ammuchmoreskepticalconcerningtheeffectsof theoreti­
calscience.I suspectthatalearnedandsophisticatedmanofGreeceor
ofChina2500years agowouldhavehadanimageofhimselfandof his
relationtothecosmosnotverydifferentfromthatofacademicpeople
inAmericatoday.As to themaninthestreet,Idoubtthathe ismore
concernedwiththis problemthanwasanaveragecitizenanywherein
theWesternworlda few hundredyearsago.
CommentbyDavidCahoon
I willsharewithyoualineof ruminationthatthechaptersevokedin
me,a"fear"thatIhaveseengivenlittle attention(exceptbyDonald
Michaelin TheUnprepared SocietyandhisrecentbookonPlanning
forChange).What"hits"mefromyourperspectiveon"Images"isthat
thereseemsto be a growinggapbetweenageneralized"popular
mind"andperhapsa"professionalmind"regarding"ImageofMan."
Forexample,...itseemsto methatthe"popularmind"israther
unaffectedbywhatyoucallthe"industrialeraimages"thatmightbe in
conflict
oralternativesto the"Am.Creed"Image(manas"beast,"
manas"mechanism,"manas"holon,""PerennialPhil."image).
The"professionalmind,"onthecontrary,isstronglytroubledby
theseconflicting
"images."Inotherwords,thereligiousandpolitical
heritageseemsdominantforthe"popularmind,"whileincreasingly
thescientificheritageisdominantforthe"professionalmind."True,
the"popularmind"buysmaterialism andtechnology,anoffshootof
science
and"economicman,"butasWilliamThompsonhasrecently
CI M -Q 233

248. 234 ChangingImagesofMan
emphasized(inTheEdgeofHistory)thisseemsto be more"pragmatic"
thanempirical-positivistic,andthesurgetowardEdgarCayceandJesse
Stern-type"spiritualism"wouldseemtoreflectanold"soul"image
morethananewpara-psychicscientificimage. Thusthe"popular
mind"imageisprobablymuchlessawareoforthreatenedbysuchtrends
as"friendlyfascism,"Ellul'stechnological out-of-human-control
dynamism,RogerMaGowanMechanizedCy-Borgphantasies,ora
Kafka-esquediffused
paranoia.
Also, itseemslikely thatthe"popularmind"willreacttoTomer's
"futureshock"increasedpaceofchange,confusion,uncertainty,etc.,
by
over-stimulationthreat,retreat,regression,etc.,while moreofthe
"professionalmind"willrespondwithstimulation,challenge, adap­
tation.
So
if,asyouargue,science"imagesof man"willincreasingly
displace
thereligiousheritageasformativeintheculture,Iwonderif
this will
notbedifferentiallytruewiththesetwo"publics,"andpossibly
notverytrueat allwith the"popularmind"?Ifthis is so, we face a
dangerously"elitist"planningorsocialengineeringgapintheculture,
wherethedemocraticheritagewouldoperateincreasinglywithout
powerorimpactonthedirectionsofchange.Itseemsto me thatthis
"Images"gapfromtheheritageofsciencewill onlygetmuchlargeras
the"professionalmind"isstronglyinfluencedbythenewastronomy,
DNA-RNAlife-tampering,para-psychicandmeditativedisciplines,bio­
genetics,systemsanalysis,
anti-matterworldsand"flyingtorches,"etc.!
Ioversimplify,of
course,andtherearegreatdiversitieswithin thetwo
categories
"popularmind"and"professionalmind"...butsome
differential"Images"impactseemsstronglyinevitableandelitist­
especiallyso,since theintellectualcommunityofcommunications­
math-cybernation-etc.willsurelybethenewpriesthoodofthepost­
industrialsociety?

249. APPENDIX E
SomeProjectsSuitedtoGovernment orFoundation
Support
Withoutclaimingthattheyhavebeen,orcouldbe,demonstrated,
Chapter8 laidourfivepremisesthatareatleastplausible onthebasis
of
theargumentspresentedtherein.Insummary,theyare:
1.Thereareincreasinglyevidentsigns of theimminentemergenceof a newimageof
man.
2.Aninterrelatingset offundamentaldilemmas,growingapparentlyevermore
pressing,seem to demandfortheirultimateresolutionadrastically changedimage
ofmari-on-earth.
3.
Thereis aseriousmismatchbetween modernindustrial-statecultureandin­
stitutions
andtheemergingnewimageof man.
4.Thereis,andwillcontinueto be,deeppsychologicalresistanceto boththe new
image
anditsimplications.
5.
Theevolutionarytransformationdescribedin Chapter7 isdesirable,indeedneces­
sary,ifhighly
undesirablefutureoutcomesareto beavoided.
Basedonthesepremisessixelementsofanoverallstrategyfora
non-disruptivetransitionwerederived.Insummaryformtheseare:
1.Promoteawarenessof theunavoidabilityof the transformation.
2.Fosterconstructionof a guidingvision of aworkablesocietybuilt aroundthe new
imageof
manandnew socialparadigm.
3.Fostera periodofexperimentationandtolerancefordiverse alternatives,
4.
Encouragea politics ofrighteousness andaheightenedsenseofpublic.respon­
sibilities of theprivatesector.
5.
Promotesystematicexplorationof,andfostereducationregarding,man'sinnerlife,
hissubjectiveexperience.
6.Plan
adequatesocialcontrolsfor thetransitionperiodwhilesafeguardingagainst
longer-termlosses offreedom.
Followingaresomeexemplaryprojectsthatderivefromorare
compatiblewiththisoverallstrategy.
PromotingNationalandWorldAwareness
•Generatedialogue,possibly in connectionwiththeAmericanIssuesForumtobe
conductedduringthe U.S.Bicentennialyear, relatingto thenature,necessity,and
235

250. 236 ChangingImages of Man
timingof the transformation,andthedefinitionof a moreworkablepost-industrial
society .
•
Preparedialogue-focusingmaterials(pamphlets,videotapes,etc.) relatingto the
broadcharacteristicsof thetransformation,thechallengeof the "newscarcity,"the
futureofwork,economicincentivestofosterecologically soundbehavior,alternate
fates of thepoornations,possibilitiesof a"steady-state"economy,etc.
AddressingGlobal andLarge-scaleProblems
•FollowingPlatt(1969),initiate andsupportcoordinatingcouncilsto focus and
legitimateresearchonsolutionsto ourmajorfuturesystemiccrises.
•
Supportprojectstogenerateimagesofpost-industrialsocialorganization andglobal
community,test forresolutionof keydilemmasofhigh-technologysociety,
deduce
normsofhumanbehaviorwhichwould permittheseimagesto berealized.
•Developamulti-level
planningnetworktoprovidecoordinatedparticipativeplan­
ninginsuchareasaseconomic development,landuse,education,environment,
transportation,familyassistance,communications.(Amodelfor thenational-level
portionofsucha networkisdelineatedinSenatorHumphrey'sBalancedNational
Growth
andDevelopmentPolicy Bill, S-3050.)
•Developthecapabilityto
carryoutanticipatoryplanningforfuturecrises (as
contrastedwithreactiveplanningafterthe crisis hasoccurred).
•Fundresearchtodevelop theapplicationof systemsanalysisto the globalenviron­
ment,to allowmorerapidassessmentofinterconnectivityof globalsystems,the
natureof therelationships amongthem,andthevaryingcontributionofmajor
regionsof the world to perturbationsof the systems.
•Developsimulation
andgeneralsystems-analysistools forapplicationtocomplex
environmentalsystems,managementoforganizations,ecologicalsimulation,etc.
• Map the
majorglobalsystems,indicating nations/corporationsresponsiblefor their
managementplusassessmentof the minimumconditionsnecessaryfor theirmain­
tenance.
•
Studyways ofmakingcomplexsocialsystemslessvulnerableto system breakdown
(eitheraccidentalordeliberatelycaused),e.g. developmentofsystem-independent
alternativetechnologiesfor continuedlife-supportduringbreakdown.
•Explorethepossibilityof ageneral-systemsanthropological-sociological-biological
paradigmofhumanecology,takingintoaccountculturalimages,biological rhythms,
relationswith nature,rapidenvironmentalchanges,etc.
FosteringSocialandInstitutionalExperimentation
•Promoteexperimentswithsteady-stateeconomics,newformsof "general-benefit"
corporations,new life styles, etc.
•
Fundexperimentalcommunitiesto testvariousalternative futurescenarios.
•Develop
"BlueprintforSurvival"types ofprojects.
•
Promoteexperimentstoimprovecommunicationsandreconciliationofdifferences
between
groupsholdingdifferentconceptualparadigms.
StudiesofEthics andValues
•Carryoutresearchon changingethicsandvalues inadvancedSOCIetIes,focusing
particularlyonimplications
forthefutureof theadvancedworld.
•
Studyhistoricalexamplesofrelative amountsofcompetitiveversuscooperative

251. AppendixE 237
behaviorasaffectedby stressconditions,withparticularemphasison thecultural
factorsinfluencingthebalance.
•Exploreuses of massmediato
alertpopulationsto thesocialmacro-problem andto
behaviorsessentialto itsultimateresolution.
Researchon theNature ofMan
•Researchinto the broadestpossiblerangeofconsciousprocessesvia drugresearch,
hypnosis,biofeedback,etc., to activelyinvestigatethestate-specific
natureof science
andtobreakloosefrom presentlimitationson the currenttechnologicalparadigm.
•Investigationof man'sperceptionoftime:the sense of emergencyisdirectlyrelated
to thetemporalsenseof theindividual.
Whatarethefactorscontrollingthis? What
are the possibilities inmodulationof time sense sothatwebecomealerttopotential
crises with a
longerlead time?
• Activeresearchintoalternateproblem-solvingmodes,employing
methodsofstimu­
latingcreativity,inventivestates of
mind,etc.
•Researchinto the
traininganduse ofparanormalperception(possibly viabehavioral
techniques)toaccentuatetheevolutionof
certainessentialaspectsof man'scon­
sciousness.
•Investigationof thesensitivityof the
humanorganismto thechanges wroughtin the
environmentbyindustrialactivities-e.g.electromagneticpollution,noisepollu­
tion-andtechniquesfor theloweringofthese. Whatarethe effects ofpopulation
densityofimage-of-manconcerns? Whatkinds ofcharacteristicsin environmental
designareessentialto theoverall healthof thehumanbeing?Thislatteriscrucialas
manspendsmore andmoretotal time incompletelyartificialspaces.
•Investigationof the effects of biological
entrainment,biologicalrhythms,etc.
•Researchon the effects of
one'sthoughts(attitudes,emotionalstates) on thelower
microorganismsin the
body-whichtogetherformessentialsymbioticsybsystems on
which thefunctioningof the
largerhumansystemdepends;relationshipto psy­
chosomaticiIlness.
•Researchinto how todevelopcapacityto usesevennew"sensesof the
mind"(proposed
by
TeilharddeChardininThePhenomenonof Man,suggestedto us byProfessorJonis
A. Roze)
thatwould allow anexpandedevolutionarypicturetobecomecomprehen­
sible:
I. Asenseof spatialimmensity, recognizingeverything,fromthesubatomicto the
supergalactic
andallthatis inbetween,as animmensitywithinwhich we can follow in
ourmindsthe lines andradiithatleadtowardus fromeveryobject,however far
awayandhoweverclose orwithin.
2. Asenseofdepth,or asenseof time,breakingoutfromthe narrowconfinesof the
immediatepastevents
andknownhistories thatconditionthe perceptionofour
whole life.Thiswouldenableus tosenseendlesssequencesin timegoing farbeyond
theimmediate
humantime-referencescale, even for humanityas awhole, andto
encompasssequences
andeventsof billions of years ofdurationandflow.
3. Asenseofnumber,denotingtheprofoundinterdependenceandinteractionthat
everymovementandchange,howeverslight, demonstrates"thebewildering
multitudeofmaterialor living elements."Thisis akin to theexpression thatone
cannotpluckabladeof grasswithoutthe tremblingof astar,i.e. thesimplestact
reverberates
andtouchesmyriadsofthings aroundit.
4. Asenseofproportion,acknowledgingin ourmindlevelsuponlevels oforganizationof
theuniverse,eachexpressingits own
uniquereality:theworldof quarksandatoms
with itslawfulness
andinteraction,the world ofminerals andcrystals, the world of
animals
andplants,the world of manwith itsuniquelawsandinteractions,andso on,
spreadingfrommicrocosmstomacrocosms.
5. Asenseofquality,recognizingcertainnew stages ofevolutionary growthand
perfectionandtheexcellenceof theirexpressionthatiscompletein itself, yet

252. 238 ChangingImages of Man
withoutisolatingthemor stoppingtheprocessor "breakingthe physical unity of the
world."
6. Asenseofmovement,perceivingwithin theseemingimmobility,slowness and
repetitiousnessof the world theunderlying andongoingdevelopmentand
recognizingthe innerpushandexplosivepowerimpulsinganirresistiblemove
towardcreatingtheevolutionarynewness.
7. Asenseof theorganic,"discoveringphysical links andstructuralunity underthe
juxtapositionof successions andcollectivities"by which thenatural developmentof
anyprocess
andstructureis seen as anorganicorauthentic phenomenon,partof the
naturalecology of theuniverse.

253. APPENDIX F
TheBasicParadigm ofaFutureSocio-culturalSystem=II:
VIRGINIAH.HINE
Center memberVirginia Hineis an anthropologist at the University ofMiami.She has been
collaborating with anthropologistLutherP. Gerlach of the University of Minnesota on studies
of"movements
"-political,social, religious, self-help, and others.Hineand Gerlach
characterize these structures as "segmented polycephalous networks." In thefollowingpaper
written for
WorldIssues Hinedraws an
analogybetween thesenon-hierarchicalgroups and
multinationalcorporations.
Futuristsofvariouspersuasionsextrapolatetrends,createscenarios,
designglobalculturesandcomputerizeutopias.Unwillingto acceptthe
apparentlyhaphazardtrial-and-errorprocessbywhich evolutionary
changeshaveoccurredinthepast,manywhoweretrainedinthe
man-in-control-of-naturemytharenowheroicallyattemptingto fillthe
roleofman-in-control-of-evolution.Asvariousschoolsof futurists
competeforfunds,influence,andacrackattheglobalcontrols,
evolutionhasbeenbumblingalongin itsaccustomedway,caromingoff
thewalls ofresistanceto change,pickingupaviablemutanthereand
there,andspawningevenmoregloriousvariations. Eventherational
plansofthefuturistsaregristforitsmulti-facetedmill.
Perhapsthetimehascomewhenwecanpenetratethemistsandsee
theshapeofthingstocome,notas wemighthaveplannedthem,butas
theyareinfactemerging.Piecingtogetherarangeofobservationsby
anthropologists,sociologists,it ispossibleto suggestthatthebasic
paradigmof afuturesocio-culturalsystemis alreadyborn-mulingand
pukingin itsinfantilestate,buthere.
Mostfuturistsassumethebureaucraticmodeto betheonly
mechanismbywhich largenumbersofpeoplecanbeorganized.
Therefore,incontemplatingtheemergenceofaglobalsociety they
takeitforgrantedthataglobalbureaucracyofsomesortisinevitable.
Theyargueonlyaboutwhetheritcanbedemocraticinnatureorwill,
ofnecessity,
bea"Leviathan,"costinglargesumsofindividual
freedoms.Others,oftenconsideredimpracticalidealists,talkof
• World Issues(publishedby the CenterforDemocraticInstitutions),April/May1977.
239

254. 240 ChangingImages of Man
debureaucratizationanddecentralization,butofferfewideasas to how
thisstateofaffairs
couldcomeabout.Theassumptionismadethat
thoseinpositionsofeconomicandpoliticalpowerareunlikelyto
voluntarily
changetheirmodeofoperationbecausethesourceoftheir
poweristhebureaucraticstructure.
Inthepastfifteenyears therehasbeenanintensificationof effortby
thepowerlessin nationsaroundtheworldto organizethemselvesto
effectsocial
structuralchange.Duringthelasttenoftheseyears,
LutherP.GerlachoftheUniversityofMinnesotaandIhavebeen
doingresearchin awide rangeoftheseso-called"movements."We
havefoundthatnomatterwhatthe"cause,"thegoals,orthebeliefs,
andnomatterwhattypeofmovementitis-political,social,religious­
thereisthesamebasicstructuralformandmodeoffunctioning.
Whereverpeopleorganizethemselvesto changesomeaspectofsociety,
a
non-bureaucraticbutveryeffectiveformoforganizationalstructure
seemsto emerge.
Wecalled thetypeofstructurewewereobservinga"segmented
polycephalousnetwork,"aclumsyphrasethatled toanacronymSPN,
pronounced"spin."Forreasonswhichwill becomeclearasthedis­
cussion
unfolds,it willhenceforthbewrittenasSP(I)N.
Conventionalorganizationchartsusuallyinvolveboxes arrangedin a
hierarchicalorderwiththecontrollingboxeitheratthetoporthe
bottom.Anorganizationchartof aSP(I)Nwould looklike abadly
knottedfishnetwitha multitudeofnodesorcells ofvaryingsizes,each
linkedto alltheotherseitherdirectlyorindirectly.Someofthosecells
withinthenetworkwould,inthemselves,behierarchically organized
bureaucraciesrecognizedbythepublicas regional,national,oreven
internationalorganizations.Examplesfromtheenvironmentalmove­
mentweretheAudubonSocietyortheSierraClub.Counterpartsin
Black
LiberationwouldbetheNAACP,theUrbanLeagueorCORE.
Feminismhas its NOWandRedPoweritsNational Congressof
AmericanIndians.Butin allthesemovementnetworks,themajority
of cellsarelocalgroupsofvaryingsizesfromahandfulofmembersto
several
hundreds,someorganizedaccordingtotheconventionalmode,
manyadhoc,egalitarian,face-to-facegroupsthatareheretodayand
goneorreorganizedtomorrow.Themultitudeofnodesorcellswithin
a
movementstructurecanbelooselylumpedintosegmentswhichhang
togetherideologicallyorintermsofpreferredtactics.Thisfactionalism
functionstoescalatethespeedwithwhich themovementgrowsandto
bringaboutchangedresponsesfromthe"establishment"more
effectivelythananyonesegmentcoulddoalone.Inaddition,fac­
tionalism
preventstakeoverbyanyonesegmentthroughthe
mechanismoftemporarycoalitionsbetweenothersegmentstooffset
attemptedcontrolbyone.

255. Appendix F 241
Whilea bureaucracyissegmentedinthesensethatit hasdivisions
anddepartments,it isanorganicwholein thatitspartsaredesignedto
performspecializedtasksnecessaryto thefunctioningofthewhole.
Decapitateit,
ordestroya vitalorgan,andthesocialorganismceases
to
functioneffectively.ASP(I)N, ontheotherhand,iscomposedof
autonomoussegmentswhichareorganizationallyself-sufficient, anyof
which
couldsurvivetheeliminationof alloftheothers.Thebiological
analogyof
thebureaucraticmodeoforganizationisthevertebrate,that
of aSP(l)N,anearthworm.Thisisthefeatureofmovementorganization
thatis sofrustratingtothosewhowouldlike to suppressoneorgain
controlof it.
Thesecondcharacteristicof theSP(I)Nmodeoforganizationis
decentralization.
Movementsdonothaveasingleparamountleader
whocancontrolorevenspeakfortheentiremovement.Eachcell has
its
owncellorsegmentandmaynotberecognizedas aleaderby
membersofothersegmentsofthemovement.Leadersareoften
charismaticindividuals whocollectcirclesof devotedfollowers.Often,
howeveras hissegmentgrows,unsungorganizationalleadersrise to
promotethefunctioningofthelocalgroupsidentifiedwith him,and
thelinkedsegmentssurvivethedeathorjailingof thecharismatic
individualverywell.
Frequentlyaleaderis nomorethanprimus inter
pares,orfirstamongequals,whospeaksforthegrouponlyoncertain
occasionsandcaninfluenceconsensusdecision-makingratherthan
makedecisionsforthegroup.Thosewhohavetriedtosuppressa
movementbysilencingits mostvisibleleadersfindthattheyarecoping
witha hydra-headedmonsterwherenewleadershipseemsto popup
outofnowhere.Inaddition,anyoneleaderhasinfluenceonlywithin
his
owncellorsegmentandmaynotbeknowntoactiveparticipantsin
othergroupsidentifiedwith themovement.
Therealkey tounderstandingthepowerofaSP(l)Nisrecognizing
thenatureoftheunifyingforcesthatkeepthestructurefromdisin­
tegrating.OneoftheforcesthatintegratesaSP(l)Nis a rangeof
horizontalorganizationallinkages;theotherisideological.
Non-vertical
organizationallinkagesareofseveraltypes.First, there
isoverlappingmembership.Whennumbersofpeoplemobilizetoeffect
social
change,thesegmentedorganizationalpatternthatemergesin­
volvesindividual
participationinmorethanonesegment.Participants
in
anymovementcharacteristicallybelongto,support,orinteractwith
several
differentnodesinthenetwork-sometimesnodesthatarevery
differently
organizedandhaveapparentlyconflictinggoals and
ideologicalvariations. Frequentlytheschismatictendenciescharac­
teristicof thesegmentarymodeoforganizationresultin asplitwithin
onenode,likethewell-publicizedsplitwithin theSierraClubleader­
shipduringtheheightoftheenvironmentalmovement.Thisresulted
Cf M
-A

256. 242 ChangingImages of Man
in
theformationofanotherorganization, theFriendsoftheEarth,by
theoustedfaction.ManySierraClubmembers,unscathedbythe
soul-searingeruptionandatthecore,cheerfullyjoinedFOEwhile
continuingto beactivein theSierraClub,forminglinkagesbetween
thetwogroupsinspiteof theirdifferences.
Thereis agreatdealofinteractionbetweenleadersof cells in a
movementstructurewhichmaylinka few localgroupsintoa close
association
orconnecthundredsofgroupsacrossthecountryinloose
andindirectways.Frequentlytheleaderofonegroupwill be a
follower-memberinanother.Oftenthelinkageis maintainedby
periodicvisits bytheleaderofonegroupwhospeaksto orworkswith
another'sforatime.Thesetypesof ties tendtocementgroupsof
similarideology intolargeinteractingsegments,ormayoperateacross
segmentlineslinkinggroupswithquitedisparateformsoforganization
orideologicalapproach.
Stillanothertypeoflinkageisthe"ritualactivity"-therallies,
demonstrations,marches,conferences,revivalmeetings,jointactivities
of
onesortoranother.Thetemporarycollaborationbetweendisparate
groupswithinthemovementrequiredbythesetypesofactivities cut
acrosssegmentcleavagesandbindtheautonomouscells insignificant,
unifyingevents.
Perhapsthemostsignificantaspectofthesegmentarymodeof
organizationistheroleoftheideologicalbond.Therealglueof a
SP(I)Nis
representedbytheI intheparenthesis.TheS,theP,andtheN
representorganizationalfactorswhich canbehandledatthesociologi­
cal level ofanalysis.
Butthepowerofaunifyingideaaddsaqualita­
tively
differentelementtotheequation.Thepowerlies in adeep
commitmentto averyfewbasic tenetssharedby all.Agreementonall
of
theideologicalvariations wouldbenon-functionalfortheseg­
mentaryformoforganization.Itisthepassionateargumentabout
theseconflictingvariations andaboutconflictingconceptsof how to
implementmovementgoalsthatkeepthesegmentsseparateandin
enoughoppositiontopreventanattemptedtakeoverbyanyone
segment.
Thesegmentarymodeoforganizationisnotarecentinnovation,nor
has itbeenusefulonlytothosewhowantchange.Manypre-industrial
societiesinAfrica andtheMiddleEastwereorganizedaccordingtothe
segmentaryprinciple.Itprovidedanefficientmodeoforganizationfor
groupsofseveralhundredsofthousandsofpeopleandtendedto
remainrelativelystable overtensofthousandsofyears.Thisis in
contrasttothehierarchical,stratifiedmodesoforganizationwhichare
notablefortheirinherentinstability,in whathascometo beknownas
theriseandfall ofcivilizations. Inthosesocietiesstructuredonthe

257. .4ppendix F 243
segmentaryprinciple,unifyingideologywasusually thatofcommon
ancestry.Theclassicexampleisthedeserttribesin Arabiawhowerein
continualfratricidalconflict butwhoalwayssurprisedtheirwould-be
conquerorsbyanincrediblecapacitytocoalesce, apparentlyovernight,
intoaunifiedfightingforce.
Itisimpossibleto exploreproperly,inthisspace,why theSP(I)N
mightbeanadaptivepatternof socialorganizationfortheglobal
societyof
thefuture.Suffice it to saythatit isprecisely thesortof
patternconsistentwithavisionof "theglobalvillage," "debureaucra­
tization,""decentralization,"and"re-humanization."Inverypractical
terms,ourresearchdatasuggestthattheSP(I)Ntypeofstructure
doesseveralthings:itencouragesfullutilizationof individualand
small-groupinnovationwhileminimizingtheresultsoffailure;it
promotesmaximumpenetrationofideasacrosssocio-economic and
culturalbarrierswhilepreservingculturalandsub-culturaldiversity;it
isflexible
enoughtoadaptquicklyto changingconditions;anditputsa
structuralpremiumonegalitarian,personalisticrelationshipskills in
contrasttotheimpersonalisticmodeofinteractionsuitedtothe
bureaucraticparadigm.
Howaboutthepictureseenfromthetopdown?Itissuggestedthat
we doindeednowhavewhat"one-worlders"havebeendemandingfor
decades-asupra-nationallevel oforganizationcapableofreducing
internationalconflictandassumingthetaskofglobalresource
management.Rationalattemptstoinventsuchastructure-theLeague
ofNationsandthentheUnitedNations-havefailed,it issaid, because
theywerebuiltupontheveryformof socialorganizationtheywere
designedtosupersede-thenationstate.I wouldsuggestthatthese
attemptsalsofailedbecause theircreatorswereunabletobreakoutof
theculturalassumptionoftheinevitabilityof thebureaucraticmodeof
organization.
Whathas,in fact, emergedis aqualitatively differentformof
organization,anovelmechanismofglobalmanagementthatisalready
functioningtomakelarge-scalewarfareimpractical,thereforeobsolete,
andis infactallocatingglobal resourcesandmanagingglobalproduc­
tivity.Justasparticipantsingrassrootsmovementsoftenfail to
recognize
theorganizationalgeniusoftheSP(I)Nwithinwhich they
areoperating,andcallformorecentralizedcontrol,somanyin­
dividualswho
areparticipantsintheglobalmanagementSP(I)Nalso
fail torecognizeit as
anorganizationalstructure.
Academiciansfromavarietyofdisciplinesuse avarietyof termsto
describetheactorsin this supranationalnetwork.Manyspeakofan
"oligarchy."Othersusetermslike"global powerelites,""managerial
elites,"and"globalmanagers."Mostofthesediscussions,ofcourse,

258. 244 ChangingImages of Man
centeraroundthephenomenalgrowthofthemultinationalcor­
porationssinceWorldWarII.Manyarepointingoutthatthis new
level of
organizationisalreadybeyondthecapacityof thenationstates
to
controlit, as ifthepowerofthemultinationalcorporationandthe
authorityofthenationstaterepresentedopposingforces.
Themostpenetratinginsightintothetruenatureof thisemergent,
supra-nationallevel of socialorganizationhascomefromanthro­
pologistAlvinWolfewho begantocatchtheoutlinesof it duringhis
studyoftheminingindustryinSouthAfrica.Hesuggeststhatit is a
new level ofsocio-cultural
integration,a newsystemof social control
"somewhatindependentofthecurrentlytroublesomeunits,thenation
states,"thoughthesearecomponents.Wolfecalls it an"imperfectly
boundednetwork"which"bindsgroupsthataredifferentbothstruc­
turallyandfunctionally."Thesegmentarynatureof thisglobal
organizationalstructurebecomesclearerasonepiecestogetherthe
workofscholarslikeWolfe, theCenter'sNeilJacoby,G.William
Domhoff,RichardN.Goodwinin hisTheAmericanCondition, and
RichardBarnet'sandRonaldMuller'sGlobal Reach.
Thefourmajorsegmentsoftheglobalmanagementnetworkare
upperleveldecision-makersinthemulti-nationalcorporations,in in­
ternationalfinancialinstitutions,in thegovernmentsofbothin­
dustrializedandunderdeveloped"host"countries,andrepresentatives
ofpowerfulfamiliesin Europe,theAmericas,theMiddleEast, South
Africa,thePhilippinesandAsia.
Inouranalysisof theSP(I)Nsat thegrassrootslevel, wenotedthat
someofthecomponentsegmentswithinthenetworkarehierarchically
organizedandcentrallycontrolledbutthatthenetworkas awholewas
polycentric,no
onecomponentable toexertcontrolovertherest.
Wolfe
andothersnotethesamecharacteristicofthesupra-national
network.Multinationalcorporationsareorganizedaccordingto
differentmodes,someusingadecentralizedmodeofoperation.trans­
nationally
andsomemaintaininghighlycentralizedcontrolinthe
internationalheadquarters.Nationstatesalsovaryin thedegreeof
centralization.
Inanycase,theinternalstructureofanyonecomponent
in aSP(I)Nis irrelevanttothestructureofthenetworkas awhole.As
Wolfe
pointsout,atthegloballevel of operation,eventhemost
bureaucraticsegments"losetheirhierarchical/centralized/pyramidal
structure"andinteractwiththeupperechelonsofothercorporations,
governments,financialinstitutionsandfamilyrepresentativesinan
"interlocking/overlappingstructure."Hestressesthelackofabsolute
powerinthehandsofanyofthecomponents.Eventhoughthis
relativelysmall
groupofglobaldecision-makersmayhaveabsolute
powerwithintheirownsegments,theconflictinggoals andinterestsof

259. Appendix F 245
differentsegmentspreventpermanentstructuralunity,andtherefore
centralizedcontrolbyanyonegroup.
Examiningthetypesoflinkagesthatbindthesegmentsoftheglobal
network,we findsomeremarkableparallelswith thetypesoflinkages
we
observedinthegrassrootsSP(I)Ns. Wherewe sawpatternsof
overlappingmembershipsandpersonaltiesbetweenleadersin a
movement,studentsoftheglobalpowerstructurenotesuchlinking
mechanismsasinterlockingdirectorships,commonshareholdings,
sharedsubsidiaries(oftenby amultinationalcorporationandthe
governmentof a"host"country),andthewell-documented
phenomenonofinterchangeabilityofpersonnel.
Therise of a"managerialelite"providesanotherlinking
mechanism.Networksofpersonaltiesareformedascorporateexecu­
tivesmove
fromonehierarchytoanotherintheirascenttopositionsof
globalinfluence.
Thetemporarycoalitionof segmentsin agrass rootsmovementfora
specificactivity
hasparallelsin theglobalpowerstructureinthe
phenomenonofthe"projectteam."Theriseof temporary,special-task
organizationsleadsto whatAlvinTofHercalls "adhocracy,"sets of
horizontallinkagesthatcutacrossbureaucratichierarchies.Itinvolves
flexible
formation,dissolutionandreformationofteamsdrawnfrom
differentlevelswithinabureaucratichierarchyandfromcomparable
levels inothercorporateorgovernmentalhierarchies,andrequiresa
typeof
interactionthatismorecharacteristicofnetworkinterchange
thanformalhierarchy.
Thelinkingfunctionoftherevivalmeeting,thedemonstration,the
rally,andthe"ritualactivities"of thegrassrootsSP(I)Ns is paralleled
intheglobalmanagerialnetworkby avarietyof overlappingsocial
clubs
andpolicyorganizations.G.WilliamDumhoffhasdocumented
theroleof socialclubsin cementingpersonaltiesandcreatingideolo­
gical
consensusamongcorporateexecutives,financial leaders,high
levelgovernmentofficials,andmembersofpowerfulfamiliesunder
suchirreverenttitles as"HowtheFatCatsKeepinTouch."The
powerfulmeetnotonlyinexclusive playgroundsamongtheCalifornia
redwoods,butinpolicy-makinggroupsliketheBusinessCouncil, the
CouncilofForeignRelations,theCommitteeforEconomicDevelop­
mentwhichsupplypersonnelfora widerangeofspecialcommissions
andimportantgovernmentappointments.
Thepowerofideologyto unifyanorganizationallysegmentedstruc­
tureisthekey tounderstandingtheemergingparadigm.Thisunify­
ingforcehasverylittleto dowith external"agreement."Theoutside
observerofanySP(I)Nseesmostlyconflictingideologicalstances and
divergentgoals.Thebindingforce,as notedearlier,is inthecommit-

260. 246 ChangingImages of Man
mentto a few basicandsharedassumptions.Theideologicalconflict
betweenvariationsonthesebasicthemes,manifestedinthestructural
diversity,producedwhatsomehavecalledthe"fission-fusion"tension.
ComponentswithintheglobalSP(I)N shiftpatternsofalliances­
antagonistsononeset ofissues orproblemsand"bedfellows"in
tackling
thenext.IndividualparticipantsintheglobalSP(I)N seemto
havea
remarkablecapacityforshiftingloyalties.Theycanfunctionat
theupperlevel of anumberoftypesof organization-governmentalor
corporate-eventhoughthefunctionsofthedifferentorganizations
maybeconflicting.Itisthepowerof asharedconceptualframework
thatkeepsaSP(I)N unifiedandmakesitpossibleforindividualsto
shiftallegiances
withinit.Itistheconflictingconceptsofgoals-means
thatpreventanyonesegmentfromtakingpermanentcontroloverall
theothers.
Thepointhereis torecognizethepowerof a
r."wbasicassumptions
tounifyorganizationallydisparategroups.Itisthekey torecognizing
thisqualitativelydifferentmodeoforganization-onesoaliento the
bureaucraticallymindedthatitappearsto beeithernon-existentoris
interpretedas a"conspiracy."Manyobserversoftheprotestmove­
mentsduringtheSixtiesfell intobothtraps.Thefirsttrapis now
catchingpeoplewhopressforlegislationrequiringdismantlingoflarge
corporationsortightercontrolovermultinationalsbynationstates.
Thisis tomisunderstandtheorganizationalstructurebindingthe
upperlevels ofthecorporategiantsandthenationstatesintoa
networkofsharedandconflictinginterests. The"conspiracy"trap
catchesmanyparticularlyindiscussionsof theoil crisis. AsGoodwin
pointsout,thereis noneedforconspiracy.It is onlynecessarythat
managers,corporateorgovernmental,understandandfollowthe
"rulesofbehaviordictatedbythestructurethatbindsthem"andthe
"setofstableassumptions,"oftenunspoken,thatinformdecision­
making.Decisionsmadebypeoplewhoshareassumptions,even
thoughtherehasbeennodiscussion betweenthem,willproduce
actionssosimilar thatthereappearsto becollusion eventhoughthe
actorsthemselvesfeel theyoccupyconflictingpositions.
We
wouldarguethattheSP(I)Nmodeoforganizationisnotonlya
viable
oneforaglobalsociety, morefunctionalthanthebureaucratic
modeofthepassingera,butthatitis infact theonethatisemerging
whetherwechooseitornot.Boththepowerlessandthepowerfulhave
utilizedit as theyhavetriedtomeetthechangingconditions.The
powerlessfindit functionalinfightinginequities.Thepowerfulhave
founditworkableas theyexpandedtheirsphereofactivitybeyond
nationalboundariestotheglobalscene. Thoughit isbeyondthescope
of this
paper,thereisincreasingevidenceofmanymiddle-range

261. Appendix F 247
regionalandtransnationalnetworkscuttingacrosstraditionalvertical
linesof
power.Theprincipleof"horizontal"integrationisemergingat
manylevels.
NoneoftheseSP(I)Ns haveemergedas aresultofrational
planning.Likeanyotherevolutionarynovelty,theyemergeoutof
functionalnecessity.Onlyafterthefactcanwebringreasonandlogic
to
bearinunderstandingwhatishappeningandismakingrational
decisionsaboutwhatmightfacilitateorinhibitthechanges.Ifthis
modeloftheemergingparadigmhasanyvalidity,theorganizational
structureofthefutureisalreadybeingcreatedbythemostas well as
theleastpowerfulwithinthepresentparadigm.Itisveryclear,
however,thattheideologieswhich informSP(I)Nsat thetwo levels
arediametricallyopposed.Perhapsoneofthecrucialtasksin the
immediatefutureis toclarifyandexposetheunderlyingassumptions
thatprovidetheideological"glue"forSP(I)Nsemergingatvarious
levels of
theglobalsocial structure.Thekey tothefuturemayverywell
be
conceptualratherthanorganizational.

262. Index
Aaronson,B.,andOsmond,H. 92, 151
Abundance,povertyof 50-52
Acupuncture87
Adamenko,V. G. 96
Adelman,I.,andMorris,C. T. 57
Adey, W.
R.86
Affluence,
freedomin 53,55-56
Age ofFaith26--27
AhuraMazda23
Allen,F. L.
5.1.
AmericanCreed35-40, 63, 64
AmericanHumanistAssociation31
AmericanPsychologicalAssociation83
Anand,B. K.,Chhina,G. S.,andSingh,
B.92
Anderson,M.,andWhite,R. 95
AngraMainyu23
Anokhin,P. 86
Appositional
mind84
Aquinas,T. 27
Arbib,M. 74
Ardrey,R.28, 29
Arendt,H. 71
Aristotle25, 104
Artificialintelligence79
Aserinsky,E.,
andKleitman,N. 90
Ashby,W.
R.73, 100
Assagioli,R. 93, 125, 129, 130, 136, 151
Associationfor
HumanisticPsychology
31,41
Associationfor TranspersonalPsychology
31
Augustine,Saint27
Aurobindo,Sri 93, 125, 132, 153, 222
Awareness,
gradientof 128-129
Backster,C. 134
Barber,T. X. 89
Barnothy,M. 87
Barron,F. 151
Bateson,G. 99, 102
Baudouin,C. 4, 153
Beal,
J.B. 96
Beale,G. 71
Becker,R. O. 86
Behaviorism,view of
modern29-30
Behavioristic
man166
Bellman,
R.175
Bernal,J.D. 82
Bertalanffy
seevonBertalanffy
Bioelectricfields 86--87
Biofeedback85,89-90,151
Biological
freudianism81
Biological
rhythms86-87
Bogen,J.84
Bohm,D. 72
Bohr,N. 75
Boulding,E. xv,2,17,49,81,90,145,151,
219-222
Boulding,K. E. 100, 153
Boisen,A.
T.146, 147
Brainresearch72, 83-86
Brand,W. G.andL. W. 95
Bremerman,H.J.72
Brinton,C.,etat.46
Bronowski,J.76
Brooks,C. H. 4, 149, 153
Bucke,R. M. 35
Buckley,W. 100
Bureaucrats8
Cahoon,D. xv, 177,179,233-234
Campbell,D.T.104, 132
Campbell,J.vii, xv, xx, xxii, 7, 125, 146,
149, 152
Casteneda,C. 91
Cerebralcortex100
Chaitanya,K. 87
Chapanis,A. 78
Chaudhuri,H. 151
China21,22
Christianity23, 46--47
Churchill,W. 177
Ciba
Foundation102
Cicero36
Civilization,literate21
Claiborne,R.54
Clairvoyance95
Clark,K. B. 30, 83, 84, 86
Clifford,W. 75
Collins,K. vii, xviii
Colquhoun,W. P. 86
Commoner,B. 79
Computersciences78
Conant,J.B. 68
249

263. 250 Index
Conceptualfeasibility138-141
Consciousness
research87-94,116,134, 138
Controldeficiencies59
Copernicus,N. 27, 67, 71
Cosmicconsciousness34-35CoU(~,E. 4
Creativity34, 85
Culturaldiffusion17
Cummins,G. 132
Cybernetics78, 99-102
Darwin,C.
28-29,67,71,80,81
Dean,E. D. 95
deBeauvoir,S. 178
Deficiency
needs129
Deikman,A.92, 116
Delgado,
J.30, 83, 84, 85
de
Ropp,R.S. 69
Deutsch,
M.69
Dixon,
H. L.vii
Dixon,
N.F.71,93,97
Dobzhansky,T. 80
Dole, S. H. 82
Downs,
A.55
Dreaming90-91
Duane,T. D.,andBehrendt,T. 95
Dubos,
R.vii, xv,xxiii,58-59,71, 79, 81,
178,231
Dumhoff,G.W.244
Dunn,E. S., jr. xv, 121, 125, 138, 140, 142,
156, 180
Dunne,J.W. 91
Earth,developednationsof 13
Earthecology10
Easterlin,
R.52
Eccles,
J.97
Ecologicalethic114
Economicimage,
growingimpotenceof
62-64
Economic
man,imageof45-64
Eddington,A.S. 76
Edelstein,K.
L.104
Education:aim of society 174
Ehrlich,P. R. 79
Einstein,
A.75, 76, 85
Electricalstimulationof
thebrain
(ESB)84,86
Electroencephalograph(EEG)patterns
88,90,92, 98
Elgin,D. vii
Eliade,M. 1, 137
Eliot, T. S. 137
Elsasser,W. 81
Emerson,R. W. 34
Emmet,D. xxi
Englebart,D. C. 78
Epimetheus68-69
Epistemology104, 105
Erasmus,D. 36
Erikson,E. 146
Ethics38-39, 221-223, 225-227, 230-231,
23~237
Ethnologicalman166
Ethnology,the
"other"167
Evans,
W.O.,andKline,N.S. 93
Everett,
A. 77
Evolutionarytransformationalistimage
6g-64,165, 171-180, 205
Exobiology82
Extrasensoryperception(ESP) 71, 91, 95,
96,220,223
Extraterrestrialintelligence82
Fadiman,J.xv
Faraday,A.91
Farberow,N.71
Farrington,D. 104
Fascism,friendly
169,170-171,234
Ferguson,M.xx
Fingarette,H.147
Fischer,
R.77,85, 86
Fisher,SirRonald101
Forbes,
R.J.45
Fox, S.
W.82
Frank,J.D. 120
Franklin,W.vii, xviii
Freewill 37
Freud,S. 28, 68, 81, 90, 91, 93, 129, 166,
224
Fromm,E. 178
Fuller,
R.B.73, 79
Functions7-8
Fundamentalanomaly
natureof
190-191
resolutionof 191-194
Futureshock163, 234
Futuretrends,contrasting164-166
Galbraith,J.K. 45, 193
Galileo,G.
27,71,171
Galvani,
L.83
Garfield,E. 79
GeneralSystemsTheory99-102
Genetics81
Gerlach,L.P. xv, xxi, 148, 238-239
Germany155-156
Gestalt
Therapy3, 118, 145, 152-153,
159
Gnostic
path24

264. Index 251
Goals,individual andsocial173-175
Goedel72, 79
Goertzel,V. andM. G. 147
Goodversusevil 36
Gordon,W.J.151
Gradient125-133,205
Graves,C. 52, 130
Greekviews24-25
Green,E.96
Gross,B.M.40, 165, 166, 169, 170
Grossnational product(GNP),growth
of53-54
Haldane,J.B. S. 79
Ham(son ofNoah)22-23
Hampden-Turner,C.xv,41, 132
Handler,P.80,82-83
Harman,W.vii, xvii,67
Harman,W.,Markley, 0.,andRhyne,
R. xvii
Hastings,
A.vii
Hastings
Center14
Hawthorneeffect74
Hayes,W.81
Healer,J.86
Heard,G.159
Heilbroner,R.47,48,57,157
HeisenbergUncertaintyPrinciple74
Hess, W.R.83
Hilgard,E.71,88
Hine,V. H. xx,238-247
History,alternative interpretationof
219-220
Hobbes,T. 36, 166
Hoffer,E. 3
Holisticsenseofperspective
112,114,
121, 139, 140, 155, 160
Hollander,S.59
Holon32-33,135
Honorton,C.95
Hubbard,L.R.125, 132, 151
Hubble,E.76
HudsonInstitute8, 164
Human
asbeast28-29
asevolvingholon32-33
asmechanism29-30
asperson30-31
asspirit33-35
attributes,categoriesof 3
biocomputer,gradientin127-129
history,contrastingepochsof12
morality,gradientof130-132
needs,gradientof129-130
numbers,growthof 9
systems10
HumanisticCapitalism167
Humankind
Gestaltperceptionof3
imageofI, 53, 54, 62etseq.,112-122,
141
throughouthistory18-20
Humansasspecies79-81
Huss,J.27
Hutchins,R.174
Huxley,A.33, 125, 154, 167
Huxley,J.78, 81
Hynek,J.A.71
Hypnosis88-89,99
Imageofman
definitionof 2-3
early17-22
economic45-64
evolutionary124-161
historicalandmodern17-37
operationalfeasibilityof new 141-161
supportive170
Image/ societyresolution,insearch
of56-62
Imagery
subsystemandsupersystem135-136
transpersonalandpersonal133-135
Images
andsocial policy1-2
consequencesof changing163-181
contrastsbetweenalternative168
Incrementalchange120
Incubation148
India21, 22, 23, 33, 36
Individualidentity53, 55, 165
Individualism46-47
Industrialera,recent53, 62
Industrialstate
controlof58-61
paradigm64, 206
powerof57-58
Inflation14
Informationsystems223-225
Inkeles,A. 57
Inspiration34
Institutions175-177
Interdependence,increasing60-61
Internaldynamic62
jaeger,W.174
jeans,J.H.76
jefferson,T.36
johnson,R.135
judeo-Christianview ofman104, 140

265. 252 Index
Judge,A. 222
Jung,C. G.77,90,125, 138
Kahn,H.,
andBruce-Briggs,B. 9
Kamiya,
J.85, 89
Kantor,R. E. 125, 147
Kelley, D. M. 158-159
Kelvin, P. 71
Keniston,
K.51,57,59,62
Keynes,J.M. 51
Kinser,B.,
andKleinman,N. 155
Klapp,O. E. 31
Kleitman,N.,
andDement,W. C. 71
Knower-GnosticView 23-24
Knowledge
paradigm144
Koestler,A. 97, 135
Kohlberg,L. 125, 130, 131, 132
Kozyrev,N. A. 97
Krippner,S. xv, 71, 73, 88, 91,92,94,95,
130, 138, 151
Kropotkin,PrinceP. A. 28, 29, 221
Krueger,A. P. 86
Kuhn,T. S. 69-70, 98, 144, 145, 146, 149,
150, 161, 187
Kuznets,S. 59
Land,G. T. 132
Laszlo, E. xv, xx, 79, 102, 124, 160
Lavoisiercommission71
Leary,T. 195
LeShan,L.77, 99
Life-in-nature,
communityof 115
Life,
originof 82-83
Lifton,
R.J.I
Lilly,
J.C. 94, 124, 129
Locke,
J.29,36,121, 167
Lodge,G. C. xv, 122
Lonergan,B. 87
Lorenz,K. 28
Lovejoy,A. O. 47
Lowe, A. 193
Luce,G. 87
Luckman,B. 64
Luthe,W. 89
Luther,M. 27
Machiavelli,N. 36
Mackay,D. M. 223
Malinowski,B. K. 7
Man
andnature38
as
master47-48
asprocess
13&--138
asgrowthofpopulation10
Man-in-the-universe,imagesof 17, 42, 69,
77, 120, 133, 135,143,177
Manifold
trend14
Mankind,pastandfuturehistoryof 11,
12
Manning,S. vii
Margenau,H. vii, xv, 70, 72, 74, 76, 77, 95,
105,160-161,229-230
Marien,M. xv,
1,6,38,40,92,115, 132, 139,
151, 155, 156, 159, 161, 163, 169, 176
Markley,O. W. vii
Markley,
0.,Curry,D.,andRink,D. xviii
Martin,P. W. 91, 125, 145, 147, 148, 156
Maruyama,M. vii, xv, 32, 110, 118, 119,
122, 140
Maslow, A. 52, 125, 128, 129, 150, 172
Masters,R. E.,
andHouston,J.92, 151,
153-154, 220-221
Materialdistribution,
problemsof
Matson,F. vii
Maxwell,
J.C. 75
May, R.
46,47
Mazeway143, 144
McBain,W. N. 134
McHale,
J.vii, 9, 10, II
McKinney,D. vii
McLuhan,M. 78
Mead,M. vii, xv, 49, 56, 125, 136, 145,
154
Meadows,D. 79
Meadows,D.,
et al.xviii
Meditation91-92
Mendel,G.
J.70, 80
Mesthene,E. G. 59
Metaprograms129
Metzner,
R.xv, 41, 42, 116
Michael,D.vii,60,157,231
Miller, D.
C.,andForm,W. H. 45
Miller, N.
E.85,89
Miller, S.L.82
Mindversus
matter38
Minsky,M.
L.79
Modernsociety,relevanceofimages
to 3-15
Molecularbiology81
Monod,J.80
Monomyth146, 149
Moral
development,stagesof 131
Morality38-39
More,T. 36
Morrisson,P. 71
Mortalversus
immortal38
Moss, T. 95, 96
Multifold
TrendofWesternCulture8-9,
164
Mumford,L. 146
Muses,C.
94,97

266. Myers,F. W. H. 93, 135
Myrdal,
G.35-37,40
Mythic
transformations146-147
Myths,
current8
Nancyschoolofpsychology
4
Naturallaw47
New
Empire27-28
Newscarcity191-193, 196-197
Newton,
I.27,67,74, 85
Noah22
Noyes, R. 71
Index
Processtheology121
Production,factorsof 45
Promethean-Epimetheanconflict69
Prometheus68-69
Propositional
mind84
ProtestantEthic48
Psychedelic
drugs92-93
Psychic
research74, 94-99, 103
Psycho-civilizedsociety 30, 40, 84
Psychokinesis95, 98
Psychologicalrelativity85
Psychotechnologies84, 170
Puthoff,
H.,andTarg,R.98
253
Oates,J.C. 105
Oistraker,A.82
Ontogenesis142
Operantconditioning30
Operationalfeasibility157-161
O'Regan,B.vii
Orne,M. 74
Ostrander,S.,andSchroeder,L.96
Ouspensky,P. D. 125
Paidea174
Paradigm
definitionof 160-161, 205
in
transmutation68-72
possibly
emergent102-109
Parapsychology94-99
PaulofTarsus,Saint26
Pearce,
J.C. 13
Pearson,L.13
Perceptions4,85
PerennialPhilosophy33-35,41, 124, 135,
167, 183
Perls,
F.S. 91, 152-153
Personal
change152
Personal
transformations147-148
Personal-transpersonalmind/bodymodel
134
Phylogenesis142
Physicalsciences78-87
Physics
andcosmology,modern75-77
Pillsbury,B. vii
Planck,M.
K.E.L.75
Plato 25, 30
Platt,
J.R.vii, 88, 101,123,235
Polak,F. 17, 120, 154
Polanyi,M. 70, 85, 118, 124, 132, 173, 223
Pollution14
Populationbiology79
Precognition95
Presman,A. S. 86, 90
Problems,societal13
Quantumtheory77
Quarton,G. 170
Quigley,C.
146
Rapideyemovement(REM) 88, 90
Rationalbeings55
Rationalism46
Regulation38-39
Reinhold,H. A. 134
Reiser,O. 40
Renaissance46, 47, 104
Rhine,
J.B.,andPratt,J.G. 95
Rhine,
L.E.95,96
Rhyne,R.xvii
Rima,
I.H. 47, 54
Robotomorphicimages86
Roethlisberger,F.,andDickson,W. 74
Rogers,C.R.xv, xx
Rogers,E. 59
Roll, W. G. 96
Rome26
Rervik,D. 151
Rosenthal,R. 74
Rousseau,
J.-J.36
Ryzl,M.95
Saint-Exupery,A. de 108
Salk,
J.xviii,II,12,79,102, 139
Saoshyant23
Satin,M. xx
Schlegel,R. 73, 102
Schmeidler,G.,andMcConnell,R.95
Schmookler,J.59
Schneider,L.vii
Science
conceptualrevolutionsin 144-145
influenceof 67-110
limitationsof classical 68-75
normal70
ofconsciousness94

267. 254 Index
Scienceandsociety,interactionbe­
tween102-105
Scientific
inquiry,crucial
frontiersin 75-102
knowledge8
paradigm69-70,75
progress,limitationsof 72-75
Secular
progress47
Segmented polycephalousnetwork
[SP(I)N]240-247
Self 133-138
Self-realizationethic115-116
Seligman,D. 158
Semitic
tradition22-23, 37
Senseof thewhole14
Shainess,N. 71
Silberman,C. E. 55
Simon,H. 119
Skinner,B. F. xv, 30, 71, 117, 129, 173
Slater,P. E. 56
Smith,A. 191
Smith,
R.A. xv, 150, 156, 157, 176
Snow, C. P. xxii, 157
Social
change,analyzing14
Socialethics225-227
Societal
changes60
choices163-180
problems,
interconnectedimpactof 7
progress,
measuresof 59
realities52-56
reform10
systems 60-61
Sociogenesis142
Socrates25, 30, 36
Sparks,
L.88
Spencer,H. 29
Split-brain
research84, 86
Stent,G. 70, 71
Strategies,
comparisonof basic 186-190
Strategiesfor
transformation182-199
Stulman,].40
Subliminal
perception97-98
Subliminalstimulation93, 97
Sullivan,H. S. 147
Superconscious93-94, 206
Symbiosis119
Symbolic
thinking1
Synergy74
Szent-Gyorgi,A. 73
Taboos71, 72
Taoisticphilosophy22
Targ,R.,andHurt,D. 96
Tarski,A. 72
Tart,C. T. 91, 92, 94, 95, 125, 134
Taylor,S. vii
Technologicalethic25
Technologicalextrapolationistimage63,
166-171,182,206
Technologicalimperative
53,54-55
Technological/ industrial era,problems
of 6
Technology,highlydevelopedsystem
of
6-7
TeilharddeChardin,P.81,93,125, 220
Telepathy95
Thermodynamics,SecondLaw of 78
Thomas,W.I.4
Thompson,W. 233-234
Thoughtphotography98
Thrasymachus36
Toffler,A.163, 234, 245
Toynbee,A. 125, 146
Transcendentalism,new 71
Transformation
cycle of 146, 148, 206
strategiesfor 182-199
Transformationaldiscovery159
Transition,non-disruptive194-199
Trehub,A. 83
TrobriandIslanders7
Tumin,M. 54
Ullman,M.,
andKrippner,S.91,95
Unconsciousprocesses93
Unemployment14
Unidentifiedflyingobjects(UFOs) 71,
103
UnitedStates13, 14, 17, 24, 39, 40, 117,
171, 186
Bureauof Mines 12
dominantimagein 39
Office ofEducationxvii, xviii
urbanizationin 10
Universe,newconceptionof 21
Urban-industrialenvironment64
Utilitarianvalues 53
Vedic
eraofIndia33, 38
Vendantaphilosophy22
Vickers,SirGeoffreyvii, xv, xx, 33, 116,
223-227
vonBertalanffy,
L.99, 100, 124
vonFoerster,H.80,81
Waddington,C. H. 80
Walker,E. H.
96,97
Wallace,Alfred29

268. Index 255
Wallace,AnthonyF. C. xv,125, 142-143,
144, 145, 146, 148,
ISO,187
Wallace, G.148, 149
Wallace,R.K.91
War,threatof14
Watson,J.B.29, 80
Weiss, P.80, 100, WI, 118, 124, 131
Weisskopf,V. F. 86
Weisskopf,W. A. 119, 127
Weitzenhoffer,A. 88
Weizenbaum,J.60
WesternCulture
BasicLong-termMultifoldTrendof8-9
conceptualparadigmof140
editorialfunctionof 8
Wheeler,
J.76
White,J.xv,21, 94
White,L.48
Whitehead,A. N.121
Whitehead,C.170
Wiener,N.99,100,101,137,175
Wigner,E.77
Wilson,A. andD.59
Wirt,J.,Lieberman,A.,andLevien,
R.146
Witkin,H. A. 91
Wolf, W.116
Woodruff,W. 48
Worldhunger14
Worldpopulation11, 12
Worldreserves,depletionof12
Wycliffe,J.27
Yankelovitch,D. 158
Yogameditation92,lSI
Yogi
21, 22, 118
Youngblood,G. 78
Zenmeditation92
Zoroastrianism22-23,24, 27, 38